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╇ i

COMPREHENSIVE TEXTBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

ii
iii

COMPREHENSIVE
TEXTBOOK OF
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Theory and Practice
S e c o n d E di t i o n

EDITED BY

ANDRÉS J. CONSOLI
LARRY E. BEUTLER
BRUCE BONGAR

1
iv

1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2017

First Edition published in 1995

Second Edition published in 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data

Names: Consoli, Andrés, 1961- editor. | Beutler, Larry E., editor. | Bongar, Bruce Michael, editor.
Title: Comprehensive textbook of psychotherapy : theory and practice /
edited by Andrés J. Consoli, Larry E. Beutler, and Bruce Bongar.
Description: Second edition. | Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, [2017] |
Preceded by Comprehensive textbook of psychotherapy : theory, and practice /
edited by Bruce Bongar, Larry E. Beutler. 1995. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016019435 (print) | LCCN 2016018962 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780199358021 (ebook) | ISBN 9780199358014 (alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Psychotherapy
Classification: LCC RC480 (print) | LCC RC480 (ebook) | NLM WM 420 | DDC 616.89/14—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016019435

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
v

To my parents, Lidia y Nicolás; my children, Julián y Benjamín;

and my partner, Melissa—​AC

To Jamie, Jana, Kelly, Gail, and Ian, who are always my heroes,
and, of course to Lady, Jojo, and Chase, who gave me their all—​LEB

To my son, Brandon Fortune Bongar; my wife, Karen J. Friday, MD;

and Donna, Gordon, Jamie, Jeff, Larry, Monica, Peter,
and Ms. Robyn—​Dum Vivimos, Vivamos!—​BB
vi
╇ vii

Contents

Preface to the First Edition╅ xi 5. Cognitive-╉Behavioral Therapies in

Acknowledgmentsâ•… xiii Historical Perspective â•… 61
About the Editorsâ•… xv Michelle G. Newman
Contributorsâ•… xvii Lucas S. LaFreniere
Ki Eun Shin
1. Introduction: History, Theory,
Research, Practice, and Diversity 6. Cognitive-╉Behavioral Therapies
in Psychotherapy â•… 1 in Practice â•… 76
Andrés J. Consoli Amy Wenzel
Larry E. Beutler
Bruce Bongar 7. Existential, Humanistic, and Experiential
Therapies in Historical Perspective â•… 91
PART I╇ MODELS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY Orah T. Krug

2. Unity and Diversity Among 8. Humanistic-╉Experiential Psychotherapy in

Psychotherapies ╅ 11 Practice: Emotion-╉Focused Therapy ╅ 106
David E. Orlinsky Robert Elliott
Leslie S. Greenberg
3. Psychodynamic Therapies in Historical
Perspective â•… 31 9. Interpersonal Psychotherapy in Historical
Jerry Gold Perspective â•… 121
George Stricker Scott Stuart

4. Psychodynamic Therapies in 10. Interpersonal Psychotherapy in

Practice: Time-╉Limited Dynamic Practice: Working With Depressed
Psychotherapy â•… 45 Adults â•… 137
Ephi J. Betan Hui Qi Tong
Jeffrey L. Binder Leila Zwelling
Jeremy Doughan
viii

viii Contents

11. Systemic Therapies in Historical 19. Psychotherapy With Older Adults: Theory
Perspective 153 and Practice 284
Harlene Anderson Adriana Hyams
Forrest Scogin
12. Systemic Therapies in Practice: Family
Consultation for Change-​Resistant 20. Psychotherapy With Women: Theory
Health and Behavior Problems: and Practice of Feminist Therapy 299
A Systemic-​Strategic Approach 170 Melba J. T. Vasquez
Michael J. Rohrbaugh Elisa Vasquez
Varda Shoham
21. Psychotherapy With Men: Theory
13. Integrative Psychotherapies in Historical and Practice 315
Perspective 188 Christopher T. H. Liang
John C. Norcross Carin Molenaar
Marvin R. Goldfried
Barrett E. Zimmerman 22. Psychotherapy With Lesbian, Gay,
and Bisexual Clients: Theory and
14. Integrative and Eclectic Therapies Practice 330
in Practice 205 Peter Goldblum
Larry E. Beutler Samantha Pflum
Andrés J. Consoli Matthew Skinta
Samarea Lenore R. Wyatt Evans
Joshua M. Sheltzer Kimberly Balsam

PART II PSYCHOTHERAPY 23. Psychotherapy With Racial/​Ethnic

BY MODALITIES AND POPULATIONS Minority Groups: Theory and
Practice 346
15. Group Therapy: Theory Joyce Chu
and Practice 223 Amy Leino
J. Scott Rutan Samantha Pflum
Joseph J. Shay Stanley Sue

16. Family Therapy: Theory 24. Psychotherapy With Immigrants

and Practice 239 and Refugees: Culturally Congruent
Guillermo Bernal Considerations 363
Keishalee Gómez-​Arroyo Melissa L. Morgan Consoli
Sherry C. Wang
17. Electronic-​Based Therapies: Kevin DeLucio
Theory and Practice 254 Oksana Yakushko
Alinne Z. Barrera
Meagan L. Stanley 25. Psychotherapy and the Schizophrenia
Alex R. Kelman Spectrum: Theory and Practice 378
Will D. Spaulding
18. Psychological Therapy With Children and Mary E. Sullivan
Adolescents: Theory and Practice 267
Alexandra L. Hoff
Anna J. Swan
Rogelio J. Mercado
Elana R. Kagan
Erika A. Crawford
Philip C. Kendall
ix

Contents ix

26. Psychotherapy With Military Personnel 30. The Training and Development
and Veterans: Theory and Practice 394 of Psychotherapists: A Life-​Span
Uri Kugel Perspective 462
David Giannini Andrés J. Consoli
Victoria Kendrick Héctor Fernández Álvarez
Morgan Banks Sergi Corbella
Larry James
Bruce Bongar 31. Ethics and Legal Matters
in Psychotherapy 480
27. Psychotherapy With People Exposed Kasie L. Hummel
to Mass Casualty Events: Theory Benjamin Bizar-​Stanton
and Practice 409 Wendy Packman
Lisa M. Brown Gerald P. Koocher
Larry E. Beutler
Jennifer H. Patterson 32. The Modern Psychotherapist and
Bruce Bongar the Future of Psychotherapy 497
Lori Holleran Robert L. Russell
Rainey Temkin
28. Psychotherapy in Clinical
Emergencies: Theory and Practice 426 Index 513
Danielle Spangler
Lori Holleran
Bruce Bongar

PART III RESEARCH METHODS AND

RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIALS,
PROFESSIONAL ISSUES, AND NEW
DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY

29. Research Methods and Randomized

Clinical Trials in Psychotherapy 445
Paulo P. P. Machado
Larry E. Beutler
x
xi
Preface to the First Edition
Over 100 years have passed since Freud’s talking cure
dramatically changed the shape of our world. The past
century has witnessed the development of numerous
modifications of Freud’s psychoanalysis, along with hun-
dreds of new theories and clinical models—​and at least
as many books that describe these theories and models.
These diversities have often been profound and have
produced a field that is filled with vitality as well as con-
troversy. Unfortunately, it has become the bane of psy-
chotherapy that the richness of theoretical diversity has
never been matched at the level of practice. Although
theoretical constructs are varied and elaborate, leading
one to believe that the adoption of a particular theoretical
framework will lead to a discriminating method of prac-
tice, the usual observation has been that therapists from
different schools do similar things with similar results.
At present, the variability of our clinical practice
appears to be more dependent on each therapist’s
level of experience and on the setting in which the in-
terventions are applied than on any particular theoret-
ical model that is presumably guiding the process. In
a time of consumer advocate groups, managed health
care, and the specter of national health care, this
has led to a popular assumption that psychotherapy
is psychotherapy is psychotherapy—​that theoretical
models, practitioners, and the population on which
each model is applied are all interchangeable.
As if to perpetuate such a belief, textbooks on psy-
chotherapeutic theories have traditionally devoted only
small sections of each chapter to reviewing research
findings and practical applications. Thus, practical
guidelines are neither easily nor directly derived from
theoretical treatises. If the richness of theoretical devel-
opments is to have an impact on the lives of our patients
and to advance the mission of health care, these matters
must be translatable to practical applications that are dis-
tinctive and focused. The value of training practitioners
in various theories must be proven by evidence of dis-
tinctive levels of benefit or differential outcomes when
applied to different populations and problems. This
fact has been recognized in the recent development of
manuals or guidebooks, developments that have arisen
directly from the evolution of psychotherapy research.
Furthermore, when compared to psychotherapy
practice, psychotherapy research is a relatively recent
derivation. Applications of scientific methods to vali-
dating the efficacy and to understanding the processes
of psychotherapy are now in only their fifth decade.
For most of this time, this research has had the im-
portant but relatively unstimulating task of testing the
belief that psychotherapy is an effective way to alter
emotional distress and disorders. However, in the past
two decades increasing research attention has been
paid to translating theoretical differences into distinc-
tive psychotherapy practices. The result has been the
development of psychotherapy manuals, along with
measures by which to assess a given therapist’s com-
pliance and skill in applying a chosen theory. These
manuals provide guidelines for practice and direct
the therapist in the selection of theory-​consistent pro-
cedures that are designed to effect improvement in
the patient’s life. Although the stated goals of these
xii
xii Preface to the First Edition
manuals are to facilitate research that tests the relative
efficacy of different theories and extends our knowl-
edge of which patients can be most effectively treated
by each model, manuals also have revitalized psycho-
therapy training. These manuals have accomplished
this task by providing clear goals, methods of appli-
cation, and standards by which one can determine
and compare therapists’ levels of proficiency and skill.
With the pending development of national health
care and the challenges posed by consumer advocate
groups, there has never been a greater necessity of in-
tegrating the theory, practice, and science of psycho-
therapy than there is at present.
This book is not just a book of theories. It is a book
of theories and psychotherapy manuals. It is designed to
serve the needs of a broad audience—​from undergradu-
ate students who are taking their first course in psycho-
therapy to graduate students and practitioners who are
trying to apply these principles in practice. The first
chapter by Orlinsky and Howard sets the stage for the
scope of chapters presented by placing psychotherapy,
psychotherapy research, and psychotherapy practice
within a historical context. The chapters in Part I rep-
resent major theoretical approaches in which standard
manuals have either been developed or are in the pro-
cess of development. Psychodynamic psychotherapy,
behavior therapy, experiential and existential therapies,
cognitive therapy, group therapy, systems therapy, and
integrative-​eclectic therapy were chosen to represent
the major themes and models in the field. Each of these
theoretical approaches is represented in this book by
two chapters. The first chapter on each theory presents
the historical developments, variations of the model,
and major theoretical concepts of the theory. This his-
torical chapter also provides an overview and selective
review of the research that is available on the efficacy
of the therapeutic model. These historical and theoreti-
cal chapters will be of greatest interest to beginning stu-
dents or practitioners who wish to refresh their memory
about an alternative viewpoint to their own.
The second chapter on each theory serves as a
mini-​manual for applying one of the general theoreti-
cal models to practice. This latter chapter defines the
assumptions that are extracted from the broad theo-
retical framework and outlines distinguishing charac-
teristics of the format, length, and therapeutic proce-
dures utilized. This chapter also defines for whom the
approach is considered to be most usefully applied,
the limitations of the approach, and requirements of
the model for training and research. This set of chap-
ters will be of most interest to graduate students and
practitioners who are seeking to apply theories, learn
new skills, and achieve advanced proficiency.
The authors of the chapters in Part I are distinguished
contributors to theory and research, and each was se-
lected because of his or her contributions to knowledge
in a specific theoretical area or therapeutic philosophy.
Part II of this book is comprised of a series of chap-
ters on psychotherapeutic applications to special
populations and circumstances. We have included
chapters on the treatment of women, members of
ethnic and minority groups, children and adoles-
cents, older adults, and people who are in crises.
These approaches are not accompanied by separate
treatment manuals because of the broad focus of the
topics. The concepts presented are designed to cut
across theoretical approaches. The authors of these
chapters were selected because of their breadth of
experience and knowledge, and because each has
made significant contributions to research and prac-
tice within the area of their presentation.
Part III is designed to provide an extension and
integration of the material presented in the earlier
chapters. The authors who contributed to this part
were selected because of the breadth of their perspec-
tives and their wisdom in the broad domain of science
and practice. Although research implications, train-
ing methods and considerations, and professional
issues are addressed in each part as applied to each
specific theory or topic, the contributions in this sec-
tion focus on cross-​theoretical issues. In this spirit, the
final chapter provides an overview of the field with a
view toward the future. This chapter aptly caps the
presentation and brings the historical reviews and the
contemporary practices into focus.
We wish to thank the authors of the chapters in this
volume. We have enjoyed working with them and ap-
preciate their willingness to comply with deadlines, tol-
erate our pressure, and let us critique their ideas. They
were congenial, forgiving, and prompt, making our jobs
much easier than expected and by far easier than has
been our experience with any other edited volume.
We also thank Ms. Lynn Peterson, Drs. Ray William
London and Julia Shiang, Captain Robert Bigler, and
Ms. Peggy Goodale for their persistence, assistance, and
support. Most of all, we have enjoyed coming to know
one another through this process. We enjoyed ourselves.
August 1994
B. B.
Marina Del Rey, California
L. E. B.
Santa Barbara, California
xiii
Acknowledgments
We deeply thank each and every member of the siz-
able, international community of authors who con-
tributed to and ultimately made this textbook pos-
sible. Their dedication to the task, their adherence to
the outline provided, and their openness to editorial
feedback are all most appreciated and have strength-
ened the overall value of the textbook. We would like
to express our appreciation to Sarah Harrington and
Andrea Zekus from Oxford University Press for their
indefatigable support and assistance. Andrés would
like to thank his partner and colleague Melissa, his
sons Julián and Benjamín, his parents Nicolás and
Lidia, for their companionship, support, and inspira-
tion, Joshua Sheltzer and Ana Romero Morales for
their editorial assistance, and Larry Beutler for his
precious mentorship that has been ongoing since
1991. Larry would like to thank his wife, Jamie, for
her enduring support and his children for modeling
the creativity and wisdom that have served him as a
psychotherapist. Bruce would like to thank his wife,
Karen, and their son, Brandon, for their steadfast love
and support. Bruce would also like to add his per-
sonal thanks to Sarah Harrington and Andrea Zekus
of Oxford University Press for their amazing support
and patience for this complex project; and also to ac-
knowledge the vision and unflagging support of our
colleague, Joan Bossert of Oxford University Press, for
not only this book but for the creation of the Oxford
clinical psychology series. Finally, Bruce would like
to acknowledge the brilliance, dedication, and com-
mitment of Andrés Consoli to this work and to Larry
Beutler, his role model as the quintessential scientist-​
practitioner clinical psychologist.
xiv
xv
About the Editors
Andrés J. Consoli, PhD, has been a faculty member
in the Department of Counseling, Clinical, and
School Psychology at the University of California,
Santa Barbara since 2013. Dr. Consoli was born
and raised in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where he re-
ceived a licenciatura degree in clinical psychology
at the Universidad de Belgrano (1985). He earned a
master’s (1991) and doctorate in counseling psychol-
ogy at UCSB (1994), and he received postdoctoral
training in behavioral medicine in the Department
of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Stanford
University School of Medicine (1994–​1996). Prior to
joining UCSB, Dr. Consoli was professor and associ-
ate chair of the Department of Counseling, College
of Health and Social Sciences, at San Francisco State
University (1996–​2013). He is a visiting professor at the
Universidad del Valle in Guatemala (2004–​present) in
their master’s and doctoral programs and a licensed
psychologist in California. Dr. Consoli has served
as president of the National Latina/​o Psychological
Association (2014), as member-​ at-​
large of APA’s
Division 52: International Psychology (2011–​2013), as
president of the Interamerican Society of Psychology
(2007–​2009), and as president of the Western
Association of Counselor Education and Supervision
(2001). He has served in the Council of National
Psychology Associations for the Advancement of
Ethnic Minority Interests (CNPAAEMI) (2014–​2016),
chairing it in 2016. In 2015, Dr. Consoli received the
Interamerican Psychologist Award for distinguished
contributions to the advancement of psychology in
the Americas, an award granted by the Interamerican
Society of Psychology every two years to only two psy-
chologists. Dr. Consoli’s professional and research
interests involve transnational collaborations, program
evaluation and community-​based participatory action
research, multicultural supervision, psychotherapy
integration and training, systematic treatment selec-
tion, ethics and values in psychotherapy, access and
utilization of mental health services within a social
justice framework, and the development of a bilin-
gual (English/​Spanish) academic and mental health
workforce.
Larry E. Beutler, PhD, is William McInnes Distin­
guished Professor Emeritus of Clinical Psychology,
Palo Alto University, and Professor Emeritus,
University of California, Santa Barbara. Dr. Beutler
received his PhD from the University of Nebraska
and subsequently served on the faculties of Duke
University Medical Center, Stephen F. Austin
State University, Baylor College of Medicine, the
University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, and
the University of California at Santa Barbara. He
is the past director of the National Center for the
Psychology of Terrorism and the continuing direc-
tor of the Institute for the Study of Equine Assisted
Change at Palo Alto University (PAU).
Bruce Bongar, PhD, ABPP, FAPM, CPsychol,
is Calvin Distinguished Professor of Psychology at
xvi
xvi About the Editors
Palo Alto University and visiting professor of psychia-
try and behavioral sciences at Stanford University.
Dr. Bongar received his PhD from the University
of Southern California and served his internship in
clinical community psychology with the Los Angeles
County Department of Mental Health. For over 30
years, Dr. Bongar maintained a small practice spe-
cializing in psychotherapy, consultation, and supervi-
sion in working with the difficult and life-​threatening
patient. Past clinical appointments include service
as a senior clinical psychologist with the Division
of Psychiatry, Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles,
and work as a clinical/​ community mental health
psychologist on the psychiatric emergency team
of the Los Angeles County Department of Mental
Health. Dr. Bongar is past president of the Section
on Clinical Crises and Emergencies of the Division
of Clinical Psychology of the American Psychological
Association, a diplomate of the American Board of
Professional Psychology, a fellow of the Divisions of
Clinical Psychology (Div. 12), Psychology and the
Law (Div. 41), and Psychotherapy (Div. 29) of the
American Psychological Association, a fellow of the
American Psychological Society and of the Academy
of Psychosomatic Medicine, and a chartered psychol-
ogist of the British Psychological Society. His research
and published work reflects his long-​standing interest
in the wide-​ranging complexities of therapeutic in-
terventions with difficult patients in general, and in
suicide and life-​threatening behaviors in particular.
xvii
Contributors
Héctor Fernández Álvarez, PhD, Aiglé Foundation,
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Harlene Anderson, PhD, Houston Galveston
Insti­tute and The Taos Institute
Kimberly Balsam, PhD, Center for LGBTQ
Evidence-​Based Research (CLEAR), Palo Alto
University
Morgan Banks, PhD, United States Army
Alinne Z. Barrera, PhD, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Guillermo Bernal, PhD, Institute for Psychological
Research, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras
Campus (UPR-​RP), San Juan, Puerto Rico
Ephi J. Betan, PhD, Clinical Psychology Program,
Georgia School of Professional Psychology, Argosy
University/​Atlanta
Larry E. Beutler, PhD, ABPP, Department of
Clini­cal Psychology, Palo Alto University
Jeffrey L. Binder, PhD, ABPP, Center for Time-​
Limited Dynamic Psychotherapy, Nashville, Kevin Delucio, MA, Department of Counseling,
Tennessee Clinical, and School Psychology, Gevirtz Graduate
Benjamin Bizar-​ Stanton, JD, Department of
Clinical Psychology, Palo Alto University
Bruce Bongar, PhD, ABPP, FAPM, Department
of Clinical Psychology, Palo Alto University and
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences,
Stanford University School of Medicine
Lisa M. Brown, PhD, ABPP, Trauma Program,
Department of Clinical Psychology, Palo Alto
University
Joyce Chu, PhD, Diversity and Community Mental
Health, Palo Alto University
Andrés J. Consoli, PhD, Department of Counseling,
Clinical, and School Psychology, Gevirtz Graduate
School of Education, University of California, Santa
Barbara
Sergi Corbella, PhD, Facultat de Psicologia,
Ciències de l'Educació i de l'Esport Blanquerna,
Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
Erika A. Crawford, MA, Department of Psychology,
Temple University
xviii
xviii Contributors
School of Education, University of California, Santa
Barbara
Jeremy Doughan, PsyD, Department of Psychiatry,
University of California, San Francisco and San
Francisco VA Medical Center
Robert Elliott, PhD, School of Psychological
Sciences and Health, University of Strathclyde
Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
R. Wyatt Evans, MS, Center for LGBTQ Evidence-​
Based Research (CLEAR), Palo Alto University
David Giannini, MA, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Jerry Gold, PhD, The Derner Institute, Adelphi
University, Garden City, New York
Peter Goldblum, PhD, Center for LGBTQ
Evidence-​Based Research (CLEAR), Department of
Clinical Psychology, Palo Alto University
Marvin R. Goldfried, PhD, Clinical Psychology,
Stony Brook University
Keishalee Gómez-​Arroyo, PhD candidate, Depart­
ment of Psychiatry, University of Puerto Rico Medical
School
Leslie S. Greenberg, PhD, Department of Psychology,
York University, North York, Toronto, Canada
Alexandra L. Hoff, MA, Department of Psychology,
Temple University
Lori Holleran, MS, Department of Clinical
Psycho­logy, Palo Alto University
Kasie L. Hummel, MA, MS, Department of
Clinical Psychology, Palo Alto University
Adriana Hyams, MA, PhD candidate, Department
of Psychology, University of Alabama
Larry James, PhD, United States Army
Elana R. Kagan, MA, Department of Psychology,
Temple University
Alex R. Kelman, MS, Department of Psychology,
Palo Alto University
Philip C. Kendall, PhD, Department of Psychology,
Temple University
Victoria Kendrick, MA, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Gerald P. Koocher, PhD, ABPP, College of Science
and Health, DePaul University
Orah T. Krug, PhD, Existential-​Humanistic Institute
San Francisco, California and Department of
Psychology, Saybrook University, San Francisco,
California
Uri Kugel, PhD, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Lucas S. LaFreniere, BA, Department of Psychology,
Pennsylvania State University
Amy Leino, PhD, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Samarea Lenore, MS, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Christopher T. H. Liang, PhD, Department
of Education and Human Services, College of
Education Lehigh University
Paulo P. P. Machado, PhD, Psychotherapy and
Psychopathology Research Unit, CIPsi, School of
Psychology, University of Minho, Portugal
Rogelio J. Mercado, MA, Department of Psychology,
Temple University
Carin Molenaar, MEd, PhD candidate,
Department of Education and Human Services,
College of Education Lehigh University
xix
Melissa L. Morgan Consoli, PhD, Department
of Counseling, Clinical, and School Psychology,
Gevirtz Graduate School of Education, University of
California, Santa Barbara
Michelle G. Newman, PhD, Department of
Psycho­logy, Pennsylvania State University
John C. Norcross, PhD, ABPP, Department of
Psycho­logy, University of Scranton
David E. Orlinsky, PhD, Department of Comparative
Human Development, University of Chicago
Wendy Packman, JD, PhD, Joint JD-​PhD Program
in Psychology and Law, Palo Alto University
Jennifer H. Patterson, PhD, Veterans Health
Admini­stration
Samantha Pflum, MS, Center for LGBTQ
Evidence-​Based Research (CLEAR), Palo Alto
University
Michael J. Rohrbaugh, PhD, School of Medicine
and Health Sciences, George Washington University,
Washington, DC and Department of Psychology,
University of Arizona
Robert L. Russell, PhD, Child and Family
Emphasis, Department of Clinical Psychology, Palo
Alto University
J. Scott Rutan, PhD, Boston Institute for
Psychotherapy
Forrest Scogin, PhD, Department of Psychology,
University of Alabama
Joseph J. Shay, PhD, Private practice, Cambridge,
Massachusetts
Joshua M. Sheltzer, BA, Department of
Counseling, Clinical, and School Psychology,
Gevirtz Graduate School of Education, University of
California, Santa Barbara
Ki Eun Shin, BA, Department of Psychology,
Pennsylvania State University
Contributors xix
Varda Shoham,† PhD, Division of Adult
Transla­tional Research and Treatment Development,
National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD
and Department of Psychology, University of Arizona
Matthew Skinta, PhD, Center for LGBTQ
Evidence-​Based Research (CLEAR), Palo Alto
University
Danielle Spangler, MA, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Will D. Spaulding, PhD, Department of
Psychology, University of Nebraska—​Lincoln
Meagan L. Stanley, MS, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
George Stricker, PhD, ABPP, American School
of Professional Psychology at Argosy University,
Washington, DC
Scott Stuart, MD, Department of Psychiatry,
University of Iowa
Stanley Sue, PhD, Department of Clinical
Psychology, Palo Alto University
Mary E. Sullivan, MSW, Department of
Psychology, University of Nebraska—​Lincoln
Anna J. Swan, MA, Department of Psychology,
Temple University
Rainey Temkin, MS, Department of Clinical
Psycho­logy, Palo Alto University
Hui Qi Tong, PhD, Department of Psychiatry,
University of California, San Francisco and San
Francisco VA Medical Center
Elisa Vasquez, MA, PhD candidate, Department
of Counseling, Clinical, and School Psychology,
Gevirtz Graduate School of Education, University of
California, Santa Barbara
†
Varda Shoham unfortunately passed away in 2014,
before this book went to press.
xx

xx Contributors

Melba J. T. Vasquez, PhD, Private practice, Austin, Oksana Yakushko, PhD, Clinical Psychology
Texas Program, Pacifica Graduate University

Sherry C. Wang, PhD, Department of Counseling Barrett E. Zimmerman, BA, Department of

Psychology, Santa Clara University Psycho­logy, University of Scranton

Amy Wenzel, PhD, ABPP, Department of Leila Zwelling, LSW, Department of Psychiatry,
Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania School of University of California, San Francisco and San
Medicine, and Wenzel Consulting, LLC Francisco VA Medical Center
╇ xxi

COMPREHENSIVE TEXTBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

xxii
1

Introduction: History, Theory, Research,

Practice, and Diversity in Psychotherapy

Andrés J. Consoli
Larry E. Beutler
Bruce Bongar

Abstract
We discuss the contemporary landscape of psychotherapy, starting by honoring some of the com-
plexities surrounding its definition and identifying some of the current trends in psychotherapy.
We detail the structure of this textbook and provide specifics concerning the format that the
authors were asked to follow in developing their contributions. We address instructors and under-
score the strengths of the text, including its focus on history, theory, research, practice, and
diversity. We also address our readers, psychotherapists-​in-​training, practitioners, and supervisors
alike, offering our thoughts on how to make best use of this textbook. We conclude by sharing
our personal acknowledgments.

Keywords: psychotherapy definition, psychotherapy models, psychotherapy approaches,

psychotherapy applications, psychotherapy modalities

Human healing practices have ancient roots
(Frank, 1961; Orlinsky, Chapter 2, this volume).
Contemporary psychotherapy is in the leading
edge of that lineage. A well-​established definition
of psychotherapy describes it as “the informed and
intentional application of clinical methods and inter-
personal stances derived from established psychologi-
cal principles for the purpose of assisting people to
modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/​or
other personal characteristics in directions that the
participants deem desirable” (Norcross, 1990, p. 218).
A more contemporary definition of psychotherapy de-
scribes it as “the therapeutic management, control,
and adaptation of patient factors, therapist factors,
relationship factors, and technique factors that are as-
sociated with benefit and helpful change” (Beutler,
2009, p. 311). This definition emphasizes the active
integration of patient, therapist, relationship, and
intervention components for the express purpose of
singling out the specific principles of effective ther-
apy. Furthermore, the resolution on the Recognition
of Psychotherapy Effectiveness adopted as policy by
the American Psychological Association’s Council of
Representatives states that “psychotherapy (individ-
ual, group, and couple/​family) is a practice designed
varyingly to provide symptom relief and personal-
ity change, reduce future symptomatic episodes,
enhance quality of life, promote adaptive function-
ing in work/​school and relationships, increase the
likelihood of making healthy life choices, and offer
other benefits established by the collaboration be-
tween client/​patient and psychologist” (American
Psychological Association [APA], 2013, p. 102).
We would like to expand these three definitions
by emphasizing not only psychotherapy’s concern
with human suffering and shortcomings but also

1
2
2 Comprehensive Textbook of Psychotherapy
with human strengths and competencies. Practicing
psychotherapists readily acknowledge that clients
overcome their difficulties and get better over time
through the harnessing of their strengths and compe-
tencies while expanding their repertoire of thoughts,
feelings, and actions. Moreover, as practiced today,
psychotherapy addresses disease and disorders as well
as health and well-​being, and therefore it occupies a
central place among the health service professions.
Interestingly, it has been demonstrated that “the re-
sults of psychotherapy tend to last longer and be less
likely to require additional treatment courses than psy-
chopharmacological treatments,” that “many people
prefer psychotherapy to pharmacological treatments
because of medication side effects,” and that “psy-
chotherapy reduces overall medical utilization and
expense” (APA, 2013, pp. 102 and 103). Furthermore,
contemporary psychotherapy involves, at times, client-​
centered advocacy (CCA) from a social justice perspec-
tive (i.e., the righting of a wrong). In California, as an
example, CCA is defined as “researching, identifying,
and accessing resources, or other activities, related
to obtaining or providing services and supports for
clients or groups of clients receiving psychotherapy”
(California Business and Professions Code, Section
4980.34(h)).
Psychotherapy has been shown to be highly effec-
tive. It has an average effect size of about .80, which
is considered a large effect size in the behavioral
sciences, while “the average client receiving psycho-
therapy is better off than 79% of untreated clients”
(Campbell, Norcross, Vasquez, & Kaslow, 2013,
p. 98). The evolution of psychotherapy practice and
research underscores the importance of other fac-
tors beyond diagnoses in explaining outcome and
designing treatment. Specifically, dimensions such
as clients’ general severity, chronicity, and complex-
ity of their problems; clients’ strengths such as resil-
ience and resources; psychotherapists’ factors; and
relational and contextual factors must be intention-
ally considered to facilitate better outcomes (Beutler,
2009; Wampold & Imel, 2015). Moreover, the inter-
sectionality of psychotherapists’ factors and clients’
dimensions such as racial/​ethnic minority status is
becoming an important focus of contemporary re-
search (Hayes, Owen, & Bieschke, 2015).
Psychotherapy practice and research have demon-
strated the crucial role of the therapeutic alliance in
the acquisition of treatment gains and ends. In fact,
the vicissitudes of the working alliance, such as its
development, strains, ruptures, and repairs, may con-
stitute the focus of treatment. Moreover, successful
psychotherapy is anchored on a mutually construed
agreement on the goals and tasks of the treatment.
For such mutuality to be materialized in the psycho-
therapy relationship, the cultural competence and
humility of the psychotherapist are of utmost impor-
tance (APA, 2003).
Though contemporary psychotherapists are
trained in one of the many models of professional
identity including, but not limited to, scientist-​
practitioner, practitioner-​scientist, practitioner-​scholar,
professional-​scholar, or practitioner as a local scientist
(Consoli, Fernández-​Á lvarez, & Corbella, Chapter
29, this volume), all of these models share a commit-
ment to evidence-​based practice and practice-​based
evidence. And today, models must also grapple with
community-​defined evidence (Martinez, Callejas, &
Hernandez, 2010). Psychotherapists within APA are
urged to integrate “the best available research with
clinical expertise in the context of patient character-
istics, culture, and preferences” (APA Task Force on
Evidence Based Practice, 2006, p. 273). Crosscutting
matters also shared by all training models emphasize
the importance of cultural competence on the part
of psychotherapists and the need to adapt treatments
to make them culturally relevant (APA, 2003; Bernal,
Jiménez-​Chafey, & Domenech Rodríguez, 2009).
While these evidence-​ based practice and
practice-​based evidence components are fundamen-
tal to the core of psychotherapy, it is often unclear
how empirical research and such indefinite factors
as “clinical expertise” and preferences can either be
measured or balanced to produce an optimal mix. It
is also important to consider the theories that inform
the research and practices discussed in this textbook.
Before learning about specific theories, it is useful
to first ask what a theory is. The APA Dictionary of
Psychology defines theory as “a principle or body of
interrelated principles that purports to explain or
predict a number of interrelated phenomena.” In
his book about theory and practice, Wampold (2012)
contextualizes this definition by offering this descrip-
tion: “In psychotherapy, a theory is a set of principles
used to explain human thought and behavior, in-
cluding what causes people to change. In practice, a
theory creates the goals of therapy and specifies how
to pursue them” (p. x). Ultimately, theory attempts
to guide the clinician and client toward solutions to
a problem by illuminating the causes and functions
╇ 3

Introduction 3

behind the issue at hand. Without any theoretical see Norcross, 2011); (5) the integration of biological,
conceptualization, the structure and rationale of neuroscience understandings of psychotherapy and
psychotherapy may be lost. As Wampold (2012) also its healing qualities in a manner that overcomes the
explained, “Without a guiding theory, we might treat traditional dichotomy between nature and nurture
the symptom without understanding the role of the and embraces their mutuality; and (6) the integra-
individual” (p. ix). Whether a researcher is design- tion of diversity and cultural considerations into psy-
ing a new study or a clinician is seeing a new client, chotherapy in an effort to determine how cultural
theory is the backbone of understanding humans and factors such as race and ethnicity operate within
their behavior, and it is integral to the ideas presented psychotherapy. These trends have influenced sig-
in this textbook. We hope that this discussion about nificantly the second edition of this textbook and the
theory will help the reader absorb the chapters of this content articulated by the authors within.
textbook with a better understanding of the structure The overall structure of this textbook includes
behind the different models, practices, and research three parts. Part I focuses on Models of Psychotherapy,
presented in each section. Part II addresses Psychotherapy by Modalities and
Populations, and Part III covers Research Methods
and Randomized Clinical Trials, Professional Issues,
P S YC H O T H E R A P Y T WO D E C A D E S L AT E R and New Directions in Psychotherapy. Specifically,
Part I begins with an exposition of the basic structural
While this second edition of the Comprehensive features shared by modern psychotherapies beyond
Textbook of Psychotherapy preserves the overall common factors theory and is followed by chapters
structure of the first edition by addressing the fun- arranged in pairs, each one honoring the theory and
damentals of psychotherapy, almost all the chapters practice subtitle of this textbook. The first chapter
are unique and expressly written for this new edition. of each pair addresses the historical and theoretical
Moreover, the chapters’ contents capture important perspective of one of the six main clusters of psy-
changes in the field in the last 20 years since the first chotherapy models (i.e., psychodynamic, cognitive-
edition was published (Bongar & Beutler, 1995). behavioral, existential-humanistic-experiential, inter-
What are the contemporary trends in psychother- personal, systemic, and integrative therapies), and it
apy? Gelso (2011), who from 2004 through 2010 was is followed by a second chapter that elaborates on the
the editor of Psychotherapy, the flagship journal of specific application of the model (i.e., time-╉limited
APA’s Division 29: Society for the Advancement of dynamic psychotherapy, Beckian cognitive-╉behavioral
Psychotherapy, identified six main trends in the field therapy, emotion-╉focused therapy, interpersonal psy-
from the vantage point of his editorship and accord- chotherapy with depressed adults, family consulta-
ing to the manuscripts submitted to the journal. In tion, and systematic treatment selection), anchored
all, the trends, as Gelso sees them, are (1) the increas- by a comprehensive vignette. This second chapter, in
ing integration of techniques and the therapeutic re- each case, is designed to serve as a brief introduction
lationship that transcends the historical dichotomy to a specific, extant, manual-╉based therapy.
between these two perspectives in psychotherapy Part II addresses Psychotherapy by Modalities
while acknowledging their unique contributions; and Populations, and each chapter within Part II ar-
(2) the increasing focus on the integration of theo- ticulates theoretical, scientific, and practical aspects
retical orientations to the point where integrative has of a given modality in psychotherapy (i.e., group
become the more common theoretical orientation therapy, family therapy, electronic based therapy) or
among psychotherapists; (3) the increasing efforts when working with a specific population (i.e., psy-
at research-╉
practice integration through research-╉ chotherapy with children and adolescents; women;
practice networks, which are overcoming the histori- men; lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients; racial/╉ethnic
cal animosities between practitioners and research- minority groups; immigrants and refugees; clients in
ers by emphasizing evaluation, accountability, and the schizophrenia spectrum; military personnel and
clinical relevance; (4) the increases in integrative, veterans; people exposed to mass casualty events;
quantitative reviews that cover ever more specific and clients in clinical emergencies). As in Part I,
a topic within psychotherapy (e.g., the different, each chapter’s content in Part II is illustrated by an
specific ingredients in psychotherapy relationships; extensive vignette that poignantly underscores the
4
4 Comprehensive Textbook of Psychotherapy
matters discussed by the authors of each chapter.
Part III covers a range of issues and concerns that are
of relevance to psychotherapy, extending from scien-
tific issues such as research methods and the meth-
ods of randomized clinical trials, to training matters
such as the professional development of psychother-
apists over the course of their lifespan, to practice
itself such as legal and ethical issues; it concludes
with a chapter on the current status and future of
psychotherapy.
Congruent with the format of the first edition of
this textbook, we invited many of the most established
scientist practitioners in the field, based on their ex-
pertise in a given area, to be part of the project. The
resounding affirmative response resulted in over 75
authors from several continents. We sought to foster
the true spirit of a textbook, that is, a volume where
experts guide aspiring professionals in their efforts to
become knowledgeable about theory, research, and
practice, by inviting the authors to write directly to
the potential readers. To maximize the reader’s and
the instructor’s experiences throughout the 32
chapters that constitute this tome, we asked every
one of our contributors to adhere strictly to an out-
line we provided to all of them. Specifically, we asked
authors to share briefly the historical background of
the model, approach, or modality they are experts
on; to address its major theoretical developments and
variations; to articulate how human change processes
are conceptualized and facilitated by their model, ap-
proach, or modality; and to specify the research on
efficacy and effectiveness supporting the model, ap-
proach, or modality. Moreover, we asked authors to
discuss how their model, approach, or modality ad-
dresses the issue and role of diversity pertaining to
clients/╉patients’ age, gender, gender identity, sexual
orientation, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin,
religion, (dis)ability, and socioeconomic status. We
would like to underscore that to maximize the peda-
gogical value of the final product, we required authors
to start their chapter with an abstract and keywords,
and to end it with a short list of conclusions and key
points. Similarly, we asked authors to provide a set
of five review questions concerning salient content
addressed in their chapters, and a list of resources,
including readings beyond those in the references,
as well as websites, and/╉or audiovisual materials they
would recommend to the readers interested in deep-
ening their understanding of the content addressed
in the chapters.
F O R I N S T RU C T O R S
Of particular interest to us as coeditors of this
textbook is to offer instructors a way to transcend
the “proprietary and trademarked” approaches
of psychotherapy by focusing on the principles
of human change and stability processes that
are endorsed, and ultimately utilized, in psycho-
therapy practice (Daya, 2001; Rosen & Davison,
2003). To achieve this, we invited David Orlinsky
(Chapter 2, this volume), of world renown for his
generic model of psychotherapy, to launch Part I:
Models of Psychotherapy. Moreover, we structured
the rest of the section along the six main clusters
of psychotherapy “models,” specifically psychody-
namic, cognitive-behavioral, existential-humanistic-╉
experiential, interpersonal, systemic, and integra-
tive therapies, and in that order to reflect, in part,
the historical and dialectical evolution of the field
but also to organize the models around anchoring
theoretical constructs characterizing their main
thrust and contribution. These anchoring theoreti-
cal constructs, some of which have been framed as
“forces” in the psychotherapy literature, include,
but are not limited to, motivation (psychodynamic or
first force), learning (cognitive-behavioral or second
force), meaning-making (existential-╉ humanistic-
experiential or third force), relational (interper-
sonal), context (systemic, inclusive of culture and
referred to as the fourth force), and plurality (inte-
grative, inclusive of gender) (Consoli & Jester, 2005;
Fernández-╉Álvarez, 2001). It is important to under-
score the interplay that has taken place among the
main clusters of psychotherapy models over time.
For example, as the psychodynamic perspective
evolved, its own understanding of human motiva-
tion also evolved, expanding beyond its intrapsychic
early formulations and becoming more interper-
sonal and ultimately relational. Meanwhile, as the
cognitive-╉
behavioral perspective has evolved, it
has become more intrapsychic and introspective,
needing to resort to concepts such as schema, tacit
knowledge, and stream of consciousness in order to
better articulate the hidden processes within learn-
ing. Furthermore, it is important to us to offer in-
structors a textbook that embraces the complexity
of psychotherapy’s contribution to redress human
suffering and affirm human strengths: None of the
six constructs alone can harness the power of psy-
chotherapy, and psychotherapists ought not to force
5
clients to fit into the procrustean bed made of one
such construct known well by a given therapist. It
is incumbent upon us all to become imbued in all
six of the constructs advanced by the psychotherapy
models. Needless to say, it is equally important to
recognize that these constructs are a major part
of each psychotherapy model yet not their entire
contribution.
We sought to distinguish a theoretical model
from the “application” of a model, the latter being
the specific, concrete use of a model. An application
typically is not a rendering of a “new theory,” but the
translation into practice of one already in existence.
This distinction is reflected in Part I by a leading
chapter that addresses the history and main thrust of
a given model (e.g., psychodynamic, Gold & Stricker,
Chapter 3, this volume), which is then followed by
a specific application of that model, that is, an ap-
proach (e.g., time-​ limited dynamic psychotherapy,
Betan & Binder, Chapter 4, this volume). All chapters
describing an application are properly illustrated by
an extensive vignette.
By structuring Part I in the way that we have,
we wanted to overcome the pull to count ap-
proaches that has characterized the presentation
of psychotherapy theories in many texts, reaching
three dozens in 1959 (Harper, 1959), slightly over
a hundred in the 1970s (Parloff, 1976), to several
hundreds in the 1980s (Karasu, 1986), and into the
thousands in the new millennium (Lebow, 2012,
citing Garfield, 2006). The counting of approaches
is not only misleading, it misses the zeitgeist of
contemporary psychotherapy with its emphasis on
principles of human change and the stability pro-
cesses that are harnessed to redress human suffer-
ing and affirm human strengths in an integrative
manner. Equally misleading, if not outright danger-
ous, is the encouragement of the development of a
theory by each psychotherapist-​in-​training. While
such assignment in a theory course can be facilita-
tive to the process of appreciating one’s own level
of development as it pertains to acquiring theoreti-
cal knowledge, it can also subtly communicate the
notion that every personal theory is equally valid
and useful. We encourage instructors to consider
inviting their psychotherapists-​in-​training to reflect
on their own process of synthesizing their exist-
ing knowledge based on the organizing principles
we have detailed herein. In other words, and for
example: What is my current understanding of
Introduction 5
constructs such as motivation and learning and how
they interact to shape human experience? How am
I using them to conceptualize clients’ strengths and
difficulties? How are such principles honored and
reflected in my strategies, interventions, and tech-
niques? Finally, what are the strengths and areas for
growth of my current and ongoing synthesis?
As detailed earlier, Part I is followed by Part II,
where Psychotherapy by Modalities and Populations
is highlighted, detailing theoretical, scientific, and
practice aspects of each. Specifically, group therapy,
family therapy, and electronic-​based therapy are the
three modalities addressed in Part II, while psycho-
therapy with children and adolescents; women; men;
lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients; racial/​ethnic mi-
nority groups; immigrants and refugees; clients in
the schizophrenic spectrum; military personnel and
veterans; people exposed to mass casualty events;
and clients in clinical emergencies are the popula-
tions discussed in Part II. Each chapter is properly
anchored by an extensive case illustration. To facili-
tate the teaching and learning processes as well as to
allow comparisons across chapters, we required the
authors to adhere to an outline (available from the
first coeditor). Finally, Part III addresses scientific,
training, legal, and ethical matters in psychotherapy
and closes the book with a chapter on psychotherapy’s
future.
Throughout this textbook and congruent with
contemporary psychotherapy, we have emphasized
research and diversity. We requested that authors dis-
cuss the research on efficacy and effectiveness sup-
porting the model, approach, or modality they repre-
sent. Similarly, we asked authors to discuss how their
model, approach, or modality addresses diversity mat-
ters pertaining to age, gender, gender identity, sexual
orientation, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin,
religion, (dis)ability, and socioeconomic status. As
coeditors, we were struck with how facile it was for
some authors to write about such matters while others
seemed to have sizable difficulties articulating how
their approaches dealt with such topics.
As instructors ourselves, we believe other instruc-
tors will appreciate the pedagogical value of starting
every chapter with a summary and keywords, of in-
cluding resources in each chapter above and beyond
those in the reference list itself, and of ending every
single chapter with detailed conclusions and key
points as well as review questions. We are eager to
receive your feedback on this textbook, and we would
6
6 Comprehensive Textbook of Psychotherapy
be most appreciative if you were to take the time to
send it to us (CTP2ndEd@gmail.com).
FOR OUR R E A DER S
Coming to know and appreciate the material in an
entire comprehensive textbook of psychotherapy can
seem like an arduous task; however, it is important to
remember that each of the theories and approaches
discussed in this book is intended to provide insight
to a way of understanding the complex nature of
psychotherapy. It is not uncommon for students and
practitioners alike to question their understanding
of the human condition, the best way to help some-
one, or the development of mental health problems.
Because of these expected doubts, uncertainties,
and confusion, we offer a few suggestions and help-
ful components that we hope will aid readers along
the way through their journey of understanding and
discovery.
First, after completing a chapter, it may help to
reflect (i.e., introspect) on how the ideas might be ap-
plicable in your personal life as well as in the areas of
research and practice. Then, you may find it helpful
to discuss these ideas with peers (i.e., “interspect;”
Consoli, 2015). Furthermore, if you have the op-
portunity and, with proper supervision, apply some
of the theories and approaches discussed in this text-
book with clients of your own, and see how they work
for you and for your clients. Many of the theories may
seem to contradict each other; however, to the degree
that current research has compared approaches head
to head, none of the predominant methods have been
found consistently to be superior to any of the others,
except in very specific, narrow circumstances. A sum-
mary of these circumstances and their exceptions is
contained in each of the chapters on specific ap-
proaches under the heading of “Research on Efficacy
and Effectiveness.” It may serve the reader best to
take in the material, keep an open mind, apply newly
learned theories and techniques to real-╉life situations,
and then decide how the ideas in these chapters can
be best utilized and understood.
This textbook attempts to assist you in your jour-
ney of becoming a practitioner, researcher, or super-
visor by using a clear, parallel structure that is easy
to follow. Additionally, there are case studies that
illustrate each theory as it is actively applied that
will help you understand how the various theories
are used in practice and which appear to fit the real-╉
life demands with which you are most familiar. We
hope that these components will enrich the reader’s
experience and lead to a better understanding of
psychotherapy.
Remember the popular saying: “The mind is
like a parachute, it only works when open.” We
invite you to cultivate your openness to a range of
ideas because we believe that flexibility and a broad
latitude of acceptance are important qualities in a
psychotherapist, together with courage and persis-
tence. Psychotherapy training and the journey of
becoming a psychotherapist are life-╉transforming
phenomena. As recommended by Kottler (2004),
keep your significant others informed about your
journey and process, share it with them to mini-
mize the chances of misunderstanding as encoun-
tered by the liberated prisoner in Plato’s allegory
of the cave. Again, seek your significant others’
take on the matters you are studying, and most im-
portant, grow your social support network to help
you not only survive this “impossible profession”
(Malcom, 1981) but also to achieve mastery and ac-
tually thrive in it.
R EV IE W QU EST IONS
1. What is your current understanding of how
psychotherapy works?
2. What do you find exciting about being a psycho-
therapist, and what do you find most challenging?
3. In seeing yourself as a cultural being, what
values, beliefs, and attitudes are most likely to
influence your work as a psychotherapist?
4. Who are the clients with whom you are most
effective, and who are the clients you find most
challenging?
5. How do you think your current knowledge and
beliefs about psychotherapy are going to inter-
act with new knowledge gained from reading
this textbook?
R ESOURCES
American Psychological Association video series.
Multicultural counseling, Psychotherapy in six ses-
sions, Specific treatments for specific populations,
Systems of psychotherapy. Available from http://╉
www.apa.org/╉pubs/╉videos/╉index.aspx.
Another random document with
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 But there were with him the son of the thousand-man and his
equerry, and they pressed him and said: “Go, O Prince, back to
Russia, if the Lord will deliver you!” But the time was not propitious.
As we said before, the Pólovtses returned from Pereyáslavl, and
Ígor’s advisers said to him: “You harbour a proud thought and one
that is not pleasing to God; you do not intend to take the man and
run with him, but why do you not consider that the Pólovtses will
return from the war, and we have heard that they will slay all the
princes and all the Russians, and there will be no glory for you, and
you will lose your life.” Prince Ígor took their advice to heart, being
afraid of the return of the Pólovtses, and bethought himself of flight.
He was not able to run away either in daytime or at night, for the
guards watched him, but he found an opportune time at the setting of
the sun. And Ígor sent his equerry to Lavór, saying: “Cross on the
other side of the Tor with a led horse,” for he intended to fly to Russia
with Lavór. At that time the Pólovtses were drunk with kumys; and it
was towards evening when his equerry came back and told him that
Lavór was waiting for him. Ígor arose frightened and trembling, and
bowed before the image of the Lord and the honourable cross, and
said: “Lord, knower of hearts! If Thou, Master, wilt save me,
unworthy one,”—and he took the cross and the image, lifted the
tent’s side, and crawled out. His guards were gambling and feasting,
for they thought that the Prince was asleep. He arrived at the river,
waded across, and mounted the horse; thus they both rode by the
tents.
This deliverance the Lord granted on a Friday, in the evening. He
then walked eleven days to the town of Donéts, and thence he went
to his Nóvgorod, and they were much rejoiced. From Nóvgorod he
went to his brother Yarosláv in Chernígov, to ask for help in the
Posémie. Yarosláv was glad to see him, and promised him aid. Ígor
travelled thence to Kíev to Grand Prince Svyatosláv, and Svyatosláv
was glad to see him, as was also Rúrik.

FOOTNOTES:
 [19] For notes consult the Word of Ígor’s Armament (p. 80 et
sqq.).
[20] A Finnish tribe.
[21] Town in the country of the Vyátiches.
[22] The country along the river Sem.
 The Word of Ígor’s Armament. (End of XII.
century.)
No other production of Russian antiquity has roused so
much interest in Russia and abroad as this version of Ígor’s
expedition by an unknown poet of the end of the twelfth
century. Thirty-five translations into modern Russian,
numerous translations into Little-Russian, Polish, Bohemian,
Servian, Bulgarian, Hungarian, German, French, witness to
the enormous popularity this production has attained. The
historical background of the poem is found in the recital from
the Kíev Chronicle, which is given on pp. 71-80. The disasters
which befell Ígor and his army are probably told with better
effect in that prosaic version; but the superior value of the
Word lies in its being a precious relic of the popular poetry of
the end of the twelfth century, such as no other nation can
boast of. The Nibelungenlied and the Chanson de Roland are
chiefly productions of a literary character, while the Word
bears every evidence of representing the untutored labour of
a popular bard.
Who the author was, when he lived, for whom he sang, are
all unanswered questions, but from internal evidence we
glean that he sang for his contemporaries while Ígor was still
alive. From his apostrophe to Yarosláv Osmomýsl, who died
in 1187, we may infer that the poem was written before that
year, and it is not unlikely, from his vivid description of the
battle at the Kayála, that he was an eye-witness of the
expedition which took place in 1185. From the absence of
biblical references it is generally assumed that the author was
not a member of the clerical profession. Here, however,
various difficulties arise. It is quite incomprehensible why
there should be so many references to pagan divinities at a
time when Christianity had been deep-rooted in Russia for
fully two centuries; why, except for the evident imitation of
many passages in the Zadónshchina, there should be no
 reference to the poem by any medieval writer, and why only
one copy of so remarkable a work should have been
preserved. If this poem came so very near being lost to
posterity, how many other remarkable productions of that
early period have disappeared? It is not at all impossible that
there existed an extensive popular poetry, of which only the
barest traces have come down to us. This suspicion is
strengthened by the emphatic mention by the author of the
Word of a poet Boyán who had lived before his days.
A copy of the poem was discovered by Count A. I. Músin-
Púshkin, Procurator-General of the Holy Synod, in 1795. He it
was who in rummaging St. Petersburg bookstalls had
discovered the manuscript of Néstor’s Chronicle. From a
monk he procured a collection of eight pieces, the fifth of
which was this poem. He published the Word, as this poem is
called in the manuscript, in 1800, with a modern Russian
translation. The manuscript itself was burnt in the Moscow
conflagration of 1812. The poem has since been edited a
countless number of times, and equally large is the mass of
critical essays to explain the many dark and corrupt places of
what now must pass for the original. When we consider that
there are not less than six versions of the Word in French, it
seems strange that it is now first rendered into English in its
entirety. There is an imperfect translation of a small part of it
in H. H. Munro’s The Rise of the Russian Empire, Boston and
London, 1900.

Were it not well for us, O brothers, to commence in the ancient

strain the sad story of the armament of Ígor,[23] Ígor son of
Svyatosláv? And let the song be told according to the accounts of
the time, and not according to the cunning of Boyán[24] the Wise, for
Boyán the Wise, when he wished to make a song, soared with his
thoughts in the tree, ran as a grey wolf over the earth, flew as a
steel-grey eagle below the clouds. When he recalled the strife of
former time, he let loose ten falcons o’er a flock of swans, and every
swan each touched sang first a song: to old Yarosláv,[25] to brave
Mstisláv[26] who slew Redédya before the Kasóg army, to fair
Román Svyatoslávich.[27] But Boyán, O brothers, did not let loose
ten falcons on a flock of swans, but laid his inspired fingers on the
living strings, and they themselves sounded the glory to the princes.
Let us begin, O brothers, this tale from Vladímir[28] of old to the
late Ígor who strengthened his soul by his valour, and sharpened it
by the courage of his heart, and having filled himself with a manly
spirit, led his valiant army for the land of Russia into the country of
the Pólovtses.[29]

II

Then Ígor looked up to the bright sun, and saw that he had
covered in darkness[30] all his warriors. And Ígor spoke to his
druzhína: “O brothers and druzhína! It is better to be cut to pieces
than to be made a captive! Let us, O brothers, mount our swift
horses that we may behold the beautiful Don!”
A strong desire filled the Prince’s soul to drink from the great Don,
and his eagerness blinded him to the evil omen.
“For I wish,” he said, “to break the spear on the border of the
Pólovts land together with you, sons of Russia! I want to lay down
my head, and drink with my helmet from the Don!”
O Boyán, nightingale of ancient time! It were for you to spell this
army, soaring like a nightingale over the tree of thought, flying like an
eagle below the clouds, stringing together words for the deeds of
that time, racing over Troyán’s[31] footsteps over fields to the
mountains. You ought to have sung a song to Ígor, his grandson:
“Not a storm has driven the falcons over the broad fields: flocks of
crows hasten to the great Don.”... Or you might have sung thus,
inspired Boyán, grandson of Velés[32]:
 “The horses neigh beyond the Sulá[33]; glory resounds in Kíev;
trumpets blare in Nóvgorod[34]; the standards are at Putívl[35]; Ígor
waits for his beloved brother Vsévolod. And Vsévolod, the Grim
Aurochs, spoke to him: “My only brother, my only light, glorious Ígor,
we are both sons of Svyatosláv! Saddle, O brother, your swift steeds,
for mine are ready for you, having been saddled in advance at
Kursk! My Kurians are tried warriors, nurtured by the sound of
trumpets, rocked in helmets, fed at the point of the spear. The roads
are known to them; the ravines are familiar to them; their bows are
drawn; their quivers open, their swords—whetted. They race over
the fields like grey wolves, seeking honour for themselves, and glory
for their Prince.”

III

Then Prince Ígor stepped into the golden stirrup and galloped over
the clear field. The sun barred his way in darkness; night groaning
with the cries of birds awoke him; beasts howled, and Div[36] called
in the top of a tree, sending the news to the unknown land, to the
Vólga, the Sea border,[37] the Sulá country, Surózh[38] and Korsún,
[39] and to you, idol of Tmútorokan![40] But the Pólovtses hastened
by untrodden roads to the great Don; the carts creaked at midnight,
like swans let loose.
Ígor leads his soldiers to the Don: the birds in the thicket forbode
his misfortune; the wolves bristle up and howl a storm in the
mountain clefts; the eagles screech and call the beasts to a feast of
bones; the foxes bark for the crimson shields. O Russian land, you
are already beyond the mound![41] Night is long and murky; the
dawn withholds the light; mist covers the fields; the nightingale’s
song is silent; the cawing of the crows is heard. The Russians bar
the long fields with their crimson shields, seeking honour for
themselves and glory for the Prince.

IV
 Early in the morning, on the Friday, they crushed the pagan
Pólovts host, and, spreading like arrows over the field, seized fair
Pólovts maidens, and with them gold and gold-worked stuffs and
costly velvet; with cloaks and coats and Pólovts lace they bridged
their way over bogs and muddy places. A red flag, white pennon, red
panache, silver cross-beam, for the brave son of Svyatosláv!...[42]
Olég’s valiant brood has flown afar and dreams in the field! They
thought not to offend the falcon, gerfalcon, nor you, black raven,
pagan Pólovts! But Gza ran like a grey wolf, with Konchák[43] in his
track, to the great Don.

Very early the next morning a bloody dawn announces the day.
Black clouds come from the sea and try to veil four suns,[44] while
blue lightnings quiver through them. There is to be a mighty thunder,
and the rain is to go down in arrows by the great Don! There spears
will be broken; there swords will be blunted against Pólovts helmets
on the Kayála,[45] by the great Don. O Russian land, you are already
beyond the mound!
Behold the winds, Stribóg’s[46] grandchildren, blow arrows from
the sea on Ígor’s valiant army. The earth groans, the rivers flow
turbid; dust covers the fields; the banners whisper. The Pólovtses
come from the Don, and from the sea, and from all sides: the
Russian army recedes. The devil’s children fill the field with their
cries, but the brave Russians line it with their crimson bucklers.
Grim Aurochs Vsévolod! You stand in the van; you pour arrows on
the warriors; you thunder with steel swords against their helmets.
Wherever you, Aurochs, lead, gleaming with your golden helmet,
there fall the heads of the pagan Pólovtses, their Avar[47] helmets
cloven by your tempered swords, Grim Aurochs Vsévolod! What
wound does he brook, O brothers, having forgotten his honours and
manner of life, and Chernígov town, his paternal golden throne, and
the caresses of his sweetheart, Glyeb’s fair daughter,[48] and the
habits and customs of his home?
 VI

Troyán’s age is past, gone are the years of Yarosláv; past are the
expeditions of Olég,[49] the son of Svyatosláv. That Olég had
fostered discord with his sword, and had sowed arrows over the
land. In Tmútorokan city he stepped into the golden stirrup. Great
Yarosláv, that was, heard the tocsin,[50] and Vsévolod’s son Vladímir
closed his ears all the days at Chernígov.[51] But Glory brought
Borís,[52] the son of Vyachesláv, before the judgment seat and
bedded him, brave young prince, on the green feather grass of the
steppe, through Olég’s offence....
Then, in the days of Olég Gorislávich,[53] feuds were sown and
grew, and Dazhbóg’s[54] grandchildren perished, and the years of
men were shortened by the discord of the princes. In those days the
warriors rarely walked behind the plough in the Russian land, but the
ravens croaked as they divided the dead bodies, and crows
chattered, flying to the banquet. Such were the wars and expeditions
then, but the like of this war was never known.

VII

From early morning until evening, from evening until daylight fly
tempered arrows, thunder the swords against the helmets, resound
the steel spears in a strange field, within the country of the
Pólovtses. The black earth beneath the hoofs was sown with bones,
and watered with blood, and a harvest of sorrow went up in the
Russian land.
What noise is that, what din, so early in the morning before dawn?
Ígor leads his army; he is sorry for his beloved brother Vsévolod.
They fought a day, they fought another[55]; upon the third at noon fell
the standards of Ígor. The brothers separated on the bank of the
swift Kayála. Here there was not enough of bloody wine; here the
brave Russians ended the feast: they gave their host their fill to
drink, and themselves fell for the Russian land. The grass withered
from sorrow, and the trees in anguish bent down to the earth.[56]

VIII

There befell a hapless hour, O brothers! Already had the

wilderness covered Russia’s hosts, when Mischief arose in the hosts
of Dazhbóg’s grandchildren: she walked as a maiden in Troyán’s
land,[57] splashed her swan pinions in the blue sea,[58] and splashing
them in the Don, recalled heavy times.
Through the feuds of the princes ruin came from the pagans, for
brother spoke to brother: “This is mine and that is mine also,” and
the princes said of trifling matters, “They are important,” and created
discord among themselves; and the pagans came from all sides
victorious into the Russian land.
Oh, far has the falcon[59] flown, driving the birds by the sea, but
Ígor’s brave army will rise no more! Konchák called, and Gza raced
over the Russian land, hurling fire from a flaming horn.[60] Russian
women wept, saying: “No longer will our thoughts reach our dear
ones, nor shall we ever see them with our eyes, nor be adorned with
tinkling gold and silver!”
And Kíev groaned under its sorrow, and Chernígov on account of
its misfortunes. Sadness spread over the Russian land, and a heavy
gloom. The princes fostered discord among themselves, and the
pagans victoriously overran the country, receiving tribute, a
squirrel[61] from each house.
It is Ígor and Vsévolod, Svyatosláv’s brave sons, who through their
discord had wakened dishonour which their father, Svyatosláv[62] of
Kíev, the great, the mighty, had put to sleep: he had invaded the
Pólovts land and had carried terror to them, with his mighty armies
and tempered swords; had levelled their hills and ravines, ruffled
their rivers and lakes, dried up their streams and swamps; and, like a
whirlwind, had snatched pagan Kobyák[63] away from his mighty,
steel-clad Pólovts army by the Ázov Sea, until Kobyák fell in Kíev
city, in the council-room of Svyatosláv. Germans, Venetians, Greeks
and Moravians sing the glory of Svyatosláv, but blame Prince Ígor
who had merged his wealth in the Kayála, the Pólovts river, and had
filled it with Russian gold. Here Ígor was unseated from his golden
saddle and placed upon the saddle of a slave.

IX

The city walls were silent, and merriment was dead. Svyatosláv
saw a troubled dream: “In Kíev on the mount you enveloped me last
night,” he said, “in a black shroud on a bed of yew; they poured out
to me blue wine mixed with bitterness; from empty quivers they
showered large gems upon my lap, and tried to comfort me. Already
are there boards without a cross beam in my hall of gold, and all
night have the devilish crows been cawing.”[64] ...
The boyárs spoke to the Prince: “Prince, sorrow has enthralled
your mind. Two falcons flew from their paternal throne of gold to find
the city of Tmútorokan, and anxious to drink from the Don with their
helmets. The falcons’ wings have been clipped by the pagan swords,
and they have been enmeshed in iron fetters. On the third day it was
dark: two suns were dimmed,[65] two red torches went out, and with
them two young moons, Olég[66] and Svyatosláv, were shrouded in
darkness. On Kayála river darkness veiled the day: the Pólovtses
had invaded the Russian land, like a litter of lynxes.... Fair Gothic[67]
maidens sing upon the shore of the blue sea, tinkling with the
Russian gold: they sing the times of Bus, recall Sharokán’s[68]
revenge. But we, your druzhína, are anxious for the feast.”
Then great Svyatosláv uttered golden words, mingled with tears:
“Oh, my nephews, Ígor and Vsévolod! Too early did you begin to
strike the land of the Pólovtses with your swords, and to seek glory
for yourselves. You were vanquished ingloriously, for ingloriously
have you spilled the blood of the pagans! Your brave hearts are
forged with hard steel and tempered in daring exploits. See what you
have done with my silvery hair! I no longer see with me my mighty,
warlike brother Izyasláv with his Chernígov druzhína.... They
overwhelmed their enemies with dirks, not bearing bucklers, but
raising a warcry and resounding the glory of their forefathers. But
you spoke: ‘We alone will vanquish! Let us ourselves gain the future
glory, and share the glory of our fathers!’ Why should not an old man
feel young again? When the falcon is moulting, he drives the birds
far away, and allows not his nest to be hurt. But alas, the princes will
not aid me! My years have turned to nothing. At Rim[69] they cry
under the swords of the Pólovtses, and Vladímir[70] groans under his
wounds. Bitterness and sorrow has befallen the son of Glyeb!”

Grand Prince Vsévolod![71] Fly from afar not only in thought, but
come to protect your paternal throne: for you could dry up the
Vólga[72] with your oars, and empty the Don with your helmets. If you
were here, a Pólovts slave-girl would be worth a dime, and a man-
slave—half a rouble.[73] And you know, together with the brave sons
of Glyeb, how to hurl the Greek fire on land.
You, Grim Aurochs Rúrik and David![74] Did not your golden
helmets swim in blood? Did not your valiant druzhína bellow like
aurochses, when they were wounded by tempered swords in a
strange field? Put your feet, O lords, into your golden stirrups to
avenge the insult to the Russian land, the wounds of Ígor, the valiant
son of Svyatosláv!
Yarosláv Osmomýsl of Gálich![75] You sit high upon your throne
wrought of gold, propping with your iron-clad army the Carpathian
mountains, barring the king’s path, closing the gates of the Danube,
hurling missiles higher than the clouds, sitting in judgment as far as
the Danube. Your thunders pass over the land, and you hold the key
to the gates of Kíev; sitting on your paternal throne, you slay the
sultans in their lands. Slay, O lord, Konchák, the pagan villain, to
avenge the Russian land, the wounds of Ígor, the valiant son of
Svyatosláv!
 And you, valiant Román[76] and Mstisláv! A brave thought carries
you into action.[77] You fly high in your onslaught, like a falcon
circling in the air, about to swoop down upon the birds. You wear iron
hauberks under Latin helmets, and the earth has trembled from you
in many a pagan land: the Lithuanians, Yatvyágans, Deremélans and
Pólovtses threw down their warclubs and bent their heads under
those tempered swords. But now, O Prince, Ígor’s sun is dimmed,—
the tree, alas, has shed its leaves. Along the Ros[78] and the Sulá
the Pólovtses have sacked the towns, but Ígor’s brave army will rise
no more. The Don calls you, O Prince, and the other princes to
victory!
Olég’s sons have hastened to the war. Íngvar and Vsévolod,[79]
and the three sons of Mstisláv,[80] a mighty winged brood! Not by the
lot of war have you acquired power. Of what good are your golden
helmets, and Polish warclubs and shields? Bar the enemy’s way with
your sharp arrows, to avenge the Russian land, the wounds of Ígor,
the valiant son of Svyatosláv!

XI

The Sulá no longer flows with a silvery stream by Pereyáslavl

town,[81] and the Dviná flows turbid by mighty Pólotsk, agitated by
the pagans. Izyasláv,[82] Vasílko’s son, alone made his sharp swords
ring against the Lithuanian helmets, outstripping the glory of his
grandfather Vsesláv, but himself was worsted by Lithuanian swords,
and fell under crimson shields, upon the bloodstained grass. Lying
on his death-bed, he spoke[83]: “O Prince, the birds have covered
your druzhína with their wings, and the beasts have lapped their
blood.” There was not present the brother Bryachisláv, nor the other,
Vsévolod; alone he lost the pearl soul out of his valiant body through
the golden necklace. The voices were subdued, merriment died
away. The trumpets blare at Goródno.
Yarosláv and all grandchildren of Vsesláv![84] Furl your standards,
sheath your blunted swords, for you have leaped away from your
grandfather’s glory! You have with your discords invited the pagan
hosts against the Russian land, against the life of Vsesláv, for
through your strife has come the enslavement by the Pólovts land.
In the seventh age of Troyán,[85] Vsesláv cast his lot for his
beloved maiden.[86] He bestrode his horse, and galloped to the city
of Kíev, and with the thrust of the spear possessed himself of
golden-throned Kíev. He galloped hence as a grim beast to the south
of Byélgorod,[87] and disappeared in the blue mist; next morning he
clanked with the battering-ram, and opened the gates of Nóvgorod;
he shattered the glory of Yarosláv,[88] and raced as a wolf to the
Nemíga from Dudútki.[89]
On the Nemíga, ricks are stacked with heads, and they flail with
tempered chains; the body is placed on the threshing-floor, and the
soul is winnowed from the body. Not with grain were sown the bloody
banks of the Nemíga, but with the bones of Russian sons.
Prince Vsesláv sat in judgment over his people, apportioned cities
to the princes, but himself raced a wolf[90] in the night, and by
cockcrow reached from Kíev to Tmútorokan, and as a wolf crossed
the path of great Khors.[91] When they rang the bell in the church of
St. Sophia for matins, early in the morning at Pólotsk, he heard the
ringing in Kíev. Though his cunning soul could pass into another
body, yet he often suffered woe. Thus wise Boyán of old has justly
said: “Neither the cunning, nor the agile, nor the swift bird can
escape the judgment of the Lord!”
Oh, the Russian land must groan as it recalls the former days and
the ancient princes! It was not possible to nail Vladímir to the hills of
Kíev[92]: now there are standards of Rúrik, and others of David....[93]

XII

Yaroslávna’s[94] voice is heard; like a cuckoo in a lonely spot she

calls plaintively in the morning: “I will fly,” she says, “like a cuckoo
along the Danube,[95] will wet my beaver sleeve in the river Kayála,
will wipe off the Prince’s bloody wounds on his manly body!”
Yaroslávna weeps in the morning at Putívl town on the wall,
saying: “O wind, mighty wind! Why, master, do you blow so strong?
Why do you on your light wings carry the Khan’s arrows against the
warriors of my beloved one? Is it not enough for you to blow on high
below the clouds, rocking the ships on the blue sea? Why, master,
have you dispersed my happiness over the grass of the steppe?”
Yaroslávna weeps in the morning at Putívl town on the wall,
saying: “O famous Dnieper, you have pierced the rocky mountains
across the country of the Pólovtses! You have rocked on your waves
the boats of Svyatosláv as far as the army of Kobák.[96] Fondly bring
to me, master, my sweetheart, that I may not in the morning send
tears after him out to sea.”
Yaroslávna weeps in the morning at Putívl town on the wall,
saying: “Bright, three times bright sun, you give warmth and joy to
all! Why, master, have you thrust your burning beams on the warriors
of my beloved one? Why have you in the waterless plain dried up
their bows, and sealed their quivers in sorrow?”

XIII

The sea is agitated at midnight: mists are borne in the darkness.

God shows to Ígor a way out of the land of the Pólovtses into the
country of Russia to his father’s golden throne. The evening twilight
has gone out. Ígor sleeps; Ígor is awake: Ígor in his thought
measures the plains from the great Don to the small Donéts. His
steed is ready at midnight. Ovlúr whistles beyond the river, gives a
sign to the Prince,—Prince Ígor will be no more!
The earth resounded, the grass rustled, the Pólovts’ tents
trembled. But Ígor raced like an ermine in the reeds, like a white
duck over the water; he jumped on a swift steed, dismounted as a
light-footed wolf, and hastened to the plain of the Donéts; and as a
falcon flew through the mist, killing geese and swans for his
breakfast and dinner and supper. When Ígor flew as a falcon, Ovlúr
raced as a wolf, shaking off the cold dew, for they had worn out their
swift steeds.
The Donéts spoke: “Prince Ígor, great is your honour, and the grief
to Konchák, and joy to the Russian land!”
Ígor spoke: “O Donéts, great is your honour, having rocked the
Prince on your wave, having spread out for him the green grass on
your silver banks, having cloaked him with warm mists under green
trees. You have guarded him as a duck on the water, as a gull on the
waves, as a mallard in the air. Not thus the river Stúgna[97]: though
having a scanty stream, it has swallowed other brooks, and has
spread the floods over the bushes. To the young Prince Rostisláv the
Dnieper has closed its dark banks. Rostisláv’s mother weeps for the
young Prince. The flowers faded in their sorrow, and the trees bent in
anguish to the ground.”
It is not magpies that are in a flutter: Gza and Konchák ride in
Ígor’s track. Then the raven did not croak, the jackdaws were silent,
the magpies did not chatter, only leaped from branch to branch. The
woodpeckers indicated the road to the river by their pecking; the
nightingales announced the day by their merry song.
Said Gza to Konchák: “Since the falcon is flying to his nest, let us
shoot the fledgling[98] with our golden darts.”
Said Konchák to Gza: “Since the falcon is flying to his nest, let us
enmesh the fledgling with a fair maiden!”
And Gza spoke to Konchák: “If we enmesh him with a fair maiden,
we shall have neither the young falcon, nor the fair maiden, and the
birds will attack us in the Pólovts plain.”

XIV

Boyán has said: “Hard it is for you, O head, to be without your

shoulders; ill it is for you, O body, to be without a head.” Even so is
the Russian land without Ígor.
 The sun shines in the heaven,—Prince Ígor in the land of Russia!
Maidens sing at the Danube: their voices are carried over the sea to
Kíev. Ígor rides over the Boríchev,[99] to the church of the Holy Virgin
of Pirogóshch. The country is happy, the towns rejoice; they sing
songs to the elder princes, and then to the younger. Let us sing the
glory of Ígor Svyatoslávich, of Grim Aurochs Vsévolod, Vladímir
Ígorevich! Hail, princes and druzhína, who battle for the Christians
against the pagan host! Glory to the princes and the druzhína!
Amen!

FOOTNOTES:

[23] Ígor was the son of Svyatosláv Ólgovich of Nóvgorod

Syéverski, and grandson of Olég of Tmútorokan.
[24] From the references to the princes whose praise he sang,
it is evident that he lived at the end of the eleventh and the
beginning of the twelfth centuries. Nothing else is known of this
famous poet.
[25] Yarosláv, the son of Vladímir, lived from 1019-1054: he was
the author of the Russian Code (see p. 45).
[26] Mstisláv, Prince of Tmútorokan, was the brother of
Yarosláv ( † 1036). In 1022 he killed in duel the giant Redédya,
chief of the Kasógs who dwelt between the Black and Caspian
seas, and conquered their country.
[27] Román was a brother of Ígor’s grandfather Olég; he was
killed by the Pólovtses in 1079.
[28] Vladímir the Great, father of Yarosláv.
[29] A Turkish tribe, related to the Pechenyégs, who called
themselves Cumanians. They occupied the south of Russia as far
as Hungary.
[30] See account of the eclipse in the Chronicle (p. 72).
[31] Troyán is counted among the ancient Russian divinities in
The Holy Virgin’s Descent into Hell (p. 97); but evidently he is also
a reminiscence of the Roman Emperor Trajan, whose ramparts
and roads are still to be traced along the Danube.
 [32] The god of the flocks, i. e., of wealth and abundance. It is
not quite clear why the poet is called his grandson.
[33] Tributary of the Dnieper.
[34] Nóvgorod Syéverski, Ígor’s capital, in the Government of
Chernígov.
[35] The appanage of Ígor’s son Vladímir, in the Government of
Kursk.
[36] A bird of ill-omen; according to some, divinity of darkness.
[37] The border of the Black Sea.
[38] The Ázov Sea.
[39] The ancient Tauric Chersonese, near the modern
Sebastopol.
[40] An ancient city of the Khazars, on the eastern shore of the
Ázov Sea, on the peninsula of Tamán. It became a Russian
possession in the tenth century.
[41] A frequently recurring sentence, the meaning of which
seems to be: You are lost beyond redemption!
[42] The trophies won by Ígor.
[43] Gza and Konchák, khans of the Pólovtses, were the
leaders of the expedition. See p. 77.
[44] The four suns are: Ígor, his brother Vsévolod, his son
Vladímir of Putívl, and his nephew Svyatosláv Ólgovich of Rylsk.
[45] Tributary of the Don.
[46] God of the winds.
[47] Descendants of the Avars still live between Georgia and
Circassia.
[48] Her name was Ólga.
[49] Olég is the grandfather of Ígor. The poet here recalls
former encounters with the Pólovtses. Not having been able to
agree with his uncles, Izyasláv who had occupied the throne in
Kíev, and Vsévolod who had his appanage of Chernígov, Olég
escaped to Román the Fair of Tmútorokan, and decided to get his
rights by means of arms. He led three times the Pólovtses into
Russia (in 1078, 1079 and 1094).
[50] That is, in the other world.
 [51] Vladímir Monomákh hastened to his father’s aid. See his
Instruction, p. 55.
[52] Olég and his cousin, Borís, were at that time absent from
Chernígov. When they arrived and opposed themselves to the
superior force of Izyasláv, Olég advised Borís to surrender; but he
would not listen and made an attack upon his uncle’s army and
was killed.
[53] Olég is called the son of “Góre,” i. e., woe.
[54] The Russians are sons of Dazhbóg, the god of the sun,
while the enemy are the “devil’s children.”
[55] The first day the Russians defeated the Pólovtses; the
next, the Pólovtses defeated the Russians; on the third day, which
was a Sunday, the Kovúans ran away, and at noon Ígor was
made prisoner. See the Chronicle, p. 74.
[56] Nature sympathises with the Russians.
[57] That is, far away; see note 5, p. 82.
[58] The Sea of Ázov.
[59] That is, Ígor; the Pólovtses are the birds.
[60] The Chronicle says the Pólovtses hurled the Greek fire.
[61] A silver coin.
[62] This Svyatosláv, the son of Vsévolod Ólgovich, had been
the Prince of Chernígov. He was Grand Prince of Kíev from 1174-
1194. He had to give up his throne twice, but in 1181 ascended it
for the third time. He is called Ígor’s and Vsévolod’s father by
seniority, though he was only their uncle by relationship.
[63] The Russians obtained a famous victory over the
Pólovtses, of whom 7000 were taken prisoners, in 1184.
[64] A series of evil omens.
[65] Ígor and Vsévolod.
[66] Probably the son of Ígor; but he was only eleven years old
during the expedition.
[67] Descendants of the Goths who had settled along the Black
Sea had been found and described as late as the sixteenth and
even seventeenth centuries in the Crimea and in the Tamán
peninsula.
 [68] These Gothic girls evidently sang the exploits of Pólovts
princes. Sharokán had made an incursion into Russia in 1107, but
he was defeated and had to flee. In 1111 Sharokán returned with
an immense army to avenge his defeat.
[69] Now Rómen, in the Government of Poltáva.
[70] Vladímir of Pereyáslavl. See the Chronicle, p. 78.
[71] Vsévolod Yúrevich, Prince of Súzdal, whose father, Yúri
Dolgorúki, had been Grand Prince at Kíev.
[72] In 1183 Vsévolod made an expedition against the
Bulgarians of the Vólga; he went down the Vólga as far as Kazán,
and then proceeded on foot.
[73] That is, if Vsévolod were there, he would be so victorious
against the Pólovtses as to lower the price of Pólovts slaves.
[74] The sons of Rostisláv Mstislávich, and great-grandchildren
of Vladímir Monomákh.
[75] Yarosláv Osmomýsl ( † 1187) was the Prince of Gálich,
which in his days extended as far as the Prut and the Danube and
included part of Moldavia. His daughter was Ígor’s wife.
[76] Román Mstislávich ( † 1205), Prince of Volhynia, twice
occupied the throne in Gálich. He fought successfully against the
Lithuanians and Yatvyágans, and when he was Prince of Gálich
he saved Constantinople from the impending danger of a Pólovts
and Pechenyég invasion. The Chronicle says of him: “He rushed
against the pagans like a lion, raged like a lynx, and destroyed
them like a crocodile, and crossed their lands like an eagle, for he
was as brave as an aurochs,” and “The Pólovtses used to frighten
their children with his name.”
[77] Mstisláv was probably the brother of Íngvar and Vsévolod,
mentioned below.
[78] Tributary of the Dnieper.
[79] The sons of Yarosláv Izyaslávich, Prince of Lutsk, who was
Grand Prince of Kíev in 1173.
[80] Román, Svyatosláv and Vsévolod, sons of Mstisláv, great-
grandchildren of Vladímir Monomákh.
[81] The Pólovtses divided among themselves the towns along
the Sulá. See the Chronicle, p. 77.
 [82] Izyasláv’s appanage was Goródno, in the Government of
Minsk, hence farther down “The trumpets blare at Goródno.”
[83] Izyasláv addresses himself.
[84] These are opposed to the brave Izyasláv, who is also a
descendant of Vsesláv. Vsesláv Bryachislávich, Prince of Pólotsk,
was, in 1064, defeated by Izyasláv and his brothers on the
Nemíga; later he was enticed by Izyasláv to Kíev, where he was
imprisoned. In 1067 Izyasláv was driven out by the Kíevans, and
Vsesláv was made Grand Prince. Izyasláv attacked Vsesláv at
Byélgorod, but the latter fled to Pólotsk.
[85] The exact meaning of the “seventh age of Troyán” is not
known; some distant time is designated.
[86] That is, for Kíev.
[87] Ten versts from Kíev.
[88] Tributary of the Svísloch, in the Government of Minsk.
[89] Near Nóvgorod.
[90] The chronicles and popular tradition make Vsesláv a
werewolf and a sorcerer.
[91] Another name for Dazhbóg, the god of the sun.
[92] That is, for ever to retain Vladímir in Kíev.
[93] Now there is discord.
[94] Evfrosíniya (Euphrosyne), daughter of Yarosláv Osmomýsl
of Gálich, Ígor’s second wife.
[95] A standing formula for rivers in general, here the Kayála.
[96] Expedition of 1184.
[97] A swampy river in the Government of Kíev. Rostisláv
Vsévolodovich, the son of Vsévolod and Anna, the daughter of a
Pólovts Khan, and the brother of Vladímir Monomákh. After an
unsuccessful attack upon the Pólovtses, he escaped from
captivity by jumping into the Stúgna, but being in heavy armour
he was drowned.
[98] Vladímir, the son of Ígor, who was also taken captive. He
really married Konchák’s daughter and returned with her to Kíev
in 1187.