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COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
AND HISTOLOGY
A MOUSE, RAT, AND HUMAN ATLAS
Second Edition
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Comparative Anatomy
and Histology
A MOUSE, RAT, AND HUMAN ATLAS
Second Edition
EDITED BY
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with
organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be
noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their
own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury
and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-802900-8
CHAPTER 6↜╅ NOSE, SINUS, PHARYNX, AND LARYNX╅ Bronchi to Terminal Bronchioles╅ 151
Jack R. Harkema, Stephan A. Carey, James G. Wagner, Gross Anatomyâ•… 151
Suzanne M. Dintzis and Denny Liggitt Histologyâ•…152
Respiratory Zoneâ•… 156
Introductionâ•… 89 Gross Anatomyâ•… 156
Nose and Sinusâ•… 90 Histologyâ•…156
Gross Anatomyâ•… 90 Lung Circulatory Systemâ•… 159
Preparation of Nasal Tissues for Microscopic Examâ•… 92 Gross Anatomyâ•… 159
Histologyâ•…94 Histologyâ•…159
Other Nasal Cavity Featuresâ•… 103 Pleuraâ•…159
Pharynx and Larynxâ•… 105 Gross Anatomyâ•… 159
Gross Anatomyâ•… 105 Histologyâ•…160
Preparation of Rodent Pharynx and Larynx for Further Readingâ•… 162
Microscopic Examâ•… 106
Histologyâ•…106
Further Readingâ•… 112
CHAPTER 10↜╅ C�AR�DI�OV�AS�CULAR╅
Bernard S. Buetow and Michael A. Laflamme
CHAPTER 7â•… ORAL CAVITY AND TEETHâ•… Introductionâ•… 163
Heartâ•…167
Piper M. Treuting, Thomas H. Morton Jr. and Peter Vogel Gross Anatomyâ•… 167
Introductionâ•… 115 Relative Size Considerationsâ•… 170
Oral Cavityâ•… 115 Histologyâ•…172
Gross Anatomyâ•… 115 Cardiac Valvesâ•… 178
Histologyâ•…117 Gross Anatomyâ•… 178
Teethâ•…121 Histologyâ•…178
Gross Anatomyâ•… 121 Conduction Systemâ•… 181
Histologyâ•…125 Great Vessels and Coronary Vasculatureâ•… 181
Further Readingâ•… 133 Gross Anatomyâ•… 181
Histologyâ•…184
Common Incidental Findings in Rodentsâ•… 187
CHAPTER 8â•… SALIVARY GLANDSâ•…
Further Readingâ•… 188
17â•…
13↜╅
CHAPTER F�EM�ALE R�EP�RODUCTIVE SYSTEM╅
CHAPTER HEPATOBILIARY SYSTEMâ•…
Kelli L. Boyd, Atis Muehlenbachs, Mara H. Rendi,
Arlin B. Rogers and Renee Z. Dintzis Rochelle L. Garcia and Katherine N. Gibson-Corley
Introductionâ•… 229 Introductionâ•… 303
Liverâ•…230 Ovaryâ•…303
Gross Anatomyâ•… 230 Gross Anatomyâ•… 303
Histologyâ•…233 Histologyâ•…307
Gallbladderâ•…238 Oviduct (Uterine Tube)â•… 310
Further Readingâ•… 239 Gross Anatomyâ•… 310
Histologyâ•…312
Uterus and Cervixâ•… 315
CHAPTER 14↜╅PANCREAS╅ Gross Anatomy╅ 315
Histologyâ•…315
Denny Liggitt and Suzanne M. Dintzis
Vagina and Clitorisâ•… 320
Introductionâ•… 241 Gross Anatomyâ•… 320
Pancreasâ•…241 Histologyâ•…321
Gross Anatomyâ•… 241 Placentaâ•…321
Histologyâ•…243 Gross Anatomyâ•… 321
Further Readingâ•… 249 Histologyâ•…324
Further Readingâ•… 334
Preputial Glandsâ•…
Gross Anatomyâ•…
355
355 CHAPTER 21â•… SPECIAL SENSES: EYEâ•…
Histologyâ•…355 Caroline J. Zeiss, Daniel C. Tu, Isabella Phan, Rachel Wong and
Urethraâ•…357 Piper M. Treuting
Gross Anatomyâ•… 357 Introductionâ•… 445
Histologyâ•…360 The Eyeâ•… 445
Penisâ•…360 Gross Anatomyâ•… 445
Gross anatomyâ•… 360 Cornea and Scleraâ•… 446
Histologyâ•…360 Gross Anatomyâ•… 446
Further Readingâ•… 362 Histologyâ•…446
Uveaâ•…448
Gross Anatomyâ•… 448
CHAPTER 19â•… HEMATOPOIETIC AND LYMPHOID TISSUESâ•… Histologyâ•…451
Retinaâ•…455
Jerrold M. Ward, Sindhu Cherian and Michael A. Linden
Gross Anatomyâ•… 455
Introductionâ•… 365 Histologyâ•…456
Bone Marrowâ•… 365 Vitreous Chamber and Lensâ•… 460
Methodsâ•…366 Gross Anatomyâ•… 460
Histology and Cytologyâ•… 369 Histologyâ•…460
Peripheral Bloodâ•… 370 Optic Nerveâ•… 461
Methodsâ•…371 Gross Anatomyâ•… 461
Histology and Cytologyâ•… 372 Histologyâ•…463
Thymusâ•…375 Extraocular Musclesâ•… 463
Gross Anatomyâ•… 376 Gross Anatomyâ•… 463
Histologyâ•…376 Histologyâ•…463
Lymph Nodesâ•… 381 Conjunctivaâ•…463
Regional Anatomyâ•… 381 Gross Anatomyâ•… 463
Histologyâ•…385 Histologyâ•…464
Spleenâ•…390 Eyelidsâ•…464
Gross Anatomyâ•… 391 Gross Anatomyâ•… 464
Histologyâ•…391 Histologyâ•…464
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissueâ•… 397 Lacrimal Gland and Drainage Systemâ•… 467
Milky Spotsâ•… 400 Gross Anatomyâ•… 467
Acknowledgmentsâ•…400 Histologyâ•…467
Further Readingâ•… 400 The Developing Eyeâ•… 467
Further Readingâ•… 470
Carlos J. Suarez
Krista Marie DuBray La Perle
Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA,
The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine,
United States
Columbus, OH, United States
Elisabeth McInnes
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY PANEL Cerberus Sciences Ltd., Adelaide, SA, Australia
Mark J. Arends
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United David Meyerholz
Kingdom University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA,
United States
Alexander “Sandy” D. Borowsky
University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, United States Alessandra Piersigilli
Weill Cornell Medicine, New York City, NY, United States
Donna M. Bouley
Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA, Cheryl Scudamore
United States Mary Lyon Centre, MRC Harwell Institute, Harwell Campus,
Oxford, United Kingdom
Virginia L. Godfrey
University of North Carolina Medical Center, Chapel Hill, NC,
United States
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PREFACE TO THE
SECOND€EDITION
For the second edition of this atlas, we are illustrations, we are delighted to have the rat
honored to continue to work with our talented rendered in the style of medical illustrator Frank
group of first edition contributors and to welcome H. Netter, MD. We thank the Netter family and
a few new individuals to enrich the scope of Dragonfly Media Group, especially Rob Duckwall,
expertise. We thank our contributors for their for their contributions to the new rat images. The
willingness to participate in the revision and cover art for both editions was conceptualized
enthusiasm for the addition of the rat. While we and drafted by Dr. Scout Chou, whose assistance
learned much about the writing, editing, and allowed for rapid evolution of the designs with
publishing process with the first edition, there minimal revisions. We thank the members of our
were new challenges with the second edition. departments, especially Denny Liggitt, who served
We appreciate the patience and tenacity of our as support systems, contributors, and champions of
contributors, editors, and colleagues as we met this academic pursuit.
challenges and created this new edition.
To our families, we owe a significant debt as the
In addition to the contributors, there were time needed for a reference text of this scope is
many individuals who assisted in the successful hewn from weeknights, weekends, and holidays.
navigation of the revision process. We hope that We greatly appreciate their understanding and
they find the second edition worthy of their efforts. support even in the face of knowing its impact
We enlisted a group of international expert end- on family life, having lived through the process
users to critique the first edition chapters and during the first edition. Their sacrifice enabled
provide us with detailed feedback to improve this work.
our atlas. The members of this International
Advisory Panel are listed after the contributors In closing, we would like this atlas to serve as a
in the Front Matter. They are our comparative tribute to all rodents used in biomedical research.
pathology colleagues who volunteered to perform We hope to honor these critical animals by
this critical task in order to strengthen the atlas. improving the first edition and expanding it to
Their input and encouragement made writing and include rat. In doing so, the overall goal remains
editing the second edition an efficient process and the same: supporting a greater understanding of
rendered a second edition that we feel is improved the comparative anatomy of laboratory rodents
in content and layout. We thank our editors at and humans. This understanding, ultimately, will
Elsevier, Jeffery Rossetti and Pat Gonzalez, for their inform refined models of human disease and
guidance. As with the first edition mouse anatomic strategies for prevention and treatment.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FROM THE FIRST EDITION
PIPER M. TREUTING AND SUZANNE M. DINTZIS
University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
An atlas of this scope does not come together (http://histocs.com/index.html) and we thank
without the committed talents of many people. LeRoy Brown, CEO, for his assistance. Tissue
In addition to thanking the expert authors and and slide organization, virtual slide scanning,
assistant editors, we (the co-editors in chief) wish and database management were performed by
to thank the many people whose time, effort, and the expert technical staff of the University of
encouragement helped us to complete this work. Washington (UW) Histology and Imaging Core—
We humbly recognize that we may inadvertently Kerrie Allen and Brian Johnson—along with
miss some that are deserving of a personal thank- student helpers Cara Appel and Kelsie Ovenell.
you. To all who participated in this work, we are We wish to acknowledge and thank S. Chou who
thankful for you and your contributions. We hope provided encouragement for and gave form to the
that the final product serves as a proper thank-you cover art concept. She also provided a portion of
for a job well done. the final cover drawing and the Chapter 1 figures.
Sara Samuelson, S. S. Illustrations (sarasamuelson.
Gross and microscopic images are the mainstay com), provided the drawings for Chapter 20,
of this text, and obtaining publication quality including the unique rendition of the sensory and
images to compare mouse and human tissues motor musculi.
was a formidable challenge. Production of the
mouse anatomic images began with skilled and The successful completion of this work would not
detailed anatomic dissections performed in part have been possible without the collegial support
by Sue Knoblaugh. Expert macro photography of our Department Chairs: Denny Liggitt, Nelson
was provided by Gavin W. Sisk. We wish to warmly Fausto, and Tom Montine. Major contributions
thank Sue and Gavin for their efforts and good- were also provided by faculty, residents, and
natured understanding of the need to get “The students in the UW Departments of Comparative
Perfect Dissection and Shot” and tolerance of Medicine and Pathology, and by our patient
our “assistance” with their efforts. We are pleased editors at Elsevier, Mara Conner and Megan
to present the mouse anatomical preparations Wickline. Special recognition is reserved for Kathy
rendered, by Dragonfly Media Group, in the style Montine, our UW technical editor, who organized
of medical illustrator Frank H. Netter, MD. We the chapters and coordinated the submissions. Her
thank the Netter family and Elsevier for providing contribution is immeasurable both for the timely
access to Netterimages.com the Netter color completion of this work and for our collective
palette, and for great patience when working with mental health.
one of us (PT) in editing the final mouse images.
Throughout this process, we have learned to
To obtain mouse microscopic images, harvested float with the ebb and flow of the writing and
mouse tissues were processed by Histology editing process, pulling authors along with us and
Consultation Services (HCS) of Everson, WA occasionally even stalking them in order to make
xviii Acknowledgments from the First Edition
their unpaid labor a top priority—only to then edit of our academic pursuits enabled this work. We
their carefully chosen words. recognize the burden this placed on you, and we
are grateful for your willingness to cheerfully step
We suspect that most of our critical readers will be in during our absences.
pathologists and will be vociferously opinionated.
We welcome their opining along with suggestions Finally, we wish to thank the mice. It is our hope
for improvement. We recognize that there will that this Atlas will allow for greater understanding
be errors in this Atlas for which we take full of the comparative anatomy of the mouse and,
responsibility. ultimately, refined models of human disease.
of Health (NIH)–funded grants use animals; most increasingly asked to interpret rodent pathologic
of these are mouse models of human disease, lesions. Likewise, veterinary pathologists need to
many of which involve genetically engineered know more about human disease, because the
mice. Rats are used in both toxicologic and bulk of the animals they care for and work with
industrial research and genetically modified rats arise from funded research on human disease.
are poised to compete with mice in their use In addition, many new rodent investigators are
as genetically modified models. The perceived eager to acquire training in comparative pathology
value of mice and rats is to model the human that will assist them in planning experiments and
condition and to support hypothesis-generating interpreting results. Because formal training in
and hypothesis-testing research. Rodent models of rodent pathology to support translational research
human disease have proven valuable to biomedical is limited, the research community looks to novel
research, but only with appropriate validation solutions such as online training academies or
and careful translation of rodent data to human annual intensive laboratory animal pathology
systems. Validation of rodent models as defined workshops to bring together geographically
by Cardiff and colleagues involves determining and culturally dispersed comparative pathology
to what extent the attributes of the experimental experts. There are numerous online resources
system (in this case, the rodent phenotype) match and journal articles, rodent pathology atlases,
the attributes of human disease. As the phenotype laboratory animal pathology mini courses,
of the human disease or condition being modeled and ever-expanding virtual communities of
becomes more complex, the validity of the rodent comparative pathologists that in concert serve to
model becomes more important. A rodent model train individuals interested in expanding their
that is not appropriately validated does not comparative pathology skills.
value the use of those animals, wastes research
dollars, and can even result in risks to humans To this growing body of knowledge, our modest
if preclinical data are incorrectly translated to contribution is a side-by-side comparison of normal
human patients. mouse, rat, and human tissue that highlights the
unique morphophysiology of the rodent, which
Validation of rodent models through phenotyping has great impact on its histopathology. Although
(discussed in Chapter 2: Phenotyping) in order to most tissues at the level of the light microscope
translate of experimental findings in mice and rats are similar among Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus,
to human disease is best done by a comparative and Homo sapiens, there are critical differences
pathologist and requires a broad and unique skill (Table 1.1); in order to understand differences
set covering rodent and human anatomy, histology, arising from various models, normal must be
and pathobiology. Formally trained comparative recognized. Recognition of these differences
pathologists understand how a research question begins with anatomic directional terms and planes
may be impacted by the interplay of the rodent’s of section, which vary between the quadruped
background strain, genetic manipulations, rodent and biped human (Fig. 1.1 and Tables 1.2
breeding schema, sex, housing, diet, age, and and 1.3). Use of appropriate directional rodent
intercurrent pathogenic or commensal organisms. terms and their human analogs is important in
Unfortunately the population of formally trained effective communication about rodent models
comparative pathologists is not increasing of human disease. This atlas strives to establish a
as rapidly as that of rodents. Instead, in our reliable baseline in order to fill a gap in rodent
experiences at the University of Washington, phenotypic evaluation in translational research
we recognize that medical pathologists are settings. To observe and measure deviants, normal
CHAPTER 1 - Introduction 3
must be well understood. Only then can phenotypic more complex, is not within the scope of this
differences in the vast array of human disease atlas. Together with the educational resources
models be understood and appreciated. We hope noted previously, this atlas provides practical
this reference helps improve communication information to improve technical proficiency in
between veterinary and medical pathologists, basic comparative rodent and human anatomy and
and among rodent investigators, regarding histology. Perhaps just as importantly, we hope this
normative structures. Pathology of disease, in atlas will provide insight into when it is prudent to
which the debate regarding terminology is even enlist the aid of an expert.
4 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY
(A) (B)
Superior
Cranial (cranial)
Rostral
Dorsal
l
im a
x
Pro
Caudal
Anterior Posterior
(ventral) (dorsal)
Radial
Palmar
Ventral Dorsal
al
Dist
Lateral
Dorsal
Ulnar
Medial
Medial L L
a a
t t
e e
r r
a a
Plantar l l
Inferior
Caudal (caudal)
(C) (D)
Posterior
(dorsal)
Anterior
(ventral)
Transverse
plane
Transverse Superior
plane (cranial)
Dorsal Inferior
(caudal)
Dorsal
Ventral plane
FIGURE 1.1 Anatomic Directional Terms and Planes of Section. (A) Rodent (mouse). (B) Human. Directional terminology
in quadrupeds include ventral and dorsal, whereas for bipeds the favored terms are anterior and posterior. Cranial and caudal
are the quadruped synonyms for bipedal superior and anterior. In all three species, proximal and distal are used on the
appendicular regions, medial and lateral used to refer to relative positions to the center of the body, dorsal/palmar and dorsal/
plantar are used on forefeet/hands and feet, respectively. (C) Quadruped (Goat). (D) Biped (Human). Shown are the planes
of a quadruped goat and a bipedal human. The midsagittal plane divides the body exactly in half, into right and left portions.
The frontal plane divides the front and back, and the transverse plane divides the body into upper and lower portions. Source:
(A and B) Drawing by Dr. S. Chou, Charles River, with permission; (C and D) Modified after: OpenStax, Animal Form and
Function. OpenStax CNX. June 26, 2013 http://cnx.org/contents/44503b54-9a4c-40c4-ae59-369526d2f9ef@8.
CHAPTER 1 - Introduction 5
C57BL/6 Mice as
Atlas Scope
Index Strain
There are many mouse background strains used in
and Design
biomedical research, and each has peculiarities in The subsequent chapters will introduce readers
physiology and occasionally anatomic structures. to many of the unique differences among mouse,
The C57BL/6 mouse is the most commonly used rat, and human gross and histologic anatomy. This
mouse strain in academic institutions. This is likely atlas is not meant to be a comprehensive review of
due to the use of C57BL/6 blastocysts for targeted all histologic, biologic, and physiologic differences
6 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY
between rodents and humans or between rodents biopsied in young adults or when presenting the
of different background strains. Nor is it a the entire tissue (e.g., the eye). The difference
comprehensive histology atlas detailing cellular in sizes between mouse, rat, and human bodies,
structure to the level of the election microscope or organs and tissues makes it challenging to capture
immunologic identification of subsets of cells or subgross and histologic images at the same
tissues. We focus on differences between mouse, magnification, because this would result in poorly
rat, and human tissues encountered in routinely oriented and minuscule rodent images. Instead,
processed sections fixed by immersion in 10% we have optimized magnifications for ease of
neutral buffered formalin and visualized with visualization, most often capturing mouse images
hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Unless at a higher magnification than rat or human.
otherwise noted, all histologic images are stained There are notable exceptions where we have
with H&E. noted original magnifications or commented on
the sizing differences. Micrometer bars are not
The chapters follow a similar format, describing included on the majority of images.
gross anatomical structure first followed by
histologic descriptions. In most instances, the FURTHER READING AND
order of discussion is rodent then human, with
RELEVANT WEBSITES
any differences between mice and rats covered. Barthold SW: “Muromics”: genomics from the perspective of
We designed this atlas to be an easy and practical the laboratory mouse. Comp Med 52:206–223, 2002.
reference for the busy investigator. Key differences Barthold SW, Borowsky AD, Brayton C, et al: From whence
are illustrated in the figures and within a summary will they come? A perspective on the acute shortage of
pathologists in biomedical research. J Vet Diagn Invest
table, and they are described in more detail in the 19:455–456, 2007.
text. Critical information can be gleaned from
Bolon B, Couto S, Fiette L, et al: Internet and print resources
the figures and the bulleted Need to Knows. At to facilitate pathology analysis when phenotyping
the end of each chapter, authors offer resources genetically engineered rodents. Vet Pathol 49(1):224–235,
2012.
for additional or specialized study. Figures
include gross anatomy of organ systems and Cardiff RD, Rosner A, Hogarth MA, et al: Validation: the new
challenge for pathology. Toxicol Pathol 32(Suppl 1):31–39,
photomicrographs of histologic images and thanks 2004.
to Elsevier; we are delighted to present mouse and Cardiff RD, Ward JM, Barthold SW: “One medicine–One
rat gross anatomy illustrations as a companion pathology”: are veterinary and human pathology prepared?
to the classic Netter medical images. Many of Lab Invest 88:18–26, 2008.
the histologic images were from contributors’ Clemente C: Anatomy: a regional atlas of the human body,
ed 6, , 2010, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
collections and from rodent tissues processed
specifically for this atlas. Whenever possible, Federative International Programme on Anatomical
Terminologies Terminologia Anatomica: http://www.unifr.
we have presented similar gross and histologic ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/ViewTAOnLine.html. 2011.
images from rodents and human adjacently, Greaves P: Histopathology of preclinical toxicity studies:
either on the same page or on the facing pages, interpretation and relevance in drug safety evaluation,
for ease of comparison. Where mice and rats do ed 4, New York, NY, 2011, Academic Press.
not differ, one or the other species is presented Greene EC: Anatomy of the rat, Braintree, MA, 1935,
Braintree Scientific, Inc.
to represent rodents and the species illustrated
Ince TA, Ward JM, Valli VE, et al: Do-it-yourself (DIY)
in the particular figure is noted in parenthesis.
pathology. Nat Biotechnol 26:978–979, 2008.
In some of the human examples, there are
INHAND: International harmonization of nomenclature and
histopathologic lesions present or aging changes. diagnostic criteria for lesions in rats and mice. http://www.
This was necessary when normal tissues are not toxpath. org/inhand.asp.
CHAPTER 1 - Introduction 7
Jackson Laboratories: Festing’s inbred strains of mice and rats Rohen JW, Yokochi C, Lutjen-Drecoll E: Anatomy:
and their characteristics. http://www.informatics.jax.org/ a photographic atlas, ed 8, Philadelphia, 2016, Wolters
external/festing/mouse/INTRO.shtml. Kluwer.
Jackson Laboratory. Mouse nomenclature. http://www. Ross MK, Pawlina W: Histology: a text and atlas, ed 7,
informatics.jax.org/mgihome/nomen/index.shtml. 2010. Philadelphia, 2015, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Kittel B, Ruehl-Fehlert C, Morawietz G, et al: Revised guides Ruehl-Fehlert C, Kittel B, Morawietz G, et al: Revised guides
for organ sampling and trimming in rats and mice: part for organ sampling and trimming in rats and mice: part
2. Exp Toxicol Pathol 55:413–431, 2004. http://reni.item. 1. Exp Toxicol Pathol 55:91–106, 2003. http://reni.item.
fraunhofer.de/reni/trimming/index.php. fraunhofer.de/reni/trimming/index.php.
Mendlowitz L. Diseases of research animals. Columbia, MO: Scudamore CL: A practical guide to the histology of the mouse,
University of Missouri, Research Animal Diagnostic 2013, John Wiley & Sons.
Laboratory. http://www.radil.missouri.edu/info/dora/
Society of Toxicologic Pathology: Standardized system of
Dora.htm.
nomenclature and diagnostic criteria (SSNDC) guides. http://
Mescher A: Junqueira’s basic histology: text and atlas, ed 14, 2016, www.toxpath.org/ssndc.asp.
McGraw Hill.
Suckow MA, Weisbroth SH, Franklin CL: The laboratory rat,
Moore KL, Dalley AR, Agur AMR: Clinically oriented anatomy, 2015, Elsevier Science.
ed 6, Baltimore, 2012, Wolters Kluwer and Lippincott
Suttie AW, Leininger JR, Bradley AE: Boorman’s pathology of
Williams and Wilkins.
the rat: reference and atlas, ed 2, New York, 2017, Academic
Morawietz G, Ruehl-Fehlert C, Kittel B, et al: Revised guides Press.
for organ sampling and trimming in rats and mice: part
Valli T, Barthold SW, Ward JE, et al: Over 60% of NIH
3. Exp Toxicol Pathol 55:433–449, 2004. http://reni.item.
extramural funding involves animal-related research.
fraunhofer.de/reni/trimming/index.php.
Vet Pathol 44:962–964, 2007.
Netter FH: Atlas of human anatomy, ed 6, New York, 2014,
Walker WFJ, Homberger DG: Anatomy and dissection of the rat,
Elsevier.
New York, NY, 1998, WH Freeman & Co.
OpenStax: Animal form and function. OpenStax CNX. Jun 26,
World Association of Veterinary Anatomists: Nomina Anatomica
2013. http://cnx.org/contents/44503b54-9a4c-40c4-ae59-
Veterinaria, ed 5, http://www.wava-amav.org/Downloads/
369526d2f9ef@8.
nav_2012.pdf.
Ovalle WK, Nahimey PC: Netter’s essential histology, 2007,
Young B, Woodford P, O’Dowd G: Wheater’s functional histology:
Saunders.
a text and colour atlas, ed 6, 2013, Churchill Livingstone.
Popesko P, Rajtova V, Horak J: Colour atlas of anatomy of small
laboratory animals, London, UK, 2003, WB Saunders.
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CORY F. BRAYTON
PHENOTYPING 2
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
PIPER M. TREUTING
University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
VIII.
IX.
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
I.
II.
Dopo le sette non venne più nessuno e il signor Barnaba poteva
ripromettersi qualche ora di quiete e riposare alquanto dalle sue
gravi fatiche. Rientrato in portineria, egli non era più l’uomo dalla
faccia decorosamente ossequiosa che i padroni e i visitatori erano
avvezzi a vedere; come per incanto la sua fronte s’aggrinziva, le sue
sopracciglia si corrugavano, le sue labbra prendevano
un’espressione amara e disgustata, e la sua voce di basso profondo
acquistava delle note stridule ed aspre. Gli è che il signor Barnaba,
intimamente convinto che la società non rendesse giustizia ai suoi
meriti, accumulava nella giornata una buona dose di fiele, ch’egli poi
distribuiva in equa misura tra quelli che avevano la fortuna di
avvicinarlo nell’intimità. Non che fosse proprio cattivo il signor
Barnaba, ma era un povero cervello in cui le più matte idee
cozzavano insieme. A volte pareva più aristocratico d’un
Montmorency, a volte, specie dopo la lettura dei giornali, diventava
giacobino e comunardo. In tutt’e due queste fasi, sua moglie, la mite
e timida siora Marianna, aveva le sue grandi tribolazioni. Perchè
quando suo marito faceva il demagogo ella temeva che le pazze
sfuriate di lui arrivassero all’orecchio dei padroni; quando invece egli
s’atteggiava a conservatore, a persona rispettosa delle regole
gerarchiche, ell’era sicura ch’egli avrebbe finito col trovar l’equilibrio
del suo spirito applicando una sua massima favorita: — La
subordinazione è giusta, ma bisogna rifarsi sui più deboli delle
umiliazioni che ci tocca subir dai più forti.
E il signor Barnaba si rifaceva particolarmente sulla moglie e sulla
Ninetta, ch’era quella bimba di cui abbiamo parlato prima. La Ninetta
non era nè figlia nè parente del signor Barnaba e della siora
Marianna: era una povera orfana, la quale veniva di mattina e di sera
a prestar dei piccoli servigi in portineria, ricevendone in compenso la
colazione e il desinare ch’ella portava nel suo tugurio e divideva con
uno zio, abile operaio, ma giuocatore e beone, il quale l’avrebbe
cacciata di casa s’ella gli si fosse presentata davanti con le mani
vuote. Non era una vita allegra quella della Ninetta, palleggiata fra la
brutalità dello zio e la pedanteria meticolosa e loquace del signor
Barnaba, ma ell’aveva indole buona e tranquilla e sopportava la sua
sorte disgraziata con infinita pazienza. Del resto, i suoi umili uffici al
palazzo Costi, oltre ai vantaggi economici le procuravano anche
qualche momento di svago. Già le tre camerette della portineria,
sebben piccole e scure, erano una reggia al paragone di quella
specie di magazzino umido ov’ella passava la notte. E poi c’era la
distrazione della gente che veniva a far visita, dei barcaiuoli che
apparecchiavano o sparecchiavano la gondola, dei padroni e delle
padroncine che uscivano di casa o rientravano lasciando dietro di sè
quel profumo acuto che hanno i signori, come la Ninetta soleva dire;
senza tener conto delle volte in cui per risparmiar la fatica al signor
Barnaba la bimba saliva lei stessa le scale e portava nel piano nobile
un’imbasciata, un pacco, una lettera. Allora, se le riusciva di dare
una capatina nelle stanze, ella ridiscendeva rossa rossa in viso con
l’impressione di esser stata in un soggiorno di fate.
III.
Quella sera il signor Barnaba era più bisbetico del consueto. Egli
non sapeva capacitarsi che la vigilia di Natale un uomo suo pari,
anzichè goder la sua piena libertà e banchettare gli amici, fosse
costretto a misurar per lungo e per largo l’androne di un palazzo e
ad aprir la porta a una ventina di parassiti d’ogni età e sesso. Il
mondo era proprio fatto male, e ci voleva una rivoluzione per
rinnovarlo ab imis fundamentis. — Per fortuna il 1889 non è lontano
e quello sarà un gran centenario.
La siora Marianna sbarrò tanto d’occhi, e il signor Barnaba
soggiunse con disprezzo: — Ecco ciò che vuol dire non avere
istruzione, non aver letto nulla.... E doveva toccare a me un’oca
simile!.... Il 1889 è il centenario del 1789.... l’anno della grande
Rivoluzione francese, quando s’è tagliata la testa ai re, ai nobili, ai
preti....
— Zitto! — gridò la siora Marianna spaventata.
— Ma che zitto! — replicò il consorte. — Qui nessuno mi sente.... E
se anche mi sentissero e volessero far i gradassi... sono un uomo
capace di anticipar di qualche anno il centenario, io.... E il primo che
deve pagarmela è il signor Schmaus, il mastro di casa.... quel
tedesco petulante che cerca il pelo nell’uovo.
A questo punto, nello spirito del signor Barnaba accadde
un’improvvisa reazione in senso conservativo, ed egli trovò che,
quantunque ingiustamente, il signor Schmaus era suo superiore in
ordine gerarchico e non aveva tutti i torti di voler rifarsi sopra di lui
delle risciacquate di capo prese dai padroni. Ma, come il solito,
l’indulgenza verso i superiori rese il signor Barnaba più aspro
cogl’inferiori. Se il signor Schmaus si rifaceva sopra di lui, il signor
Barnaba aveva ben il diritto di rifarsi su qualchedun altro.... — È
come nelle fabbriche, — egli diceva fra sè con bella similitudine. —
Le pietre che stanno in alto pesano sulle pietre che stanno abbasso.
— In omaggio al quale principio, egli strapazzò la moglie, strapazzò
la Ninetta, e finalmente, guardando di punto in bianco l’orologio,
ordinò alla fanciulla di fare un salto al chiosco più vicino per
prendergli il Secolo che doveva essere arrivato.
La pietosa siora Marianna arrischiò un ma....
— Che c’è? — ruggì il signor Barnaba.
— Niente.... niente.... Però la Ninetta ha da andar presto a casa
sua.... e con questa neve... farle fare una strada di più....
Il marito diede un pugno sulla tavola. — Ah vorrei vedere anche
questa!... Per un po’ di neve.... Come se fossero sassi.... Via,
signora delicatina.... si metta il suo scialle e non perda tempo....
Marsch!
La siora Marianna non fiatava più, ma guardava la Ninetta in un
certo modo come a dire: — Abbi pazienza. È una bestia e non
intende ragione.
E la Ninetta ubbidì in silenzio. Staccò da un chiodo lo scialletto di
lana che le copriva appena le spalle, guardò con un sospiro le sue
scarpe rattacconate, si fece dare un soldo dal signor Barnaba,
aperse a fatica il portone e uscì in istrada. Nevicava sempre,
nevicava fitto, e il vento s’ingolfava nella calle con un urlo lungo,
sinistro, somigliante a un gemito umano. Mal difesa dalla sua
vesticciuola leggera, la povera fanciulla sentiva il freddo penetrarle
nell’ossa, e studiava il passo segnando una piccola orma sul
candido lenzuolo steso per terra.
La distanza dal palazzo Costi al primo chiosco di giornali non era
mica grande, ma quella sera, con quel tempo, con quelle vie
solitarie, pareva alla Ninetta di dover percorrere un deserto
immenso. Lungo tutta la via ella incontrò appena un paio di persone,
imbacuccate nei loro cappotti, bianche e mute come fantasmi; solo
attraversando un Campielo chiamato Campielo dei morti (ce n’è più
d’uno di questi Campieli in Venezia e il loro nome deriva dall’esservi
stati secoli addietro in quei luoghi dei piccoli cimiteri) la ferì il
miagolio lamentevole d’un gattino perduto in mezzo alla neve.
Quando poi credeva di esser giunta alla meta, le toccò un’amara
delusione. Il chiosco era chiuso, forse a cagione del tempo, forse a
cagione della festa. Che partito prendere? Tornarsene indietro a
mani vuote, o andare in cerca d’un altro chiosco a rischio di trovar
chiuso anche quello? Però in quel punto ella sentì gridare in fondo
alla strada: il Secolo, appena arrivato il Secolo. — Secolo, — ella
gridò ripetutamente, correndo dietro al rivenditore. Ma questi non la
intese o non le badò, nè a lei riuscì di raggiungerlo, finchè un
passante impietosito che aveva la fortuna di possedere un vocione
non ebbe tuonato due volte: — Ehi, del Secolo, siete sordo? — Il
rivenditore si fermò con malagrazia, prese il soldo dalla mano della
Ninetta, tirò fuori di sotto il soprabito un numero del giornale, e dopo
averlo dato alla fanciulla si allontanò rapidamente ripetendo come un
pappagallo: Appena arrivato il Secolo. Con molte notizie il Secolo.
La Ninetta rifece il cammino di prima senza trovar anima viva, senza
udire una voce umana che rompesse il silenzio; bensì nel Campielo
dei morti suonava ancora, ma più rauco, più flebile, il miagolìo del
povero gattino smarrito, e una forma nera si dibatteva nella neve.
IV.
V.
I.