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Comparative North American Studies
SELECTION OF EARLIER BOOKS
BY REINGARD M. NISCHIK
The Palgrave Handbook of Comparative North American Literature (2014)
Engendering Genre: The Works of Margaret Atwood (2009)
History of Literature in Canada: English-Canadian and French-Canadian (2008)
The Canadian Short Story: Interpretations (2007)
New York Fiction (2000)
Comparative North American
Studies
Transnational Approaches to
American and Canadian Literature
and Culture

Reingard M. Nischik
COMPARATIVE NORTH AMERICAN STUDIES
Copyright © Reingard M. Nischik 2016
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2016 978-1-137-56422-1
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this
publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written
permission. In accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited
copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10
Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
First published 2016 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
The author has asserted their right to be identified as the author of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills,
Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of Nature America, Inc., One
New York Plaza, Suite 4500, New York, NY 10004-1562.
Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.

ISBN: 978-1-349-55669-4
E-PDF ISBN: 978–1–137–55965–4
DOI: 10.1057/9781137559654
Distribution in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world is by Palgrave
Macmillan®, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in
England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire
RG21 6XS.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nischik, Reingard M.
Comparative north american studies : transnational approaches to
american and canadian literature and culture / Reingard M. Nischik.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Short stories, Canadian—History and criticism. 2. Short stories,

American—History and criticism. 3. Comparative literature—Canadian
and American. 4. Comparative literature—American and Canadian.
5. National characteristics, Canadian, in literature. 6. National
characteristics, American, in literature. 7. Modernism (Literature)—
Canada. 8. Modernism (Literature)—United States. 9. Transnationalism
in literature. 10. Atwood, Margaret Eleanor, 1939– —Criticism and
interpretation. I. Title.
PR9192.52.N57 2015
813⬘.0109971—dc23 2015020046
A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library.
The scenery in the United States was much the same as that of the
countryside we had just come from, but it was indeed a different place,
as the f lags were different. I remembered what Jeremiah told me about
borders, and how easy it was to cross them.
Margaret Atwood, Alias Grace, 341
 Permissions

An earlier version of a part of chapter 2 (mainly the comparative analysis of Sherwood

Anderson and Raymond Knister’s short fiction) was first printed in Cultural Cir-
culation: Dialogues between Canada and the American South, ed. Waldemar Zacha-
rasiewicz and Christoph Irmscher © 2013 Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften. All rights reserved.
An earlier version of the analysis of Atwood’s comics “Survivalwoman Meets Super-
ham,” “Survivalwoman and the Canadian Dream,” and “The LongPen” (which is part
of chapter 4) was first published in Chapter 7 in Reingard M. Nischik, Engendering
Genre: The Works of Margaret Atwood © 2009 by University of Ottawa Press. All
rights reserved.
“Blind Assa” comic © 2001 by Margaret Atwood. All rights reserved.
Epigraph from Alias Grace © 1996 by Margaret Atwood. All rights reserved.
“Fearless Survivalstudents” comic © 2015 by Hanna Seitz. All rights reserved.
“Light Bulb” comic © 1975 by Margaret Atwood. All rights reserved.
“Reviewing Atwood in North America” comic © 2015 by Hanna Seitz. All rights
reserved.
“The Kanadian Film Directors’ Guild” comic © 1975 by Margaret Atwood. All rights
reserved.
 Contents

List of Figures ix
Acknowledgments xi

Introduction 1
1 Comparative North American Studies and Its Contexts 7
2 Modernism in the United States and Canada: The Example
of Poetry and of the Short Story 27
3 Border Studies, Borderlines, and Liminal Spaces: Crossing the
Canada-US Border in North American Border Narratives 61
4 On Imagology, Canadian-US Relations, and Popular
Culture: National Images and Border Crossings in
Margaret Atwood’s Works 93
5 Reviewing Atwood in Canada and the United States:
From (Inter)Nationalism to Transnationalism 121
6 “The Writer, the Reader, and the Book”: Margaret Atwood on
Reviewing in Conversation with Reingard M. Nischik 179

Notes 191
Selective Bibliography: Comparative North American
Studies and Its Contexts 227
Works Cited 237
Index 257
 Figures

4.1 “The Kanadian Film Directors’ Guild” comic (1975) 115

4.2 “Light Bulb” comic (1975) 117
5.1 “Blind Assa” comic (2001) 162
5.2 “Fearless Survivalstudents” comic (2015) 170
5.3 “Reviewing Atwood in North America” cartoon (2015) 177
 Acknowledgments

T
his book has been my ink-and-paper companion for quite some
time. Crossing the borders separating me from this project’s
completion within some six years was a united effort. And so
it is with great pleasure that I thank those who have joined me on this
transnational, challenging, and illuminating journey.
First, thanks are due to my student assistants for their help in research-
ing relevant literature, a substantial task for the present project, which
over the years Srdjan Perko, Ingrid Kaplitz, Alena Schmidt-Weihrich,
Rene Reichert, Bettina Mack, and Bernadette Schroh accomplished reli-
ably. It was particularly the research for chapter 5 of this book—locating
and obtaining reviews of selected novels by Margaret Atwood—that
turned out to be daunting. Srdjan Perko, my Canadian student assis-
tant, proved an excellent, highly motivated, and invaluable help in this
long-term logistic challenge. With his preparatory help, we eventu-
ally branched out to other university libraries in the United States and
Canada, where student assistants were on exchange, and who were kind
enough to scan reviews that were available at the libraries they worked
at abroad: Rene Reichert and Alena Schmidt-Weihrich at the University
of British Columbia in Vancouver, BC, and Cora Schomburg at the
University of Arizona at Tuscon. At the end of the time-consuming
review-collecting stage, when we had succumbed to a perfectionist col-
lector’s ambition to be as complete as possible under the circumstances,
Srdjan Perko, with financial means provided, valiantly stepped onto
a plane bound for Toronto and cheerfully unearthed “the rest” of the
available reviews at the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library (Atwood
Papers), which proved quite an adventurous undertaking.
Speaking of chapters 5 and 6 , I am indebted to Margaret Atwood;
not only is she one of my favorite “topics,” she was also most gracious
and helpful in three recent meetings we had, among other things, on
the topic of “Reviewing Atwood”—in particular with the interview I
xii ● Acknowledgments

conducted with her in London, the United Kingdom, on October 2,

2014 (see chapter 6 ). Working on Atwood and meeting with her in con-
nection with my work on her works is a practically ideal research setting
for me: it means cognitive intensity coupled with enthusiasm, or, simply
put, “work” as a synonym for “fun.”
I also warmly thank Professor Linda Hutcheon from the University
of Toronto for being such an exceptionally friendly, helpful, organized,
efficient, and reliable colleague during my two one-month-long stays in
Toronto in 2013 and 2014.
Dr. Emily Petermann and Christina Duck Kannenberg helped pol-
ish some of the chapters, and Srdjan Perko went through all of them.
I thank them for their conscientious reading and their useful sugges-
tions. For the technical preparation of the typescript, I am grateful to
Christine Schneider, who proved for the umpteenth time that my hand-
writing is decipherable despite my doubts, at least when in the hands
of someone so meticulous and reliable. Alena Schmidt-Weihrich and
Ingrid Kaplitz prepared the index and Srdjan Perko helped with the
proofreading. I thank them all for their utter reliability, their dedica-
tion, and their cheerfulness.
As regards the granting of research time and financial and institu-
tional support for this book, I am grateful to the University of Konstanz,
which, through financial means from the Excellence Initiative of the
German Federal Ministry of Education, granted me a “creativity term”
in the summer of 2014—three months without teaching, a relatively
short length of time that nevertheless helped me considerably at the cru-
cial stage when I was finally getting close to finishing this book. Two
research stays in Toronto in 2013 and 2014 were financed through the
Ontario-Baden-Wü rttemberg Faculty Mobility Program, whose sup-
port for this project I thankfully acknowledge. Thanks are also due to
the Excellence Cluster 16 “Cultural Foundations of Integration” at the
University of Konstanz for their financial support as well as for select-
ing me as a Fellow in the academic year of 2009–2010, which put me in
a position to kick off what were then two new book projects, the first of
which was published in New York with Palgrave Macmillan in August
2014, and the second of which is the one at hand.
All seven chapters to follow were, from the outset, conceived for this
monograph, which was planned from scratch. In the course of this book’s
long genesis, I had occasion to publish a few parts of some of these chap-
ters earlier: chapter 1 is a shortened and revised version of my earlier
introductory chapter to The Palgrave Handbook of Comparative North
American Literature, ed. Reingard M. Nischik (New York, 2014). A part
 Acknowledgments ● xiii

of chapter 2 (mainly the comparative analysis of Sherwood Anderson

and Raymond Knister’s short fiction) was first printed in different form
in Cultural Circulation: Dialogues between Canada and the American
South, ed. Waldemar Zacharasiewicz and Christoph Irmscher (Wien:
Verlag der Ö sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2013). An
earlier version of my analysis of Atwood’s comics “Survivalwoman
Meets Superham,” “Survivalwoman and the Canadian Dream,” and
“The LongPen,” which is part of chapter 4, was first published in my
monograph Engendering Genre: The Works of Margaret Atwood (Ottawa:
University of Ottawa Press, 2009).
R EINGARD M. NISCHIK
Konstanz, September 2015
 Introduction

A
merican Studies has historically dealt almost exclusively with
the United States. This nation-centered approach is what
“American Studies” as originally conceived in the 1930s and
1940s was all about, and it has remained the dominant approach to
American Literature for a long time. Toward the end of the twentieth
century, however, in the wake of globalizing tendencies not only in eco-
nomics, politics, and technology, but also in the context of literature
and culture and in the resulting “transnational turn,” American Studies
has opened up to a transnational view of American literature and cul-
ture. Americanist scholars’ investigations have thus started to also reach
beyond the borders of the United States and to examine the connec-
tion between American Literature and other literatures and cultures, or
sometimes even to take a “postnational” approach to literature (i.e., con-
testing the conceptual validity of nation-states in a globalized world),
thereby recognizing both the effects of complex migratory movements
and the way national borders have suppressed Indigenous conceptions
of what is now designated “North America.” Canadian Studies under-
went a similar development, though with a time lag of a few decades
(the establishment of Canadian Studies programs at universities in the
1970s, and transnational Canadian Literature Studies since the 1990s
and particularly in the new millennium).1
One particular kind of transnational American Studies and trans-
national Canadian Studies is a comparative view of their respective
literatures and cultures. In fact, comparing these neighboring North
American cultures is particularly worthwhile because these two coun-
tries are similar enough to clearly invite comparison, yet, at the same
time, also different enough for a comparison to yield telling, indeed
remarkable, contrasts. My previous book, The Palgrave Handbook
of Comparative North American Literature (2014a), is the first to sys-
tematically develop a comparative analytic approach to the literatures
2 ● Comparative North American Studies

and cultures of North America (mainly the United States and Canada,
including Quebec, with occasional consideration also of Mexico). The
handbook charts relevant methodologies and major theoretical issues of
Comparative North American Literature and helps this approach find
its place in the ever-changing manners of dealing with the United States
and Canada and studying these cultures across the disciplines.
The monograph at hand, with its focus on text-centered and genre-
centered case studies within the theoretical approach charted in the
earlier book, extends this novel approach to the study of the United
States and Canada in a complementary fashion. The text- and genre-
centered case studies in this book (chapters 2–6 ) exemplify an array
of selected rewarding approaches within Comparative North American
Studies (period-oriented, generic, thematic/border studies, thematic/
imagological, receptionist), as will be sketched out in this introduc-
tion. In this book, “Canada” mainly refers to Anglo-Canada (although
various chapters do consider Quebec and, to a lesser extent, Mexico),
a somewhat more restricted—though, compared to earlier research on
both countries, still broad—focus that seems viable for a single scholar
(see also the constitutive chapter 1).
Considering that there are relatively few methodological publications
on Comparative North American Studies so far, chapter 1 broaches
the topic by first embedding it into the context of American Studies,
Canadian Studies, hemispheric studies, and global studies. It then deals
with the method and value of comparative literature studies, before out-
lining the key reasons why Comparative North American Studies, and
Comparative North American Literature in particular, form a promis-
ing, timely paradigm for dealing with the literatures and cultures of the
United States and Canada, and, finally, charting particularly relevant
areas of concern. While the contextualizing, theoretically oriented
chapter 1 delineates the wider fields within which this project is situ-
ated, the analytical chapters that follow in an exemplary manner take
various approaches to literary and nonfictional as well as visual texts
as their prime objects of analysis within selected areas of Comparative
North American Studies.
Chapter 2 takes a literary-historical approach, investigating the state
of literature and literary criticism in the United States and Canada
in one particular period, which proved to be particularly crucial for
the cultural and literary developments in both countries, namely, the
modernist period. At the same time, the approach in this chapter is
largely generic: While a comparative study of modernist literature in the
United States and Canada is yet to be written, the chapter focuses on
 Introduction ● 3

the critical and controversial discussions on North American modernist

poetry and, especially, on one particular genre that has been strikingly
neglected in studies on American modernism and Canadian modern-
ism: the short story. The chapter first surveys the development of mod-
ernism and its critical reception in the United States and Canada, which
revolved around the debates over poetry. It then deals with the status of
the short story in both countries in the modernist period, before com-
paring two representative pairs of American and Canadian modern-
ist short story writers, respectively: Sherwood Anderson and Raymond
Knister, and Ernest Hemingway and Morley Callaghan. Finally, the
chapter draws the sum of these analyses and thereby comes to a com-
parative appraisal of modernism in the United States and Canada and,
in particular, of the modernist North American short story.
Chapter 3 retains this focus on short fiction, yet approaches its com-
parative topic less by way of genre and period, as chapter 2 does, but by
way of theme. The chapter deals with border studies and, in particu-
lar, investigates narratives that focus on crossing the border between
Canada and the United States—four American narratives (Tim O’Brien,
“Winnipeg” and “On the Rainy River”; Joyce Carol Oates, “Crossing
the Border” and “Customs”) and four Canadian narratives (Thomas
King, “The Closer You Get to Canada, the More Things Will Eat
Your Horses”; Miriam Waddington, “I’m Lonesome for Harrisburg”;
Alice Munro, “Miles City, Montana”; and Laurie Gough, “The Border
Crossing”). The short story format seems particularly conducive to bor-
der narratives, especially concerning stories dealing with the crossing of
the border as such. The guiding questions of this chapter are, however,
thematic and, in part, imagological (see the following chapter) in kind:
What images of Canada and the United States are evoked in these nar-
ratives? Why do their protagonists want to cross the border? Why is the
crossing of international borders, or, rather, of this particular border,
rendered as such an intense, often even existential, experience? What
do these stories tell us about the continuing relevance of nation-states,
or, rather, of these two North American nation-states, in the late twen-
tieth and early twenty-first centuries? And is such a collective entity as
“North America” implied in these stories at all?
Chapter 4 links chapters 3 and 5 in that it continues the thematic
approach of chapter 3 by using a specific thematic orientation, the so-
called imagological approach, and later exemplarily analyzes Margaret
Atwood’s works, which is also at the center of chapter 5 in the frame-
work of an entirely different approach. Applied to American Studies,
imagology asks not how Americans themselves see America, but how
4 ● Comparative North American Studies

other cultures view the United States. That is, what is the image of the
United States as seen in literatures from outside the United States? In this
context, the chapter investigates what Canadians think of the United
States (and, at the same time, of their own country) as seen in Canadian
literature and culture. As already mentioned, I focus this question on
the works of Canada’s leading writer Margaret Atwood. Surveying just
a small portion of Atwood’s enormous and multi-generic oeuvre, we
become aware of not only her “Canadian” view of the United States (as
well as her view of her own country), but also how she has moved from
a national and international stance toward a transnational and partly
postnational stance in her view of cultures over the decades. Often,
particularly in her early and middle period, “the Other” for Atwood
has been the United States. The text analyses in this chapter predomi-
nantly deal with Atwood’s nonfictional treatment of the United States
and Canadian-US relations in her essays and speeches, as well as with
her humorous tackling of the topic in her comic strips. Considering
how much popular culture contributes to our view of other countries—
Atwood’s comics being an example of a popular culture genre here—the
chapter also takes a comparative look at popular culture and popular
culture studies in the United States and Canada.
Chapter 5 focuses on an entirely different transnational and com-
parative involvement with Margaret Atwood—who in several respects
is, arguably, Canada’s most “North American” writer—in using a recep-
tionist approach. More specifically, this chapter analyzes and compares
print reviews from Canada and the United States of four selected novels
from Atwood’s early and middle creative periods, namely The Edible
Woman , Surfacing, The Handmaid’s Tale, and Alias Grace. The chap-
ter asks whether the different national origins of the reviewer and the
different national contexts of the readers for whom these reviews were
written and published in newspapers, magazines, and scholarly journals
have a demonstrable impact on the reviews, depending on whether they
are from Canada and mainly composed for Canadian readers, or from
the United States and mainly written for US readers. To some extent,
this chapter continues the imagological approach of the preceding
chapter through a different lens, because in a few US reviews a certain
stereotyping of Canada is noticeable. Such a receptionist comparison
analyzing one author’s reception in these two North American coun-
tries is implemented here for the first time on such a considerable scale,
based as it is on a large number of texts in order to garner valid com-
parative results: altogether 451 researched reviews—172 from Canada
and 279 from the United States—form the basis for the comparative
 Introduction ● 5

analytical part of this chapter, which initially also deals with essential
aspects of reviewing in general as well as with Margaret Atwood’s scat-
tered statements on the reviewing of her works. This case study provides
illuminating answers to questions such as these: How were Atwood’s
early- and middle-period novels received and evaluated in Canada and
the United States? Are there considerable differences in the number of
reviews the books received in one or the other country and has this
changed over time? Do the reviews address similar aspects of the novels,
or are there striking differences that may be put down to the country/
cultural context of the review? As to praise, criticism, or lack of evalua-
tive judgment of the individual novels, are there significant differences
from country to country, and if so, what are plausible culture-related
causes for such differences in the reception of one and the same work?
The penultimate chapter 6 is linked to the previous chapter in that
it also deals with reviewing and, in particular, with reviewing Margaret
Atwood’s works in North America, yet here the reviewed author her-
self has a say. In an interview I conducted with Atwood in London,
the United Kingdom, in October 2014, Atwood at length discusses her
views on reviewing, also from a comparative North American perspec-
tive. Whereas chapter 5 deals with North American reviews of novels of
Atwood’s earlier creative periods as well as her scattered statements on
reviewing in earlier interviews, in this recent interview printed in chap-
ter 6 , we get both a retrospective and a current view by Atwood herself
of her long and wide-ranging experiences as a heavily reviewed Canadian
and North American writer. It is interesting to see in both chapters 5 and
6 how the reception of Atwood and her works has tended to develop from
earlier national and international toward increasingly transnational pat-
terns of reception. The very terminology used in reviews from Canada
and the United States, for instance, claiming that Atwood has managed
to produce “the Great Canadian Novel” or, in a US review about the
same book, “a genuine Great American Novel” (see chapter 5) also dem-
onstrates in nuce, however, how the concept of nation is of continuing
significance, not least in a North American context.
The Selective Bibliography presents a first-ever focused list of publi-
cations of Comparative North American Studies and its contexts, com-
piling essential contributions to the field. As this bibliography contains
close to 60 items not included in the Works Cited list at the end, the
two bibliographies in this book fulfill two different functions for the
reader.
To conclude, chapter 1 and the Selective Bibliography, in their fun-
damental, theoretical orientation, provide a bracket for the interjacent
6 ● Comparative North American Studies

chapters dealing with selected case studies that show Comparative

North American Studies at work, demonstrating period-oriented,
generic, thematic/border studies, thematic/imagological, and recep-
tionist approaches in the field. I hope that this book will contribute to
promoting further study on the topics selected here as well as on other
aspects of Comparative North American Literature and Comparative
North American Studies, building on the increasing interest of inter-
national scholars to look beyond not only the physical but also the dis-
ciplinary borders of what are, after all, neighboring countries in the
North American continent.
 CHAPTER 1

Comparative North American Studies

and Its Contexts

D
elineating and contextualizing Comparative North American
Studies, this chapter approaches the topic by first embedding
it into the context of American Studies, Canadian Studies,
hemispheric studies, and global studies. It then deals with the method
and value of comparative literature studies, before sketching the key
reasons why Comparative North American Studies, and Comparative
North American Literature in particular, form a promising, timely par-
adigm for dealing with the literatures and cultures of the United States
and Canada as well as, finally, charting particularly relevant areas of
concern.

Surveying the Field(s): “America” versus American Studies,

“Canada” versus Canadian Studies, “North America”
versus North American Studies
One major problem with charting a new approach to the literatures and
cultures of the North American continent is the unstable usage of the
basic terms implied: What does “North America” mean? In fact, what
does “America” mean? And what then do “American Studies” encom-
pass? Similarly, if the word “Canada” refers to the nation-state north of
the United States, do “Canadian Studies” therefore also involve stud-
ies of the nation of Quebec and of the First Nations? And what is the
American continent in the first place; does it encompass North and
South America or do these areas make up two separate “continents”?1
To preview the answers to such questions pointedly, if not provocatively,
8 ● Comparative North American Studies

American Studies does not really deal with “America” (but with the
United States only), Canadian Studies does not really deal with (all of )
Canada (but mainly with the English-speaking part of the country),
and North American Studies do not really deal with “North America”
(but mainly with the United States and Canada only), depending on
one’s definitions of these terms. In the following paragraphs, I sketch
such problematic terminological and conceptual issues, before briefly
dealing with more established transnational approaches potentially
encompassing “North America.”
Diana Taylor went to school in Mexico, then moved with her
Canadian parents to Toronto, and is now a professor in New York, thus
having lived in all three countries that are, at least in a geopolitical
sense, regarded as constituting “North America.” Taylor describes the
American hemisphere as an “oddly shaped landmass misidentified, mis-
labeled, and misrepresented from the moment of the first European
explorations” (Taylor 2007, 1416). The trouble is indeed still notice-
able with the designations “America” as well as “American Studies” 2
and “Canadian Studies.”3 As Taylor reports, in Mexico she was taught
“that Am é rica was one, conceptually singular. Nuestra Am é rica , we
shared a continent” (1416).4 In Canada, Taylor’s classmates wondered
where Mexico was anyway. And in connection with the United States
she learnt that “America” really designated (only) the United States,
while the rest of the hemisphere, which should include Canada, was
referred to in the plural form, “the Americas ” (1416). Taylor mentions a
Mexican cabaret artist who once sarcastically joked about this confu-
sion of terms, with both the United States and the whole hemisphere
being called “America”:

These people came and they named themselves “Americans.” But

American American, because the others became Mexican American,
Peruvian American, . . . Paraguayan American, Canadian American . . . but
the whole damn continent shouldn’t be named “America” so what is an
American American. Nothing! Absolutely nothing! (qtd. in Taylor 2007,
1422)

This statement seems just as confusing as the terminology referring

to the “American” continent and its various parts, and an “American
American” seems indeed a nonsensical designation—though it is actually
a logical consequence of the traditional—partly encompassing, partly
particularizing, and thus inconsistent—usage of the term “America.”5
With the United States, the continent’s politically and economically
 Comparative North American Studies and Its Contexts ● 9

dominant country, having appropriated the term “America” exclu-

sively for itself, what is at stake in such a pars pro toto naming is, of
course, power constellations. “North America,” then, actually desig-
nates a larger territory and cultural space than “America” in the sense
of “United States,” namely, that of the United States plus Canada—and
sometimes also Mexico, depending on which one of the diverse circulat-
ing definitions of “North America” one uses.
Geographers generally consider North America to include “all of
the mainland and related offshore islands lying north of the Isthmus
of Panama” (Vianna 1979, 551). Geopolitically, then, Mexico is part
of North America (see also a few North American agreements such as
the North American Free Trade Agreement [NAFTA] and the North
American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation, which include
Mexico; bilateral North American agreements between the United
States and one of its northern or southern neighbors, however, are in the
majority). Some scholars even wonder whether Central America (which
includes Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
Panama, Belize, and the southernmost states of Mexico) belongs to
North America as well (cf. Webster’s New Geographical Dictionary 1972,
232). The cultural and linguistic difference between the northern and
the southern parts of the Americas is captured more accurately by the
terms “Anglo-America” (encompassing the United States and Canada,
though, in this case, disregarding Quebec) and “Latin America” (encom-
passing Mexico, Central America, and South America), a distinction
that can be traced back to the middle of the nineteenth century (cf.
Mignolo 2007, 57; Spivak 2003a, 118, n. 27). Confusingly so, the des-
ignation “Latin America” is sometimes also used interchangeably with
the term “South America.”
Hence, what we regard as “American Studies” or “North American
Studies” does not refer to clear-cut geographies and agendas, but
is subject to political, institutional, and, last but not least, personal
practices—which are geared to traditions and cultural hierarchies, yet
may change over time. Consequently, “North American Studies” rarely
deals with Mexico—this book mirrors this state of affairs—because
Mexico’s history, culture, and language are often regarded as belong-
ing to Latin or South America, not to North America (as suggested in
the definitions above) and, relatedly, because of institutional as well
as practical, linguistic reasons (many professors and students of US
American and Canadian Studies do not speak Spanish; 6 on the inclu-
sion of Mexico into [Comparative] North American Studies, see Adams
2014 and Sadowski-Smith 2014). On the other hand, we may consider
10 ● Comparative North American Studies

it a welcome effect of the much-touted transnational turn that the con-

cept “North American Literature” tends to be no longer regarded as
another synonym for US American literature but is increasingly seen as
encompassing both US American and Canadian literature, as practiced
in this book as well.7
Widening the scope of the continental designation and the research
paradigm in this way diversifies matters considerably, not least since
“North American” understood as US American and Canadian also
involves Quebec and thus, strictly speaking, two “official” or pre-
dominant languages of the countries concerned: English in the United
States 8 and both English and French in Canada.9 Then, too, “North
America,” even if understood as encompassing “only” the United States
and Canada—as even dictionaries suggest nowadays10 —and in spite of
economic endeavors such as NAFTA, is not regarded as a cohesive unit
by many inhabitants of the area. As Rachel Adams formulates: “North
America is a place that few would call home, a concept that is more the
invention of politicians and economists than the product of its inhabit-
ants’ collective imagination” (2014, 42). The opposite applies, however,
to the continent’s Indigenous population. Canadian First Nations and
Native American communities often do not acknowledge the national
border between the United States and Canada as it shows no regard for
tribal communities. It separates, for instance, Canadian Mohawks and
American Mohawks or Canadian Blackfoot from American Blackfeet.
Canadian writer Thomas King consequently calls the border between
Canada and the United States “an imaginary line. It’s a line from some-
body else’s imagination” (in Rooke 1990, 72). Doing so, he points to
the imperialistic aspects of cartographic practices, which in its draw-
ing of borders and renaming of places and regions ignored and elided
existing Indigenous geographical, topographical, and social concepts
of the space the whites invaded (see, however, Sarkowsky 2014 on the
effects the national border, nonetheless, exerts on Indigenous commu-
nities in the United States and Canada). In the non-Native community,
too, a new North American sense of “home” might be on the rise (for
instance, in environmental or climatic terms): Thus Canadian writer
Margaret Atwood, during a stay in France, tweeted on December 21,
2012: “Now returning to N. America (in time for storms, I gather . . . ).”
Atwood confirmed in an email to me on January 29, 2014 that she
definitely returned to Toronto after that tweet, and thus was on her way
“home” when she referred to North America.
In any case, the nevertheless considerable differences between US and
Canadian cultures may be traced back to the almost antithetical, at least
 Comparative North American Studies and Its Contexts ● 11

highly divergent etymologies of the very naming of these two countries,

both colonial in origin. The name “America” probably goes back to the
Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, who, in a letter of 1504 (printed
one year later), labeled the landmass “discovered” by Christopher
Columbus (during his four voyages to the West Indies and the south-
ern American continent between 1492 and 1504) Mundus Novus , “New
World.” Vespucci’s term “New World” thus indirectly also refers us to
the fact that America, from a European perspective, was invented rather
than “discovered” (O’Gorman 1961 [1958])—presenting a projection
screen for many powerful dreams and myths (such as Brave New World,
Atlantis, El Dorado, Arcadia, and Paradise on Earth) that preceded
the continent’s appearance on European maps. The name “Canada,”
in contrast, has hardly had anything dreamlike or mythical about it
(there is, for instance, no “Canadian Dream” parallel to the “American
Dream”): its etymology is much more grounded. The country’s name
refers to the multicultural makeup of North America right from the
beginning of European exploration: “Kanata” was originally a Huron-
Iroquois word meaning “village” or “settlement.” After Jacques Cartier
had used “Kanata” for his exploration reports in the 1530s and 1540s,
the term saw gradual territorial extensions over the centuries, until in
1791 the name “Canada” was used officially for the first time in the
Constitutional (or Canada) Act (see Higgins 2008, 38). Another pos-
sible explanation for the name “Canada” also goes back to European
exploration. Some reports have it that early Spanish or Portuguese
explorers, disappointed at not finding gold or other riches in the north-
ern part of the continent, derided the country as “aca nada” or “c à
nada” (meaning “here nothing”). This is certainly a drastically different
view of the northern part of the continent compared to Christopher
Columbus’s description of the Caribbean Islands as a land of “honey”
in his 1493 letter to Luis de Sant á ngel, or Arthur Barlowe’s enthusiastic
account (of Roanoke Island, part of today’s North Carolina) in The
First Voyage Made to the Coasts of America of 1584, in which the author
imagines the sweet smells of America before he has even set foot on the
continent. The tremendous differences in national mythology—or, in
the case of Canada, the formerly often alleged lack of national myths
or master narratives (cf., however, concepts/myths like the North or,
more recently, multiculturalism11)—may thus be traced back to the very
first texts about “America” and “Kanata” in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries.
In today’s usage, the name “Canada” and particularly the adjective
“Canadian” are as unstable and contested as their American counterparts.
12 ● Comparative North American Studies

Whereas the instability concerning the term “America” centrifugally

points toward the entire hemisphere, with respect to Canada the insta-
bility is inward-oriented, especially concerning the province of Quebec,
which in November 2006 acquired through the Canadian parliament
the status of “a nation within a united Canada.”12 Looking back on
a centuries-long history of survivance of French culture as a kind of
enclave surrounded by mainly English-speaking nations, many of
the French-speaking Quebecers no longer consider themselves to be
“Canadian” or “Canadien” but rather “Québ é cois.” Interestingly so, the
Québ é cois prefer to think of themselves as part of “l’Amérique” rather
than of “Canada.” After two hundred years in which “Frenchness” had
been the “touchstone” (Rolfe 1992, 140) of their collective identity, the
Québ é cois have, since around the middle of the twentieth century, also
begun to look for and embrace their “Americanness” (am é ricanit é ; see
Rolfe 1992 and Morency 2014). Separatist Québ é cois scholars thus even
argue that their French-language literature is not part of Canadian liter-
ature, which is one reason why my book History of Literature in Canada
(2008a), encompassing literature in Canada written in both English
and French, is called precisely that (rather than “History of Canadian
Literature”). Indeed, as Winfried Siemerling states, “the discussion of
the literatures of Canada . . . has probed conjunctions of literature and
‘nation’ relentlessly from its beginnings” (Siemerling 2007, 130).
I have traced such conjunctions in the introductory chapter to History
of Literature in Canada , titled “Writing a History of Literature in Canada”
(Nischik 2008d). In fact, it was when grappling with that introductory
chapter to a history of literature(s) in Canada that I became fully aware
of the intricacies of such a project. To offer just a small glimpse of the
Canadian/Québ é cois politics of nation that infiltrate culture: The term
“Canadian Literature” has come to signify increasingly only “Anglo-
Canadian literature,” whereas scholars from Quebec “renounced their
rights to terms like ‘Canada’ or ‘Canadien’ at the very time that English-
Canadians have implicitly staked exclusive claim to them” (Davey 1997,
17). Lucie Robert stated in 1991 that Quebec culture viewed itself as
“québ é coise” and no longer as “canadienne franç aise” (qtd. in ibid., 7;
see also the Histoire de la litt é rature qu é bé coise by Michel Biron et al.
2007). As Frank Davey points out, “English-Canadian” no longer seems
to include anglophone Quebecers, either (Davey 1997, 7). There is thus
an increasing separation between the terms “Canadian” (signifying
English Canadian or Canada outside Quebec) and “québ é cois” (sig-
nifying from the province of Quebec or only French Canadians from
the nation of Quebec). This territorialization of language and ethnicity
 Comparative North American Studies and Its Contexts ● 13

(Quebec vs. the “rest of [predominantly English-speaking] Canada”)

raises further problems. What about literature from Quebec not writ-
ten in French? What about literature written in French in a Canadian
province other than Quebec?13
All this goes to show that Comparative Canadian and Québ é cois
Literature Studies should be a significant part of Comparative North
American Literature (see Vautier 2014), even if this means a linguistic
border crossing and a move “from a diadic to a triadic comparative
perspective” (Meindl 2002, vii). The hurdles imposed by different lan-
guages (English/French/Spanish) are, of course, a potential explanation
for Québ é cois literature—and Mexican literature, depending on one’s
definition of North America14 —being largely omitted from existent
contributions to Comparative North American (Literature) Studies.15
However, picking up from the beginning of this chapter, in contrast to
earlier inward-oriented, self-focused approaches to US and Canadian
literatures (paradigmatically so with the “myth and symbol school” in
the United States of the 1950s and 1960s and “thematic criticism” in
Canada in the late 1960s and mainly 1970s), there has been a recent
trend in these countries’ literary studies to look beyond national bor-
ders. As late as 2005, Rachel Adams and Sarah Phillips Casteel still
asserted that in contrast to francophone Canadian Studies (where espe-
cially Acadian Studies have traditionally stressed the transnational
connection between Acadia and Louisiana),16 scholars of anglophone
Canadian Studies “have largely absented themselves from critical con-
versations about a hemispheric American Studies. Acutely conscious of
how recently the battle was fought to establish Canadian Studies, they
are understandably protective of its integrity and desirous of maintain-
ing its independence” (Adams and Casteel 2005, 6–7). Two years later,
however, Winfried Siemerling, while still discerning a “strong concern
about protecting Canadian culture and literary scholarship in a North
American, US-dominated context,” also notes a “strong interest in dis-
cussing Canadian culture and literature in the wider context of the
Americas” (Siemerling 2007, 139–40).17

Continentalist Approach, Hemispheric Studies/Inter-American

Studies, Border Studies
In addition to Comparative North American Studies, other transna-
tional approaches to the United States and Canada are the continentalist
approach, hemispheric or “inter-American studies,” and border studies.
The continentalist approach takes a—largely politically, economically,
14 ● Comparative North American Studies

and historically oriented—view of Canada in relation to the United

States (and vice versa), and thus of the North American continent. A
radical variant of continentalism rests on the belief that the United
States and Canada should merge into one North American nation,
an idea that has been repeatedly associated with the US ideology of
manifest destiny. Yet the concept of continentalism was also relevant in
the context of French Canadian liberalism: in the 1840s Louis-Joseph
Papineau headed the “mouvement annexioniste,” which advocated
Quebec’s joining the United States; on the other hand, the Quebec
separatist movement, of course, posits a severe challenge for any con-
tinentalist approach. One should also mention here the continentalist
tradition in Latin America, which argued for a “United States of South
America” (see Pakkasvirta 1996). A milder view of North American
continentalism advocates closer ties between Canada and the United
States, specifically concerning economic and environmental issues—
see the trinational NAFTA of 1994. Thus continentalism is a policy or
ideology (on both sides of the border) rather than a specific approach
to the study of literature—though it may, of course, have an effect on
literary and cultural production.18
In the context of border studies—and even more so with regard to
hemispheric or inter-American studies—it is striking that Canada has
often been left out of the picture until very recently, with the scholarly
border between the United States and Canada apparently long closed.
Border studies have so far concentrated almost exclusively on the
Mexico-US border (yet see recently Sadowski-Smith 2014 and chapter 3
in this book).19 Hemispheric studies actually belie their designation
when they exclude Canada from their range of transnational endeav-
ors, an oversight that is hardly justifiable. One reason for this omission
is, in general, US Americans’ long-standing, notorious lack of interest
in Canada, which is tied to power structures and a stereotypical view
of Canada. The exclusion of Canada from hemispheric frameworks,
Claudia Sadowski-Smith and Claire Fox argue from a US American per-
spective, “is often grounded in assumptions about the country’s internal
homogeneity and similarity to the United States” (2004, 15). 20 More
kindly phrased, then, US Americans often regard Canada as “family,”
not foreigners, or, from an imperialist point of view, as just a “smaller
version” of the United States. 21 Although the US population is almost
ten times larger than that of Canada (308.7 million [Census 2010; US
Census Bureau] vs. 33.5 million [Census 2011; Statistics Canada]),
there are probably more Canadians doing research on the United States
than the other way around, 22 which also affects hemispheric and border
 Comparative North American Studies and Its Contexts ● 15

studies by US American (and Americanist) scholars. In fact, the rela-

tively few pertinent publications that do include Canada in this context
tend to be by non-Americans, particularly by German-language schol-
ars or scholars now working in the United States or Canada who origi-
nate from Canadophile Germany (see Siemerling 2005; Siemerling and
Casteel 2010; Sadowski-Smith 2005; Gruber 2008; cf. also von Flotow
and Nischik 2007). Yet the relatively low number of “hemispheric” con-
tributions that include Canada points just as much to the fact that, to
date, there are few Canadianists who, at the same time, specialize in
American Studies or hemispheric studies. 23
Another potential reason could be that Canadian scholars, in this
context, too, may have wanted to escape from too close an interchange
with all things American. Much like their colleagues in Latin America,
Canadianists may avoid or reject hemispheric frameworks because of
the alleged imperialist tendencies behind these approaches. Sophia
A. McClennen, for instance, opens her 2005 article “Inter-American
Studies or Imperial American Studies?” by provocatively wondering
whether “inter-American studies represent the latest variation on the
Monroe Doctrine of patronizing Latin America” (2005, 394). Similarly,
Sadowski-Smith and Fox argue that “Canadianists often construe US
scholars’ motivations for their work on Canada as a prelude to takeover”
(2004, 28, n. 37). One extreme reaction to such concerns has been to
simply exclude the United States, for a change, from hemispheric or
inter-American approaches: “An inter-Americas perspective opens up
another area of comparative research that could bypass the United States
to focus on commonalities [of Latin America] with Canada” (Sadowski-
Smith and Fox 2004, 14). More often, however, critics have expressed
the hope that in contrast to the “conservative, imperialist tendencies of
area studies during the period of the Cold War” 24 (McClennen 2005,
406), hemispheric or inter-American approaches may offer a conceptual
opportunity of decentering the position of the United States within the
Americas.
Generally, hemispheric studies 25 are based on the earth’s geographi-
cal separation into four spheres—one separating line being the equator,
which divides the earth into the northern and the southern hemispheres
(“hemi-” meaning “half ” in Greek) and the other being the prime merid-
ian, which divides the globe into the eastern hemisphere, encompass-
ing Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, and the western
hemisphere, encompassing the Americas, that is, North America and
South America, and the surrounding islands (especially the Caribbean).
In our context, (western) hemispheric studies nowadays mainly means
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