FOSTER’S CAPE

WORKSHOP 2024

CARIBBEAN STUDIES

WORKSHEET 1:

GEOGRAPHICAL
PHENOMENA & SOCIETAL
INSTITUTIONS
© 2024
 DISCLAIMER
This worksheet was prepared for the Foster’s CAPE Workshop 2024. It is
to guide students on the EXAMINABLE CONCEPTS for their upcoming
CAPE Examination. It is not meant to be a replacement of the textbooks
and/or their notes. The presenter will give additional notes during the
presentation of this worksheet.

The information contained in this worksheet are a compilation of notes.

The past paper questions used in the worksheet are used solely for the
purpose of class and are the property of the CXC. No copyright
infringement is intended.

This worksheet is NOT to be distributed or shared and is SOLELY

intended for the students who registered for the Foster’s CAPE Workshop
2024.
 TOPICS ON THIS WORKSHEET

• Impact of Geographical Phenomena

❑Plate tectonics, Hurricanes, Soils, Coral Reefs,

Droughts & Flood

• Impact of Societal Institutions on Caribbean

People

❑Family, Education, Religion and Justice System

IMPACT OF
GEOGRAPHICAL
PHENOMENA
 Geographical Phenomena in the Caribbean
• The geographical location of the Caribbean - in the Caribbean Sea resting on
the Caribbean Plate and on the outshirk of the Atlantic Ocean - means that it is
prone to several geographical phenomena such as earthquakes, tsunamis,
hurricanes, droughts and floods.

• These geographical phenomena occur each year across the Caribbean and there
is no precise formula to predict them. As such, the region’s people have learnt to
live with them.

• Caribbean people are the product of their physical environment. Hence,

we have grown to live with these geographical phenomena and so, our cultural
development has been influenced greatly by them. This means that our way of
life, settlement patterns, agricultural output, infrastructure and
development strategies (economic and political) have been shaped by the
various geographical phenomena experienced by the region.
 PLATE TECTONICS
• Plate tectonic is based on the premise that the Earth’s surface or crust is divided
into several segments or plates that are moving or relatively motive. In theory, the
surface of the Earth is in a constant stage of change. The various plates on the
Earth’s surface move because they are carried along by convection currents in the
upper mantle. The mantle is a flowing layer of rock underneath the Earth’s crust.

• The mobility of the Earth’s surface explains why we experience soil erosions, the
shrinking and expansion of the ocean, earthquakes and the eruptions of volcanoes.

• The Caribbean has historically been influenced by plate tectonics. Most, if not
all, of the islands in the Caribbean were formed thousands of years ago through
volcanic eruptions. The volcanoes along the margin of the Greater Antilles are
extinct, but there are several active volcanoes in the Lesser Antilles. These include
the Mt. Soufriere in St. Vincent, Mt. Pelee in Martinique and the Soufriere Hills in
Montserrat. In Grenada, there is a potentially dangerous underwater volcano – Kick
em Jenny - off its coast.
 THE CARIBBEAN PLATE
• The Caribbean plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that expands from Central
America, the Caribbean Sea and under the northern coast of South America. It is
bordered by the North American Plate, the South American Plate, the Nazca
Plate and the Cocos Plate. These plates interact continuously and causes intense
seismic activity such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

• The Caribbean Plate is significant for a geological definition of the Caribbean.

However, it cannot be used to give a precise definition of the Caribbean because it
lies underneath countries that are not identified as Caribbean. Countries that fall on
the Caribbean plate include Belize, Guatemala and Honduras in Central America.
Venezuela in South America also falls on the Caribbean Plate.

• One of the defining features of the Caribbean Plate is the active volcanic arc in
the Lesser Antilles which lies along the eastern boundary of the plate.
Map of the
Caribbean
plate
boundaries
Many of the
islands in the
Caribbean were
formed due to
the interactions
between the
various plates.
 IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHICAL
PHENOMENA
• It is important to consider the impact, risk and hazards of the
various geographical phenomena that arise as result of the
interaction of the Caribbean Plate with its various surrounding
plates. The geographical phenomena to be considered are:

❑Earthquakes
❑Volcanoes
❑Tsunamis
❑Droughts
❑Floods
EARTHQUAKES
Image taken from freepik.com
What is an earthquake?
• An earthquake is a vibration or series of vibration caused by a sudden
movement of the Earth’s crust.

• For the most part, seismic activities in the Caribbean is focused along the Antilles
Arc, whether the Caribbean Plate overrides the North American Plate. However,
due to the continuous interactions between the Caribbean Plate and its
surrounding plates, the entire region is vulnerable to earthquakes.

• In the Lesser Antilles, earthquakes are tectonic (shifting plates) or volcanic in

origin. Recent studies have suggested that in the Lesser Antilles alone some 1200
earthquakes are recorded each year. Several hundred tremors are felt yearly in the
Caribbean, but some are too small to be measured. Earthquakes are recorded and
measured by sensitive instruments called seismographs.

• An earthquake cannot be stopped or prevented from occurring, however,

precautions can be taken to lessen the effect.
How are earthquakes caused?
• Earthquakes occur because the movements of plates along the plate
boundaries are not smooth. This is due to the huge amount of friction
between the rock surface colliding, diverging or sliding plates.
• When the rocks are stressed by the great amount of friction, they may
bend, and stored energy gradually accumulates in the bend. When the
stress becomes too great, these bent rocks will snap free to their new
positions along a fault line.
• At the same time, the stored energy is released as seismic waves,
which cause ground vibrations and earthquakes to occur.
Some significant earthquakes in the Caribbean were those in:
• 1690 – Antigua, St. Kitts, Nevis, Monserrat
• 1692 and 1907 – Jamaica
• 1766 – Trinidad
• 1839 – over 400 deaths in Martinique
• 1974, 2004 – Leeward Islands
• 1953 – St. Lucia – Magnitude 7.3
• 1954 – Trinidad – Magnitude 6.5- 1 person killed, and many were injured – minor to
moderate damage to infrastructure
• 1997 – Trinidad and Tobago – Magnitude 6.1 – six houses collapsed, 2 persons were
injured and some TT$18M in damages – significant coseismic groundwater discharge
• 2004 – Cayman Islands – Magnitude 6.8 – minimal damage – however, tsunami threat
warning was implemented
• 2007 – Martinique – Magnitude 7.4 – 1 death and over 100 injured – Aftershocks
experienced by other islands such as Dominica, St. Kitts and Nevis, Guadeloupe, BVI and
Puerto Rico
• 2010 – Haiti - Magnitude 7 – led to the death of over 300,000 people and caused some $8
billion in damages
Effects of Earthquakes
• Earthquakes has the potential to lead to wide-scale social displacement. Social displacement
occurs when a population becomes fragmented or separated during a natural disaster due to
evacuation or migration.

• Other effects of earthquakes are:

✓ Destruction of life and property
✓ Disruption of communication and utilities line
✓ Outbreak of uncontrollable fires
✓ Soil erosion resulting in landslides and rock fall
✓ Tsunamis in coastal areas – Tsunami alerts are issued after earthquakes because of the
ability of the shift in the Earth Crust to affect wave propagations and intensity
✓ Toppling and collapsing of buildings
✓ Serious damages to infrastructure e.g., roads and public buildings etc
✓ Loss of culture and traditions due to the destruction of cultural infrastructure
✓ Trauma and emotional stress for those who endured loss
✓ Breakdown of social order – consider the impacts of recent earthquakes in Haiti
Minimizing the Impact of Earthquakes

CAPE 2012: Examine THREE strategies that Caribbean countries can use to
minimize the impact of earthquakes in the region. [20 marks]

• Developing early warning systems – Although earthquakes are impossible to predict,

several signs can give an inkling of earthquakes such as small tremors, cracks on
buildings and infrastructure and strange animal behaviour. Early warning systems include
using hazard mappings to create exist strategies in areas that are prone to earthquake, and
using technology such as tiltmeters and seismic sensor which can monitor small changes
in the movement of the Earth’s crust.

• Planning for earthquakes – This can include: (a) restricting building in certain areas that
are prone to earthquakes; (b) developing hazards maps that highlight areas that are prone
to earthquakes; (c)Training response teams; (d) Implementing firebreak techniques which
can prevent the spread of fires during earthquakes; (e) storing medicine; (f) Planning
evacuation routes, sites and areas; and (f) planning earthquake drills in schools, public
buildings and private organizations.
• Improving building techniques – Creating buildings that can withstand shakes or swing
with the movement of the Earth during earthquakes. This includes using special cement,
reinforcing concrete and having special foundations. Existing buildings can undergo
retrofitting exercises to making them more resilient to earthquakes. Improving building
techniques can be accompanied by stringent building codes and zoning laws. In 2004, the
6.8 magnitude earthquake that hit the Cayman Islands had very little damage and a great
deal of this had to do with the stringent building codes in the island. Conversely, it has
been argued that the severe property damage in Haiti from the 2010 earthquake was due
to the poor housing and infrastructure in the country.

• Education – Educating people on the causes and dangers of earthquakes as well as

earthquake safety. People should also be trained about how to respond to earthquakes.
Education should also encompass earthquake drills and how to use safety kits.

• Conducting research - Research on earthquakes with a focus on the ability to predict

earthquakes and how to improve the seismic performance of buildings. Research can also
encompass the impacts of earthquakes which can give insight into the policies to be
developed to respond to earthquakes.

• Seeking aid from Developed countries which have the resources and manpower to
respond to earthquakes that affect less developed countries.
VOLCANOES

Image taken from freepik.com

• One of the defining features of the Caribbean plate is the active
volcanic arc in the Lesser Antilles which lies along its eastern
boundary.

• There are many instances of volcanic eruptions in the region.

These include the Mt. Pelee eruption in Martinque in 1902, the La
Soufriere eruption in St. Vincent in 1979 and 2021, the Soufriere
eruption in Montserrat in 1995.

• There is also evidence of volcanism in other areas of the

Caribbean such as Crater Lake in Grenada, volcanic plugs in St.
Lucia, fumeroles which sends out steam and gases and Sulphur
Dioxide in St Lucia and Dominica and the Kick em Jenny, and
underground volcano off the coast of Grenada.
Positive impact of volcanoes
• Land formation –islands in the Lesser Antilles were formed from volcanic
eruptions
• Studies have suggested that sulfur gas can cause atmospheric cooling after the
eruption of volcanoes
• Valuable minerals such as gold, nickel and copper in areas such as Pakaraima area
in Guyana
• Good farming soil from weathered volcanic rocks and materials e.g., slopes of Mt.
Liamuiga (formerly Mt. Misery) in St. Kitts.
• Hot springs which are potential for thermal energy in countries such as St. Lucia
and Dominica
• Major tourist attraction - Sulphur springs in St. Lucia, boiling lake in Dominica
Export of pumice rock - Dominica
• Creates consciousness among Caribbean people as to the threat of natural disasters;
• Causes governments to enforce building codes to mitigate against the effects
earthquakes and other natural disasters
Negative impact of volcanoes
• Destruction of lives and property (infrastructure)
• Displacement of people – The most recent example in the Caribbean is the
relocation of people in St. Vincent due to the La Soufriere eruption in 2021 –
16000 people had to be evacuated from areas surrounding the volcano
• loss of culture- destruction of cultural sites and infrastructure
• Pollution due to contamination of water supply by ash, dirt and gases.
• Poisonous gases released into the atmosphere resulting in respiratory ailments
• Mudflows which destroy vegetation and infrastructure
• Changes in weather patterns due to clouds of ash which decrease the amount
of sunlight reaching the earth
• Noise pollution from eruption which can send sound waves hundreds of miles
away
TSUNAMIS

Image taken from freepik.com

• A tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused by earthquakes, underwater
landslides, underground explosions or volcanic eruptions.

• The Caribbean is prone to tsunamis because of the constant interaction of the

Caribbean plates with its surroundings plates which exposes to region to
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. However, it can be argued that they are somewhat
rare in the Caribbean. Since the 1530s, the Caribbean has recorded over 50 tsunamis.

• In 1918, a notable tsunami hit Puerto Rico which was caused by an earthquake on the
11th October 1918 when a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in the Mona Passage between
Hispaniola and Puerto Rico which generated a local tsunami which killed some 100
people. Similarly in 1946, an 8.1 magnitude earthquake in the Dominican Republic
generated a tsunami which caused some 2000 deaths (directly and indirectly). These show
a strong correlation between earthquakes and tsunamis in the Caribbean. In 20

• The obvious effect of a tsunami is that it causes flooding. It also disrupts

transportations, breakdown infrastructures, undermine communicate and pollute
water supplies.
FLOODING
Image taken from freepik.com*
What is flooding?
• A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is
usually dry. Therefore, flooding occurs if any area of land
that is usually dry is covered with water after heavy rain or
after a river or lake flows over its banks.

• Almost all Caribbean territory is prone to flooding since we

are naturally surrounded by water. However, it is more
evident in the smaller Eastern Caribbean territories such as
Barbados, Dominica, St. Lucia and Antigua due to their flat
topography.
Causes of flooding
• Flooding as an extreme event has become progressively
evident in the Caribbean sub-region, as a result of an increased
number of intense rainfall events, and storm surges from
hurricanes.
• Such events in turn, have been linked to the impacts of global
climate change, which has been shown to be the cause for
several specific events including sea-level rise; global
temperature rise, ocean warming and acidification, and the
melting of glaciers.
• Construction of homes in flood prone areas - Caribbean
people are historically known for creating settlements in flood
prone areas such as next to rivers, gullies and the sea.
• Improper agricultural practices – leads to loss of
soil concentration, loss of trees which lead to greater
runoffs, leads to debris in rivers
• Deforestation - loss of trees lead to greater runoffs
• Inadequate design of drainage channels and structures
especially in cities which are constantly expanding -
Inadequate maintenance of drainage facilities,
blockage by debris brought by flood waters.
• Human activities – the continued use of single use
plastic and pollution
Effects of Flooding
Flooding events often result in significant disruptions of economic and social
life in the Caribbean.

• It leads to the halt of business activities and the diversion of resources to

solve the problems caused by flooding.

• Floods have large social consequences for communities and individuals.

The immediate impacts of flooding include loss of human life,
displacement of people from their communities, damage to property,
destruction of crops, loss of livestock, and deterioration of health
conditions owing to waterborne diseases such as fever, dysentery and
Coli infection. Stagnant water can also lead to other diseases such as
dengue and malaria.
CAPE 2010: “Flooding is caused by a combination of natural and man-made factors.”
Discuss the extent to which flooding is a MAJOR environmental hazard in the Caribbean.
[30 marks]
NB: This is not a question about the nature and causes of flooding per se. It requires a discussion as to
whether flooding is a major concern in the context of its nature and causes in the Caribbean. By this, is
flooding a major or minor environmental problem in the Caribbean.

Answer Plan:

• Introduction: Explain flood and describe why it is an environmental hazard.

• Body:
(a) Outline the reasons why flooding is considered a major environmental hazard in the
Caribbean. Give reasons such as the increased frequency and intensity of flooding, the
exacerbation of flooding by man-made factors, the socio-economic and environmental
consequences of flooding and the high cost to mitigate flooding in the Caribbean.
(b) Outline the reasons why flooding may NOT be considered a major environmental
hazard in the Caribbean. Give reasons such as the fact that Caribbean islands experience
flooding differently with some islands being less concerned with flooding due to infrequent
rainfall. Also, point out that other geographical phenomena in the Caribbean are more
frequent and more intense than flooding.

• Conclusion – Conclude that flooding is a major environmental hazard in the Caribbean, but while
it is a frequent and constant reality for some Caribbean islands, it is not for all.
SAMPLE ESSAY
Flooding is a natural disaster that occurs when there is an overflow of water onto land that is usually
dry. It is an environmental hazard because it is often influenced by various environmental
occurrences, and it has detrimental environmental effects on society. In the Caribbean, flooding is a
consequence of both natural and man-made (anthropogenic) factors, and while the various islands in
the region experience flooding differently, it has been suggested that flooding is a major concern for
the region. This essay explores the environmental hazard of flooding and assesses whether it is a
major concern in the Caribbean.
One significant reason why flooding is a major concern in the Caribbean is because of its increased
frequency and intensity due to natural factors. Natural factors causing flooding are derived from
natural events or the environment without any influence of man and can include such things as
hurricanes, storm surges, heavy precipitation and seismic activities (such as earthquakes or
volcanoes) that can disturb or rupture (break) dams or levees along rivers. Natural factors influence
flood in the Caribbean due to its geographical location. Indeed, the various islands in the region are
surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and rest within the Atlantic hurricane belt making it susceptible to
seasonal weather patterns. Climate change, in particular, has led to the increased frequency of
rainfall, hurricanes and storm surges in the Caribbean, and is also associated with rising sea levels.
This has, in turn, led to more incidents of flooding in the region, particularly due to the inundation of
low-lying coastal areas in the Caribbean. In 2023, for example, torrential rains led to a series of
floods in the Greater Antilles and affected countries such as Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican
Republic and Puerto Rico.
Another reason why flooding is a major concern in the Caribbean is because it is often exacerbated
by manmade factors. The man-made factors that cause flooding derive from the activities of human
and which, in tandem with the natural factors, significantly intensify flooding. Some example of
man-made causes of flooding in the Caribbean include deforestation, urban development, inadequate
water drainage systems, the removal of natural flood plains, the pollution of rivers, streams and other
waterbodies, and improper waste management practices. One of the main problems with these man-
made factors that influence flooding is that they make the natural causes of flooding more extensive
and impactful. For example, deforestation due to agricultural expansion, urban development and the
removal of forest areas to make houses, means that rainfall and water from hurricanes runoff faster
than usual and swell rivers faster. Flooding, therefore, occurs faster and more frequently.
Additionally, the man-made causes of flooding have the potential to make natural events cause flood
events, which in the ordinary course of things might not have occurred. For example, several areas in
the Caribbean only become prone to flooding due these man-made activities.
Additionally, flooding is a major concern in the Caribbean due to the several socio-economic and
environmental consequences that flow from it. Indeed, it has the potential to disrupt economic
activities and displace a significant number of people from time to time. This is particularly
concerning in the Caribbean due to our limited economic activities and limited land space to
accommodate the rapid distribution of people in response to flooding. Flooding in the smaller
Caribbean territories often disrupt agriculture and tourism which are their main economic sectors and
source of foreign revenue. Additionally, the environmental impacts of flooding in the Caribbean are
often profound and widespread. Flooding often leads to the loss of topsoil, the disruption of natural
habitats and coastal ecosystems, the destruction of coral reefs and the increased flow of pollutants
and other waste materials into waterbodies. These environmental impacts have significant
implications for Caribbean people and society since they reduce soil fertility, reduce agricultural
productivity, disrupt fragile ecosystems and exacerbates the risk of landslides. It follows then that
flooding is a major concern for several vulnerable communities in the region, particularly those in
areas that are prone to flooding.
Another reason why flooding is a major concern in the Caribbean is because of the high cost
involve in mitigating flooding. Mitigating the risks associated with flooding include
afforestation and reforestation and the implementation of sustainable land management
practices. It can also include investments in resilient infrastructure, such as improved
drainage systems, flood barriers, and early warning systems. Public awareness campaigns
and community-based initiatives can also foster a culture of disaster preparedness and
encourage sustainable behaviours, such as proper waste disposal and land use planning.
However, it cannot be ignored that to implement these measures can often be costly and the
Caribbean also have other pressing geographical phenomena and social issues to consider.

Despite the foregoing factors that can suggest flooding to be a major concern in the
Caribbean, there are some factors that can suggest that it is not a major concern, at least, for
some Caribbean territories. The reality is that the severity of flooding varies across the
region. While some Caribbean islands are prone to flooding, some are not. For example,
countries such as Guyana, Belize, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, due to their high
population density and frequent rainy seasons, tend to face recurrent flooding events.
However, some Caribbean islands, such as Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba and the Bahamas
are well known for having infrequent rainfall and are, therefore, less susceptible to flooding.
Additionally, an argument can be made that largescale flooding is often the result of
other geographical phenomena in the Caribbean such as hurricane, storm surges and
seismic activities. It follows then that flooding, in and of itself, is not a major
concern in the Caribbean as it must be considered in the context of other
geographical phenomena, which also have significant socio-economic and
environmental consequences. Furthermore, some geographical phenomena, such as
volcano eruptions and hurricanes, arguably have more far-reaching consequences
than flooding and, over the years, have led to more disruption of Caribbean
societies.
With the exception of flash floods, which are rapid and sudden, it can also be argued
that flooding is an environmental hazard that is fairly predictable. Forecasters can,
for example, tell in advance when conditions can lead to flooding and so steps can
be taken to minimize the impacts of flooding. This may suggest that flooding is not
so significant, particularly when compared to other robust environmental hazards
such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes that are impossible to predict.
In conclusion, flooding represents a formidable environmental challenge in the
Caribbean and is driven by natural and human-induced factors. The frequency and
intensity of flooding due to natural phenomena, the exacerbation of flooding by
human activities, the various impacts of flooding in the Caribbean and the high cost
associated with mitigating the risk of flooding suggest that flooding is a major
concern in the Caribbean. However, the reality is that the Caribbean islands
experience flooding differently, and so flooding is not a major concern in every
Caribbean island.
HURRICANES
Image taken from freepik.com
What is a hurricane?
• A hurricane is a severe tropical storm with low pressure system and heavy rains
and winds exceeding 119 km per hour (74 mph).
• Hurricanes originate in the tropical parts of the Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean
Sea and move generally northward.
• They lose force when they move over land or colder ocean waters. It is the heat
generated from the sea that causes the intensity of hurricanes.
• The Caribbean is prone to hurricanes due to the high amounts of humidity and
warm air produce near perfect conditions to form these hurricanes
• The hurricane season in the Caribbean starts from June and end in or about
November each year
• The Country most vulnerable to hurricanes in the Caribbean is the Bahamas
because it is located directly in the Atlantic Ocean and in the direct path of most
hurricanes formed in the Atlantic Ocean.
Features of hurricane
• Extremely low pressure
• Strong winds
• Heavy convectional rainfall
• When the eye passes there is relative calm with sinking winds
• Often last for more than a week, moving 10 to 20 miles per hour
before dying out.
• They intensify as they move by collecting heat and energy from the
ocean.
Effects of hurricanes
• Drought and heat relief due to rainfall
• High winds and storm surges
• flooding – erosion of soil and beaches
• Destruction of coral reefs which affect fishing
• Undermine agriculture – agricultural loss as staples are destroyed or washed
away and livestock are killed or displaced
• Massive destruction of buildings and other infrastructures
• Disruption of economy – tourism, mining and construction
• Impact on humans: death, displacement, financial loss, economic
deprivation etc
Some significant hurricanes that affected the Caribbean:

• 1951 – Charlie
• 1988 – Gilbert
• 1989 – Hugo
• 1992 – Andrew
• 1995- Luis and Marilyn
• 1999- Lenny, Mitch
• 2001 – Michelle
• 2004 – Ivan
• 2007 – Dean
• 2012 – Sandy
• 2017 - Irma
SOIL EROSION
What is soil erosion?
• Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of
the soil. It is caused by natural processes but human
activities can accelerate it.

• It is a gradual process that occurs when water or wind

detaches and removes soil particles which deteriorate
it.
Factors that caused soil erosion
• Quarrying and mining – major problem in countries like Jamaica
that rely heavily on bauxite
• Deforestation – major problem in Haiti and the Dominican Republic
due to a productive logging industry
• Housing construction – accelerate deforestation
• Agricultural practices – Shifting cultivation, monocropping,
overgrazing and ploughing, slash and burn, making charcoal
• Poor drainage – this is particularly true of the Caribbean
Soil conservation
Soil conservation aims to maintain the upper layer of the soil. This is meant to
prevent erosion and restore eroded land to pre-erosion conditions.
• Afforestation: Vegetation or topsoil is brought to an eroded area to produce a
dense network of roots to bind the soil together, prevent water and wind
erosion and create new organic matter to make new soils. Creating a massive
re-afforestation programme
• Replanting of vegetation after mining and quarrying activities
• Landscaping: An entire area may have to be re-sculpted into an undulated
land before afforestation
• Controlling lumbering and monitoring the logging industry – control
cutting of trees with strict penalties for illegal lumbering
Agricultural Practices:
• Fertilization: Use of fertilizes to maintain soil fertility
• Contour Ploughing: Tilling land across hillsides rather than down breaks potential natural
channels of water downslope
• Planting shelter belts: Lines of trees are planted at intervals along flat land expanses to break
the force of wind
• Intercropping/strip cropping: Neat rows between crops are avoided when different crops
are planted together at different angles
• Agroforestry: Crops such as Coffee, Cocoa, fruit trees and bananas are growing in the forest
co-existing with existing vegetation.
• Crop rotation: Each crop depletes different nutrients in the soil so different crops are planted
in succession rather than continuously so nutrients will regenerate naturally
• Terraces: Building small walls or ridges around sloping land to prevent rainfall from freely
running downwards reducing the probability of soil erosion.
• Stubble mulching: Leaving stubble residues after harvesting on the field as long as possible
helps to reduce evaporation while covering the soil
Effects of soil erosion
• Removal of valuable topsoil which undermines crop production and
reduces land productivity
• Land may become useless over time and overgrown with secondary
vegetation i.e. bush or carved into gullies or ravines
• Soil erosion near rivers from hillsides may increase sediment build-up on
riverbeds reducing river capacity.
• Pollution of rivers, lakes and water supplies
• Breakdown of infrastructures, bridges, roads and buildings.
• When coupled with hurricanes, earthquakes or any other natural disaster
eroded hillsides are more prone to create landslides or mudslides
CAPE 2013: Using examples, describe FOUR measures that can be taken to minimize
the impact of soil erosion in the Caribbean. [20 marks]

• Afforestation and reforestation – trees anchor soil and prevents the loss of topsoil
during water overflow – regulate lumber industry to prevent deforestation
• Proper farming techniques – such as crop rotation, preventing the overgrazing of
animals, windbreaking, strip cropping - prevents run offs and maintain soil dexterity
• Terrace and contour farming: Terrance farming combat erosion by planting in flat
areas created on hillsides in a step-like formation. Contour farming involves planting
along the contours of hills instead of up and down the slope. This can reduce runoff
and decrease the risk of water erosion.
• Planning and designing proper drainage systems, particularly in urban areas, to
prevent flooding and the loss of topsoil - creating dams to control water flood.
• Developing flood plains - Addressing problem areas that get lots of water runoff and
flooding. Solutions to these problem areas include redirecting stormwater and roof
runoff to areas that can settle and dissipate water, such as a rain garden and flood
plains.
Drought
Image taken from freepik.com
What is a drought?
• Drought is a temporary feature of climate where an unusually long
period of rainfall is below ‘normal’ levels in that region causing
severe depletion of the water available to all living beings
• Drought is a natural phenomenon and may occur due to changes in
relief, size and location as well as global changes in whether patterns.
• Small territories such as Antigua don’t generate much convection
rainfall; accompanied by a flat landscape reduces the likelihood of
relief rainfall so are at immense risks of drought
• Since the 1950s, the Caribbean has experienced at least 7 major
droughts. A significant occurrence of drought in recent tears occurred
between 2014 and 2016 which led to over US$14M in agricultural
losses.
• In the Greater and Lesser Antilles rainfall is influenced by the
north-east trades. Where winds rise over mountains there is
much relief rainfall.
• The physical environment conserves and stores water that can be
available in dry seasons i.e. Groundwater store. This seeps to
maintain rivers at a base level and when this is affected drought
is extremely pronounced. Like erosion drought is a creeping
hazard as the store may prevent detection for a while.
• Due to the limited access to freshwater reserves in some
Caribbean islands, particularly those with infrequent rainfall
such as Antigua and Barbuda and the Bahamas, some islands are
subjected to flash droughts. Flash droughts refer to the rapid
onset or intensification of drought.
Effects of a drought
• As soil moisture decreases, vegetation wilts and eventually dies -
encouraging soil erosion, wildfires and dust storms
• Causes food insecurity - Low soil moisture prevents or delays germination of
crops leading to low yields – leading to higher cost of food
• Reduced Groundwater stores - take a long time to be restored - river may dry
permanently
• Loss of wetlands – disturbs natural habitats and biodiversity
• Competition for water inevitably leads to conflict, with rationing of water
among socio-economic groups- This has the potential to reveal deep social
tension within Caribbean society, particularly among the rich and poor.
• Hamper economic activities that rely on water such as tourism, farming, water
attractions, hydroelectric plants etc
• Negative impact on the health of people – dehydration – diseases due to poor
hygiene – malnutrition - increase pollution
Minimizing the Impact of Droughts
Like most natural disasters, droughts cannot be prevented. However, steps
can be taken to reduce the impact of droughts.

• Proper soil and crop management: (a) Regulating agricultural and

irrigation patterns to prevent the loss or misuse of water; (b) mulching in
dry areas to reduce the loss of moisture from soil; (c) Planting water
resistant plants and crops such as corn, yam, okra, millet etc. These crops
require less water than others once they are established and have other
favourable conditions to grow
• Improve water storage mechanisms at the micro and macro levels
• Rainwater harvesting – catching rainwater for use
• Rationing water in certain areas and communities
• Research and prediction – drought is fairly predication compared to other
natural disasters due to satellites, rainfall levels – this means putting plans
in place from early
• Education - Educating people on how to preserve and store water in times
of drought
 OVERALL IMPACT
OF NATURAL
DISASTERS ON
CARIBBEAN
SOCIETY

CAPE 2008
Discuss the social and economic
impact of natural disasters on the
Caribbean. [30 marks]
SOCIAL IMPACT
• Loss of life (several deaths at a single point) – increases mortality
• Disturbance of social activities
• Migration as people migrate to other countries that do not experience
natural disasters that are prone to the Caribbean.
• Conflict over scarce resources, such as water and food
• Health risks – polluted water, lack of water, food shortage
• Causes food insecurity
• Regional and/or international cooperation to facilitate recovery
• Weakened stability of a government due to worsening public poverty and
increased borrowing from and dependence on other countries
• Increase poverty
• Widen the gap between the rich and the poor
ECONOMIC IMPACT
• Economic displacement causes loss of jobs, loss of capital/raw
materials/machines
• Damage to property – farms and factories
• Damage to facilitating infrastructure, such as telephone lines and roads as
well as loss of electricity
• Opportunities for short-term as well as long-term employment in rebuilding
and recovery efforts - Create work for social workers, engineers etc
• Increase in the cost and/or importation of some goods which become scarce
because of the disaster
• Increase in demand and/or importation for some goods, such as those used in
rebuilding
• Increase poverty due to loss of jobs or unemployment
CULTURAL IMPACT
• Loss of important cultural artefacts, monuments, and heritage
sites
• Creation of interesting landmarks e.g., Port Royal in Jamaica
which is known for the earthquake of 1692
• Cultural diffusion as persons migrate from disaster-affected
areas
• Heightened awareness of events/hazards as seen in drills and
media programmes for education
• Changes in architecture and settlement patterns
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
• Enhancement of soil fertility – volcanoes
• Pollution of water bodies – from silting, soil erosion and
landslides, etc.
• Air pollution from volcanic emissions, such as ash and
toxic gases
• Enhance land pollution
• Improve air quality in the case of a hurricane
• Change in the landscape, resulting from landslides or the
effects of floods (coastal and riverine)
• Influence climate change
CAPE 2017

Individuals, more than governments, have a responsibility to mitigate the effects of natural
disasters. Discuss the extent to which it is the responsibility of individuals rather than
governments to mitigate the effects of natural disasters. [30 marks]

ANSWER PLAN:

Introduction: Explain the concept of natural disasters and outline the various natural
disasters that affect the Caribbean such as hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis,
flooding, droughts and so on. Point out the significance of mitigation in the context of
natural disasters, being that, while it is sometimes difficult to predict or prevent natural
disasters, mitigation aims to reduce the impacts of natural disasters.

Body: Give arguments for and against whether Individuals rather than governments have a
responsibility to mitigate the effects of natural disasters (SEE POINTS ON NEXT SLIDES)

Conclusion: Point out that both the individuals and government have a role in mitigating
the effects of natural disasters. Their roles are often dependent on the type, nature and scale
of the disasters. Best approach is probably collaboration.
Arguments that support that individuals have a significant role in the
mitigation of effects of natural disasters

• Individuals are usually the first to feel the impact of natural disasters which
makes necessary for them to mitigate these impacts.
• Individuals contribute significantly to the cause and intensity of some
natural disasters such as floods and droughts due to individual actions such
as pollution, poor water management practices and poor waste management
practices. This means that they should play a role in mitigating the impacts
of natural disasters. Even so, their individual activities can exacerbate the
impact of the natural disasters. For example, pollution makes hurricanes
and floods more detrimental and impactful.
• Individuals have a personal and moral duty to take care of themselves, their
families and their environment. This means that they have a moral duty to
mitigate the impacts of natural disasters.
• Certain mitigation strategies relating to natural disasters such as
conservation, recycling and proper waste management are only effective if
done at the micro grassroot levels or at the community level.
Arguments that support that the government has a significant role in the
mitigation of effects of natural disasters

• The government has a legal and moral duty to safeguard the citizens of a country
form the effects of natural disasters – Through a social contract, people elect
government officials to create policies, initiatives and programmes to protect
them, their families and their environment.
• The government has the manpower and resources to create large scale mitigation
strategies to safeguard people from the harms of natural disasters
• Individuals pay taxes to government agencies and bodies. This means that the
government should have the financial resources to devise effective mitigation
strategies for natural disasters
• Some natural disasters are macro issues that affect a vast number of people in a
short space of time. This means that there must be a neutral third party, such as
the government, that can step in and help people during disasters.
• The effects of natural disasters are far-reaching. Due to these effects, the
government has the greatest incentive to mitigate the effects of natural disasters so
as to prevent long term disruption of socio-economic, political and cultural
structures. Mitigating natural disasters is essential for preserving socio-economic,
political, and cultural stability, making it imperative for governments to take
proactive measures.
CORAL
REEFS
Image taken from freepik.com
What are coral reefs?
• Coral Reefs are large strips of wave resistant rocks
built up by carbonate organisms (coral polyps) lying
close to the surface of the sea. They are generally
cemented together to form a physical structure

• Although corals look like rocks, they are alive.

Corals are in fact animals. A reef is made of
thousands of coral polyps that attach themselves
together and to other objects.

• Coral polyps thrive in shallow, warm, nutrient poor,

tropical water.
• The Caribbean is believed to have at least 10% of the world’s
coral reefs. The reefs in the region feature a huge diversity of
bright coral species and provide homes for vast numbers of fish.

• With recent estimates, the Caribbean coral reefs have 65 species

of hard corals, and almost 700 fish species. The main fish species
include parrot fish, angelfish, snapper and groupers. Other marine
life that live within coral reefs are sponges, algae, sea urchins
and shellfish.

• The Caribbean has the world’s second largest barrier reef (being
the largest in the northern hemisphere) found off the coast of
Belize – the Belize Barrier Reef.
Value of Corals Reefs to the Caribbean
• Tourism – promotes ecotourism – Bucco Reef in Trinidad and the
Coral Gardens in Dominica – cultural significance
• Coastline protection from wave erosion – coral reefs break the speed
of waves as they approach the coast - protects coastal villages, coastal
lowlands and hotels from marine destruction
• Act as storm barrier during storm surges.
• Feeding ground for fishes such as parrot fish. This enhances fishing
in the Caribbean and ensure a rich supply of seafood
• Beaches – aesthetic value – Biodiversity – coral reefs help to produce
sand by harbouring fishes such as parrot fish
• Medicinal value – anti-cancer drug and anti-biotics, bone implants –
use in the cosmetic industry
Threats to Coral Reefs
• Climate change – rising tides and ocean warming – leads to coral bleaching
• Tourism – snorkelling, deep diving etc – destroy fragile coral reefs which can easily
be broken – displace fishes from their natural habitats within corals
• Overfishing – overfishing certain fishes such as parrot fish – parrot fish eat the
parasites that can make coral diseased.
• Pollution – Pollutants from the coast can come in contact with the corals and
suffocate them. Some pollutants also contribute to ocean acidification and ocean
warming which leads to coral bleaching.
• Coastal Development – brings pollutants into contact with corals and can disturb
coastal ecosystems. Coastal development often leads to sedimentation which cause
sediments to come in contact with corals and suffocate them. Sediments cover the
corals and prevent them from getting sunlight and oxygen.
• Invasive fish species – Lionfish – which eats parrot fish and other marine fish that
help to keep corals clean.
Human threats to coral reefs
• Deforestation – increasing water turbidity from erosion, etc.
• Urban settlements near the coast and the pollution from them disturbs the
ecological connection of the reef and fisheries
• Harvesting the reef itself for sale
• Sewage near the coast causes eutrophication, killing and choking coral.
Eutrophication occurs when certain chemicals allow microorganisms and
algae to grow at a rapid rate which have the potential to suffocate the coral.
• Poisonous industrial effluence
• Hot water from power plants affects sea temperatures – leads to coral
bleaching – corals can only survive at a particular temperature
• Overfishing and destructive fishing techniques such as dynamite fishing
CAPE 2013
Examine FOUR factors which have caused coral reefs in the Caribbean to be
threatened with extinction. Include examples in your response. [20 marks]

• Climate change – rising sea levels and temperatures leading to the coral
bleaching
• Increased extraction of corals from the Caribbean to use in cosmetic and
medicine, e.g. Coral reefs in the Bahamas and Cayman Islands are extracted to be
used in the making of make-up and eyelashes
• Tourism activities e.g., diving and snorkelling – little regulations within the
tourism industry to promote sustainable tourism
• Deforestation – leads to increased runoffs into the sea
• Water and land pollution - fertilizer and chemicals enter the sea - destroy corals
by causing algae and microorganisms to grow rapidly – suffocate corals
• Overfishing – impair the balance of the ecosystems within corals – fish are
needed to clean the corals and keep them healthy
• Lack of knowledge about the importance of corals – Caribbean people are often
oblivious. They do not understand the many benefits of corals to the survival of
our socio-economic practices.
CAPE 2009

Examine THREE measures that Caribbean countries can implement to

minimise the danger posed to coral reefs in the region. [20 marks]

CAPE 2021

Coral reefs across the Caribbean are in danger of extinction. Examine four
ways in which citizens and/or the private sector can help to protect coral
reefs. [20 marks]

• SUGGESTED POINTS ON NEXT SLIDE

• Sustainable fishing – fish help to maintain the health of corals and the
proper ecosystem around corals – fish each parasites and algae that can
prevent corals from becoming diseased or safeguard them from suffocation
• Development of Marine Protected areas around corals – restrict fishing
periods and seasons, certain ships and certain fishing practices
• Education - Educating the public on the importance of coral reefs
• Promoting sustainable tourism practices - monitoring tourism attractions
that rely on coral reefs –
• Conserve water and reduce water pollution – prevents runoff into the sea
and safeguard corals from harsh chemicals and pollutants
• Reducing carbon footprint which lessens the impact of climate change –
increased sea temperature is destroying Caribbean corals
• Proper farming techniques - reduces runoffs into water and minimize the
impact of chemicals and fertilizers entering the sea
• Recycling and reusing materials
IMPACT OF
SOCIETAL
INSTITUTIONS
 WHAT ARE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS?
• Social Institutions are vital for the continuation of society.
• Society evolves from the social interaction of people. These
interactions became behaviours over time. When these
behaviours become established or standardized, they become
social institutions.
• Hence, social institutions are the established or standardized
patters of behaviors in a society that are based on the
relationship between people. They shape the way people
think and behave in a society.
• Each society agree on certain arrangements which
manifest themselves in institutions to ensure that a set
of values, norms and beliefs dictate the way they
direct their lives, interactions and thoughts.
• Examples of social institutions include education,
religion, mass media, government (justice system),
family, peer group.
• These social institutions work together to preserve
social order and ensure social control.
• However, they all have distinctive functions.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOCIAL
INSTITUTION
All social institutions exhibit the following characteristics:

(a) Intangible – not capable of being touched or not having a physical substance.
(b) Manifested in social organizations e.g., a church, a school, a prison. The
social organizations may give social institution a tangible appearance, but it is
really just an idea and belief held by people.
(c) Purposeful – serves a purpose
(d) Based on ideas and beliefs
(e) Comprised of norms, values and roles
(f) Stability – longevity over time
(g) Has established rules and sanctions to govern behaviour
 IMPACTS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
The four social institution that will be considered in
detail are:

• Family
• Education
• Religion
• Justice System
THE FAMILY
*Image taken from freepik.com
What is the family?
• A family is a group of people who are related, either
by blood, marriage or adoption, living within the
same household.
• These individuals support and maintain each other
socially, economically and emotionally.
Types of Families
There are various types of families in the Caribbean:

• NUCLEAR – consists of two cohabitating adults, a man and a woman, joined by

marriage, and their children living under the same roof. The nuclear family is
often seen as the most ideal family modern industrial societies. However, this
family type has been altered in the Caribbean due to our historical experiences
and could be manifested as:
(a) Common law households – In this version of the nuclear family, the
cohabitating adults are not joined by marriage. Several laws have been
enacted in various Caribbean countries to legally recognize common law
households and so each individual would have established rights over the
passage of time.
(b) A visiting household – In this version of the nuclear family, the mother and
children may live separately from the father who visits them from time to
time and will still provide for them financially.
• EXTENDED– The extended family extends beyond the nuclear
family, i.e. consists of members which extend beyond a mother, father
and their children. Indeed, it could consist of aunts, uncles,
grandparents and cousins all living under the same household.

• In the Caribbean, extended families are appreciated by people of

African and Asian descent. During plantation slavery, slaves survived
mainly through extended households. When the Asians to the
Caribbean, they brough with them an appreciation for extended
household because of its many financial benefits.
• Afro and Indo Caribbean families are generally extended and
patriarchal in nature.
• The extended family is generally favoured by Caribbean people due to
its many benefits: pooling of resources, parental guidance for
children, the presence of several disciplinary figures, cultural
transmission and emotional support.
• SINGLE PARENT – A single parent family is one that has only one parent and
his/her children. This generally happens for different reasons including death,
divorce and choice. Historically, in the Caribbean the mother is left to take care of
children when fathers abandon the household which results in matrifocal households.
Matrifocality is a defining feature of Afro-Caribbean families, in particular, and
could be linked to the legacy of slavery in the Caribbean.

• REORGANIZED/RECONSTITUTED – This is a family that is established when

one two different families come together through marriage. One of the spouses may
have been broken through death of a spouse or divorce. Hence, upon marriage, a
spouse or both spouses bring into the new family a child or children from former
relationships. These families have several advantages such as parental guidance
for children and financial support/stability.

• SIBLING – This is a family in which younger children are left in the care of older
children and the parents are absent from the household. In the Caribbean, this is
often due to migration in which parents would leave children to seek employment
opportunities in more developed countries. In recent years, the feminization of
migration means that more women are leaving the Caribbean to seek employment
opportunities leaving their children behind.
 Features of Caribbean Families
(A) Afro-Caribbean families: (i) the absent of fathers, (ii) grandmother
dominated households (iii) characterized by the marital, common-law and
visiting union (iii) normally matrifocal in nature

(A) Chinese-Caribbean families: (i) retain the cultures, traditions and

customs of China (ii) provide education for all their children but favor
sons over daughters (iii) families are very stable and isolated from others
(iv) extended in nature

(A) Indo-Caribbean families: (i) stress roles of the members – father is the
authority figure, provider and head of the family, mother is the caretaker
and children bring honor to the household and take care of parents in old
age (ii) Great emphasis on the extended family structure (ii) inferior roles
of women – however, with greater education for women and increased
economical opportunities, status of women is increasing (iv) strong
adherence to traditional Indian values, customs and religions
Diversity in Caribbean Families: An Explanation
The diversity in Caribbean Families can be explained by:
(A) African Retentions – African slaves carried their family patterns to the Caribbean
such as polygamy and extended households but had to modify them due to effects
of slavery. For example, matrifocality in the Caribbean can be blamed on the fact
that in West Africa, men practiced polygamy, but in the Caribbean, they cannot take
care of their many children and abandoned the home.
(B) Plantation Slavery – planters rejected legal unions and encouraged extended
households.
(C) Indentureship – Asians took to the Caribbean patrilineal beliefs and an
appreciation of the extended household. They preferred traditional unions rather
than legal unions
(D) Poverty and socio-economic conditions – Caribbean people develop different
variations of families to cope with their socio-economic conditions e.g., common
law unions, extended families, sibling households, and visiting unions.
(E) Changing roles of Caribbean women
Impact of the Family
In considering the impact of the family, it is necessary to
consider different perspectives: Functionalism and Marxism.

• Functionalism considers the positive impacts of social

institutions which leads to social order and consensus.
• Marxism considers the exploitive nature of social institutions
which results in social conflict and disharmony. Marxists
hold the belief that social institutions are shaped by the ruling
class (bourgeoisies) to exploit the working class
(proletariat).
• Functionalists are of the view that the family is a vital social institution because it
fulfils several functions for the continuation of society. These functions include
reproduction, socialization, economic and affection (provision of love and a sense
of belonging).

(a) Reproduction – fulfilling the “sex need” for cohabitating adults and having
children to replenish the population
(b) Educational – early socialization for children; assist the school in continuing
education at home; supervising children and give them advice etc
(c) Economic – provision of money and goods to satisfy the basic needs of its
members
(d) Cultural – the transmission of culture from one generation to another; the
creation of new cultures; the preservation of traditions, customs and values
(e) Socialization – teaches children values, norms and cultures
(f) Identity – sense of belonging, sense of self
• Marxists argue that the family is filled with exploitation,
oppression and domination.
• They consider the subordinate roles of women and
children in the household.
• They agree that the family has reproductive and socialization
functions but argue that these are influenced by capitalism.
Indeed, the family needs to reproduce workers for the
capitalists and need to socialize them into the values and
norms of capitalist societies.
• They argue that problems in the family such as child abuse,
domestic violence, poverty, alcoholism and adultery are
caused by capitalism.
CAPE 2012
Examine THREE ways in which the family, as a social institution, impacts on society
and culture in the Caribbean.
[20 marks]

(a) Cultural Transmission – passage of culture from one generation to another –

preserves Caribbean cultural and art forms, heritage, language, religion – adopted
by younger generation
(b) Socialization and education – socializing Caribbean people into the norms,
values and mores of the family and society – Children are the products of their
family – socialization also aligns with gender roles and role allocation in society
(c) Sense of identity for Caribbean people – Caribbean people are products of their
family which gives them an identity.
(d) Social Order and Control – ensure order and control through early socialization
and giving members responsibilities for others – Functionalists vs Marxist’s
perspective of the family
(e) Economic wellbeing of members and society – family ensure the economic well
being of its members often through pooling resources. Consider the significance
of the extended family. Family members often rely on each other for childcare,
elder care, and financial assistance, reinforcing a sense of solidarity and mutual
obligation.
EDUCATION
*Image taken from freepik.com
What is education?
• Education in a society is concerned with the systematic
transmission of that society’s knowledge.
• It ensures the transmission of basic facts, job skills, cultural
norms and values to the members of society.
• Education may be formal, in that, persons are specifically
taught the values, norms and cultures of society through formal
institutions such as the school.
• Education may be informal which occurs naturally when a
person learns in an unplanned and unstructured manner.
Historical development of Education in the Caribbean
• Education had always been valued in the Caribbean.
• In the pre-emancipation era, education was limited to whites and blacks
were excluded. Planters feared educating slaves as this will normally spark
rebellions.
• Until the 1820s, most slaves when without formal education and it was with
the help of the missionaries that some were taught to read and write.
• In the post-emancipation era, educational facilities were poor. The colonial
leaders felt that it was useless to develop schools and favoured an
uneducated workforce.
• The missionaries who created free villages helped to develop schools and
as the ex-slaves became wealthy through peasantry they had a strong desire
to educate their children.
• Most of the Indians who came to the region during Indentureship were
excluded from educational opportunities.
• Until the 1900s, most of the colonies, save and except, for Jamaica
went without formal educational institutions.
• Those that were developed in the early 1900s, were developed by
black leaders and adhered to a great extent to the educational
principles and curriculum of Britain.
• By the 1930s, more blacks became involved in politics and felt that
education was essential to national progress and productivity. More
formal schools, with the aid of the Church, were developed.
• By 1940s, regional unity led to the development of the University of
the West Indies, founded in 1948, which changed the face of
education in the region.
• For most parts, the post-emancipation period saw increase in
secondary schools and with further reforms more Caribbean
people were able to seek educational opportunities.
Impact of Education
Overall, education has the following impacts on Caribbean Society and
Culture:
• Cultural transmission/socialization - socializing children in the
Cultures of society (formally)
• Promotion of nationalism – education reinforces nationalist ideals,
policies and objectives
• Social Mobility – Black people and women
• Improvement in people’s quality of lives through the expansion of the
middle and upper classes
• Changing the roles and perspectives of women who gravitated
towards education and were able to seek employment opportunities.
Men are now the disadvantaged gender in education. Education has
been seen as a great tool for gender equality.
• Breakdown of stratification system based on race and colour which is
now based on meritocracy. The emergence of a class system of
stratification is closely associated with education. However, education can
also promote inequality because it widens the divide between the rich
and the poor.
• Improve literacy of Caribbean people.
• Led to the occupational reconstruction of the Caribbean – people
started to seek middle class jobs which require educational qualification.
Less reliance of manual labour.
• Breakdown of colonialism – education has been the best way for
Caribbean people to break down colonial ties. Schools were created to
educate Caribbean people on their history and teach them black pride.
Changes in Caribbean curricula in recent years through educational
reforms.
• Exposure Caribbean people/children to other cultures through
technology and extra-curricular activities
• Social Order and Control
ANSWER PLAN:

• Outline what is colonialism and the historical development of the Caribbean –we are a
product of colonialism.
• Education –colonial agenda –promotes ideals and ideas, norms and values that are or
were related to the colonial society –Students were taught about the history,
literature, geography of England and not the Caribbean
• Shirley Gordon (1963) –Gordon formed the view that education in the Caribbean is
highly colonial in nature.
• Church and Education –Baptist church –Caribbean people are asked to accept the
teachings of the bible and Christianity
• Education has been tied to our stratification system –race, colour and class –limits the
opportunities for people of poor socio-economic backgrounds, and black people in
particular
• Education being used in the pre-independence era, to push Caribbean people into the
sugar industry and the service industry
• Education has transformed significantly in the Caribbean since the post-
independence era…. Evidence throughout, for example, changes in the curricula in
which we are taught things about the Caribbean, the CXC (Caribbean Examination
Council), the co-educational system and the declined influence of the Church in
education.
 PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

CAPE 2010:

Describe THREE ways in which education facilitated the colonial

agenda in the Caribbean. [20 marks]

CAPE 2013:

Assess the ways in which colonial education impacted the formation of

Caribbean society and culture. [30 marks]

NB: Both questions above have the same elements and so would
have the same approach.
RELIGION
*Image taken from freepik.com
What is religion?
• Religion is a set of symbols, invoking feelings of reverence or awe,
and is linked to rituals or ceremonies in which a community of
believers participates.
• It revolves around a deity or a supernatural being
• There are several established religions in the Caribbean such as
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism.
• The main religion in the Caribbean is Christianity which is divided
into various sects, denominations and churches.
• However, there are several indigenous religions that have gain
prominence in the region Ras Tafari, Voodoo, Santeria, Shouter
Baptism, Comfa (Guyana), Revivalism and so forth.
Historical development of Religion in the Caribbean
• Pre-Columbian Era (up to the late 1400s) – Taino and Kalinago people believed
in spiritualism and ritualism
• Early 1500s – Spanish colonialization which led to introduction of Christianity
(particularly, Roman Catholicism)
• Early 1600s – English colonization which expanded Christianity (particularly,
Anglicanism)
• 1600s- 1800s- Other Europeans facing religious persecution in Europe came to the
Caribbean e.g., Huguenots, Calvinists etc
• 1600s-1800s- African slaves took their religious beliefs to the Caribbean but were
punished for practising them. They merged them with Christian beliefs to create
hybrid religions
• In the post-emancipation period, the Africans expanded their religion: Voodoo,
Revivalism, Rastafarism which became religions with their own norms and values.
• Early 1800s – Asians came to the Caribbean during indentureship and brought
with them Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism – Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and
Jamaica
• Early 1900s – People from the Middle East (Syria etc) came to the Caribbean
fleeing from religious persecution and taking their religion with them, such as
Islam and Sikhism
Impact of religion
Functionalists
• Religion promotes social order and cohesion in society.
• Religion leads to a collective conscience.
• Religion creates a sense of belonging.
• Religion is the worshiping of society. In participating in religion, people are
conforming to societal norms and rules.

Marxists
• Religion is the opium of the people. It acts like a drugs that dulls the sense.
• It leads to false-class consciousness – exploit the working class. For
example, people are told to accept their poverty and suffering because there
is a heaven and God will reward them
• Religion is an illusion that distract people from the evils of capitalism and
lets them ignore discrimination, oppression and poverty
Overall, religion has the following impact on Caribbean society and culture:

(a) Social change – religion has played a significant role in social changes in
the Caribbean such as emancipation of slaves, women’s right, breakdown
of social stratification, education of people
(b) Education – Missionaries created schools in the post-emancipation
period. Schools have always had a religions underpinning in the
Caribbean.
(c) Sense of belonging and community
(d) Social Order and Control
(e) Promotion of tolerance but can be the source of conflict and
stratification e.g., Christianity and other religions, and the indigenous
religions in the Caribbean
(f) Influence the legal system – Many laws are based on religious
explanations in the Caribbean. Consider the Ten Commandments and
laws against homosexuality.
(g) Resistance of Colonialism – Caribbean people used religion to break
colonial ties through the creation of several indigenous religions e.g.,
Rastafarism and Voodoo
CAPE 2021
Christianity has played a major role in the formation of the values and beliefs of
Caribbean people. Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement. [30 marks]

• Promotion of Christian values and mores – love, forgiveness, hope and faith
• Aid with the development of Caribbean education system – Historically, the church
has influenced education. Schools were led by churches before the government took
control.
• Influence the legal system – many laws are based on Christian principles and values.
• Promote order and solidarity within the Caribbean – Religious doctrine instil
obedience in the values of society and laws
• Christianity has promoted religious intolerance – most Christians are intolerant of other
religions
• Help to break colonialism in the Caribbean – Baptist church etc
• Many practices such as homosexuality, abortion, prostitution are not supported by
Caribbean people because of their Christian values – Continues to shape the morals of
Caribbean people
• Historically, slaves in the Caribbean took solemn in religion – Christianity is
therefore associated with oppression and repression.
THE JUSTICE SYSTEM
*Image taken from freepik.com
What is the justice system?
•The justice system refers to the ideas and beliefs
in a society about protecting and preserving the
rights and obligations of the citizens of a country.
•People look towards the justice system to secure
their rights.
•Manifestation of the justice system includes the
police, the law makers (legislatures) and the
court (judiciary).
• The justice system in the Caribbean has often been accused of being
“colonial” in nature. This is because the Caribbean continues to rely
on the laws and legal practices adopted from the countries that
colonized the regions in the 1500s.
• At independence, Caribbean countries adopted forms of the
Westminster Model of Government – a democratic, parliamentary
system of government with a head of state and head of
government
• The Caribbean has developed several courts to ensure human rights
and to prosecute the laws in the region. However, some Caribbean
countries still rely on the Privy Council in England as their final Court
for disputes. Some have replaced the Privy Council with the
Caribbean Court of Justice.
• All Caribbean Countries accept the original jurisdiction of the CCJ
but not all accept the appellate jurisdiction.
Impact of Justice System: Theoretical perspectives
Functionalist
• Preserves social order and solidarity
• Equity among all people
• Crime and deviance comes about because of a breakdown of society

Marxists
• Promotes inequality and disunity
• The ruling class controls the justice system and prosecute the working
class . The laws are created by the ruling class.
• Working class is unaware of how unfair the justice system is because
of false-class consciousness
Overall, the justice system has the following effects on Caribbean society and
culture:

(a) Social order and social control – prevents crime and deviance
(b) Preservation of established social norms, values and beliefs
(c) Protect the rights of minorities, indigenous people, women and minors
(d) Works with other social institutions to ensure order, e.g., family and
religion
(e) Can be biased and unfair for some Caribbean people, especially those
from poor socio-economic background despite its heavy emphasis on
“equality before the law”. Constitutions can restrict the rights of some
people, e.g. children and criminals are not allowed to vote
(f) Solve social ills over time. When a problem arises, laws are created to
solve that problem or minimize the effects of that problems
CAPE 2006
Examine at least FOUR challenges being faced by the justice system in Caribbean
society and culture today. [20 marks]

• Lack of training for police officers and other law enforcement officers
• Outdated laws which are ineffective in preventing or deterring crime – In the
Caribbean, some of our laws are obsolete, does not correspond with our
contemporary morals or values and were written in the colonial period.
• Limited resources – limited funds to fix infrastructure and purchase materials
such as weapons, vehicles, protective gears etc
• Lack of manpower juxtaposed to the large Caribbean population – only a
few police officers in a population of millions e.g., Haiti, Jamaica and Trinidad
• Limited investment in technology infrastructures – crimes are getting more
complex and difficult to solve in the Caribbean
• Problems associated with the jury system – easy to corrupt, lack of knowledge
of the law, can easily be misdirected by the Judge.
• Increase in the levels of crime and violence – children are also getting more
violent due to their increased exposure to crime and violence.
CAPE 2008
Examine THREE ways in which the justice system, as a
social institution, impacts on society and culture.
[20 marks]

SEE POINTS ON WORKSHEET