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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
THERMAL ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCE

Stefan aus der Wiesche

Christian Helcig

Convective Heat
Transfer From
Rotating Disks
Subjected To
Streams Of Air

123
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology

Thermal Engineering and Applied Science

Series Editor
Francis A. Kulacki, Minnesota, USA

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8884

Stefan aus der Wiesche • Christian Helcig

Convective Heat Transfer

From Rotating Disks
Subjected To Streams Of Air
Stefan aus der Wiesche Christian Helcig
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Muenster University of Applied Sciences Muenster University of Applied Sciences
Steinfurt, Germany Steinfurt, Germany

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-20166-5 ISBN 978-3-319-20167-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20167-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015943320

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© The Author(s) 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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Printed on acid-free paper

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Preface

This book is devoted to the flow and convective heat transfer phenomena that
occur when a rotating disk is subjected to an outer stream of air. Special attention is
given to the effects due to the angle of attack for inclined rotating disks. Such a
configuration represents a direct generalization of the fairly classic problems for
free rotating disks without any outer forced flows or for flow impingement onto an
orthogonal rotating disk. These both axis-symmetric configurations have been
widely discussed in the scientific literature, but little research has been done on
inclined rotating disks passed by an outer forced flow. This topic was therefore the
subject of a research project funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
DFG. The research provides insight into the complex configuration characterized
by interactions between rotating surfaces and boundary layers, flow separation
and transition phenomena, and into the establishment of distinct flow and heat
transfer regimes.
The main experimental and theoretical work of the project was finished in 2014.
The research showed that flow and heat transfer from inclined rotating disks
subjected to an outer stream of air delivers excellent examples for studying flow
transition and bifurcation phenomena in more detail. Therefore, the results might
be interesting not only for the scientific and engineering community directly faced
with rotating disk problems but also for a large number of fluid dynamics
researchers as well. The present contribution to the SpringerBriefs in Applied
Sciences and Technology makes the results available to a wider audience.

Steinfurt, Germany Stefan aus der Wiesche

Christian Helcig

v
Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG

for its strong financial support to the present work. This support has made it possible
to systematically collect and evaluate data on an inclined rotating disk subjected to
a stream of air.
The research involved many individuals from the laboratory team at Muenster
University of Applied Sciences. Their efforts and contributions are highly appreci-
ated. In particular, thanks go to the former undergraduate students Claus-Martin
Trinkl, Ufuk Bardas, Alexander Weyck, Lasse Nagel, and Christian Teigeler for
their contributions.
A multi-year research study cannot be successfully performed without the
feedback and comments of distinguished experts. Among the many scientists and
workers on the field, the authors would like to deeply acknowledge the fruitful
discussions with Igor V. Shevchuk. His comments and suggestions were extremely
valuable throughout the study. Furthermore, the authors would also like to thank
Professor Weigand, University of Stuttgart, for his encouraging interest and valu-
able suggestions. A great opportunity for presentation and discussion of results
were given by the conferences organized by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers ASME. Particularly, the contributions and the encouraging feedback
from the ASME Fluids Engineering Division were a great support.
The editorial assistance of the staff at Springer and the interests of the editor of
the series, Professor Kulacki, were also gratefully appreciated.
Finally, one of the authors, Stefan aus der Wiesche, would like to express his
special thanks to his wife Julia for her support and patience.

vii
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Boundary-Layer Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Self-Similar Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Dimensional Analysis and Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Topology of Three-Dimensional Separated Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 Wind Tunnel Experiments with Rotating Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 Electrically-Heated Disk Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Natural Convection Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Data Reduction for Variable Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Wind Tunnel and Inflow Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4 Axisymmetric Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1 Free Rotating Disk in Still Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Stationary Disk in an Orthogonal Stream of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Rotating Disk and an Orthogonal Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4 Jet Impingement onto an Orthogonal Rotating Disk . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5 Stationary Disk in Air Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Stationary Disk in a Parallel Stream of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 Location of Stagnation Point and Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4 Effect of Reynolds Number and Inflow Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.5 Phenomenological Model for the Transition at βtr . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

ix
x Contents

6 Rotating Disk in Air Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.1 Low Rotational Rates: Stagnation Flow Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2 High Rotational Rates: Stagnation Flow Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.3 Low Rotational Rates: Parallel Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.4 High Rotational Rates: Exact Solution for a Parallel Disk . . . . . . . 67
6.5 Arbitrary Rotational Rates: Parallel Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.6 Inclined Rotating Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7 Large-Eddy-Simulation (LES) Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.1 LES Overview and Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.2 Eddy Viscosity and Diffusivity Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.3 Application of LES for Basic Flows for Rotating Disks . . . . . . . . 85
7.4 Rotating Disk Heat Transfer LES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.5 Some Remarks Regarding Current Challenges for LES . . . . . . . . . 92
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
8 Heat Transfer Correlations for Practical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.1 Superposition Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.2 Recommendations for Heat Transfer Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.3 Effect of Prandtl Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.4 Outlook to Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Nomenclature

a Parameter for ellipsoid

a Potential flow parameter
aT Thermal diffusivity
A Variable for functional
Ai i-th area sector
Ai Tensor (Taylor series for velocity)
Aij Tensor (Taylor series for velocity)
Aijk Tensor (Taylor series for velocity)
b Parameter for ellipsoid
B Angular velocity ratio
B Variable
c Parameter for ellipsoid
cp Isobaric specific heat
C (Correlation) constant
C Variable
Ccr Correlation constant (Landau model)
CD Drag coefficient
Ci Correlation constant (i ¼ 1, 2, 3)
Cnc Correlation constant for natural convection heat transfer
CS Smagorinsky constant
d Thickness
d Diameter
f Function
F Function
F Self-similar function (radial component)
FD Drag force
g Acceleration due to gravity
gi i-th weighting factor
G Function

xi
xii Nomenclature

G Self-similar function (azimuthal component)

GΔx Filter function (LES)
Gr Grashof number
h Heat transfer coefficient
hm Mean heat transfer coefficient
hx Local heat transfer coefficient based on coordinate x
H Self-similar function (axial component)
H1 Self-similar function (axial component)
H2 Self-similar function (axial component)
K Correlation constant
Km Correlation constant (mean heat transfer)
m Correlation exponent
mcr Correlation exponent (Landau model)
mi Correlation exponent (i ¼ 1, 2, 3)
Ma Mach number
nR Correlation exponent
n* Exponent for temperature distribution function
N Velocity ratio (potential flow)
N Total number
Nu Nusselt number
Num Mean Nusselt number
Num,a Actual mean Nusselt number
Num,nc Mean Nusselt number for natural convection
Nu2R Nusselt number based on disk diameter 2R
p Pressure
ps Stagnation pressure
p* Macro pressure (LES)
P Self-similar function (pressure)
Pr Prandtl number
Prt Turbulent Prandtl number
qi Subgrid flux component in i-direction (LES)
q_ w Heat flux
r Radial coordinate
ri ith radial coordinate sector
R Radius
Rcr Critical ratio between Reynolds numbers (Landau model)
R* Radius for primary rotational flow domain
Re Reynolds number
Rea Reynolds number based on potential flow parameter a
Rea,2R Reynolds number based on potential flow parameter a and disk diameter
2R
Red,cr Critical Reynolds number based on sphere diameter d
Ree Combined Reynolds number
Reu Inflow or translational Reynolds number
Reδ Reynolds number based on boundary layer thickness
Nomenclature xiii

Reω Rotational Reynolds number

Reω,r Local rotational Reynolds number based on radial coordinate r
Reω,2R Rotational Reynolds number based on disk diameter 2R
S Strain rate tensor
Sij Strain rate tensor component
Sc Schmidt number
Sh Sherwood number
t Time
T Temperature
Tij Subgrid tensor (LES)
TF Turbulence factor
Tu Turbulence intensity
u Velocity (component)
u0 Fluctuating part of velocity
ui Velocity component in i-direction
ujet Jet velocity
x Coordinate
xi Coordinate in i-direction
x Coordinate vector
y Coordinate
y Coordinate vector
z Axial coordinate

Greek Symbols

α Diffusivity coefficient
αt Eddy diffusivity coefficient (LES)
α0 Parameter for velocity potential
β Angle of attack, incidence
βT Thermal expansion coefficient
Γ Circulation
δ1 Boundary layer thickness
ζ Self-similar variable
ζ Normal coordinate
θ Passive variable (e.g., temperature)
θs Alignment angle
Θ Normalized temperature
λ Thermal conductivity
λ Parameter for ellipsoid
λpert Perturbation wavelength
Λ Order parameter
μ Dynamic viscosity
ν Kinematic viscosity
νt Eddy viscosity
xiv Nomenclature

ρ Density
ϕ Velocity potential
ψ Functional
Ψ Control parameter
ω Angular velocity (disk)
Ω Angular velocity (flow)

Subscripts

av Average
cp Constant properties
f Film
i i-Direction (i ¼ 1, 2, 3)
j j-Direction ( j ¼ 1, 2, 3)
k k-Direction (k ¼ 1, 2, 3)
l Laminar
m Mean
M Maximum
r Radial
ref Reference
t Turbulent
tr Transition
tr,ω Transition with regard to ω
w Wall
z Axial
φ Azimuthal
0 Reference, nominal
1 Infinity, ambient, bulk

Superscript

+ Normalized

Mathematical Symbols

δψ Variation of ψ
ΔT Temperature difference
Δui Laplace operator for velocity component ui
f Filtering of function f (LES)
f0 Fluctuating part of variable f (LES)
F0 Derivative of self-similar function F
Chapter 1
Introduction

Configurations based on rotating disks are widely used in engineering applications,

and convective heat transfer from a rotating disk has been studied extensively in
the scientific literature for several decades. In addition to a large number of
technical papers, several monographs [1–4] about this topic are also available.
Today, research dedicated to flow and heat transfer phenomena in rotating disk
systems is still being performed, as demonstrated by the increasing number of
corresponding scientific and technical conference contributions and research
articles.
In certain respects, the flow in the vicinity of a rotating surface resembles the
flow over a stationary surface if the frame of reference of the observer is moving
with the rotating surface. However, in many cases, substantial additional flow
phenomena arise due to the action of centrifugal or Coriolis forces or due to the
nature of a three-dimensional boundary layer flow. Then, the resulting flow char-
acteristics can be very complex, and according to Kreith [5], “almost every rotating
system reveals novel and unexpected flow characteristics when subjected to a
complete stability analysis or when studied experimentally over a sufficiently
wide range of all the variables which affect the hydrodynamic phenomena.”
Since in rotating systems convective heat transfer and flow are intimately related,
they are also complex and present interesting scientific and practical phenomena. It
is therefore not surprising that much research has been dedicated to flow and heat
transfer in rotating systems.
In rotating disk systems, the two classes of (1) enclosed rotating disks or rotating
cavities and (2) the basic configuration of a free rotating disk can be identified. The
first class of rotating disk systems occurs frequently in gas turbine engineering.
With the advent of air-cooled gas turbines, the investigation of flow and heat
transfer phenomena due to rotor–stator interactions became mandatory for the gas
turbine industry. The latter case of a free rotating disk is from an academic or
fundamental point of view of major importance, but it represents as well an obvious

© The Author(s) 2016 1

S. aus der Wiesche, C. Helcig, Convective Heat Transfer From Rotating
Disks Subjected To Streams Of Air, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20167-2_1
2 1 Introduction

starting point for analyzing numerous technical applications in turbo machinery,

computer hard disks, CVD reactors, train wheel, or disk brake design.
The majority of the investigations consider enclosed rotating disk or free rotating
disks with or without an outer forced flow perpendicular to the disk plane. Much
less attention has been paid to configurations based on a rotating disk subjected to
an outer flow parallel to the plane of rotation, and the heat transfer from an inclined
rotating disk (i.e., with an angle of attack in respect to the uniform stream) has not
been covered by review articles or monographs so far. This book considers a series
of flow and heat transfer phenomena that occur when an inclined free rotating disk
is subjected to an outer forced stream of air, and special attention is given to the
effect of the angle of attack.
The possible flow configurations for a free disk subjected to a uniform flow are
illustrated in Fig. 1.1. The axisymmetric flow field for an orthogonal flow is shown
in Fig. 1.1a. A vanishing outer flow results in the limit case of a free rotating
disk in a resting fluid. This configuration has been intensively considered in
the scientific literature since the pioneering work [6] of von Karman in 1921.
Whereas the forced flow perpendicular to the disk leads to an axisymmetric
stagnation flow, see Fig. 1.1a, the combination of rotation and a parallel flow, as
in Fig. 1.1b, leads to a non-axisymmetric, fully three-dimensional flow.
The parallel flow over a disk with finite thickness is characterized by flow
separation at the leading disk edge followed by reattachment of a turbulent
boundary as illustrated in Fig. 1.1b.
In 1970, Dennis et al. [7] studied for the first time heat transfer coefficients for a
large range of rotational and crossflow Reynolds numbers by placing an electrically
heated disk in the parallel air stream of a wind tunnel. They reported “that the
freestream turbulence in the tunnel must have been high”, perhaps yielding sys-
tematically higher heat transfer rates. In 1974, Booth and de Vere [8] conducted a
comprehensive set of measurements of the radial variation of the heat transfer
coefficients for the same configuration but obviously without knowledge of the
prior work [7]. The authors concluded that “in any situation the level of heat
transfer coefficients is determined in the main by the speed of the transverse air
flow.” Such a statement at least partially contradicts the findings of Dennis et al. [7].

a b c
Fig. 1.1 Schematics of the flow fields caused by the outer forced flow for a stationary disk.
Axisymmetric configuration (a) parallel disk with flow separation (b) inclined disk (c)
1 Introduction 3

In 2005, He et al. [9] employed the naphthalene sublimation technique to obtain the
local Sherwood number of a rotating disk for a limited range of a local Reynolds
number, but unfortunately they did not distinguish between the rotational and the
crossflow Reynolds numbers. Results of an extensive large-eddy-simulation (LES)
study were published by one of the authors [10], but his numerical data indicated
heat transfer coefficients much lower than those measured experimentally by
Dennis et al. [7]. Since the deviations between the available data were substantial,
an independent re-investigation has been performed, and corresponding experimen-
tal data [11] were published in 2011.
The general case of an inclined rotating disk subjected to an outer flow as
illustrated in Fig. 1.1c has rarely been considered in the literature. Some experi-
mental data were presented in [11], but a systematic study of the effect of the angle
of attack on the flow and convective heat transfer is still lacking. The number of
articles dealing with flow and heat transfer over rotating disks has rapidly increased
over the last decades, but this canonical configuration remained surprisingly
unexplored. It was thus the subject of a research study funded by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG, and the major results of this systematic investiga-
tion are presented in this book. Obviously, an inclined disk represents the natural
connection between the perpendicular and the parallel disk, and it therefore con-
nects two configurations with substantially different symmetry properties. This
aspect makes it directly interesting from a theoretical point of view. From a
practical point of view, the affect the incidence angle has on the flow and heat
transfer is important in many applications.
The flow and convective heat transfer from an inclined disk is governed in great
parts by the phenomenon of flow separation and by the interaction of the boundary
layer flow with the rotating disk surface. While separation and the transition to
turbulence are well understood in two-dimensional boundary layer flows, there is
still no complete theory available for three-dimensional flow separation. However,
in the past, critical point and bifurcation theory have provided a good strategy for a
qualitative discussion of phenomena occurring due to three-dimensional flow
separation, and in the following we show that this approach is also valuable for
the present configuration of an inclined rotating disk subjected to a uniform
forced flow.
All theoretical considerations are generally based upon measurements and
experimental research. In the present case, only air at atmospheric conditions
was considered as the fluid, and experiments were carried out in test sections of
low-speed wind tunnels. This approach is therefore discussed in some detail. To
an increasing extent, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods are now being
used to simulate flow and heat transfer in rotating disk systems. Although
the basic configuration of a free rotating disk in a uniform stream of air seems
to be fairly simple, modeling and simulation of flow separation and the
corresponding effects are still challenging for CFD. Here, LES methods offer
great potential. This promising, modern approach will be discussed briefly in this
contribution, too.
4 1 Introduction

References

1. Dorfman LA (1963) Hydrodynamic resistance and the heat loss of rotating solids. Oliver &
Boyd, Edinburgh
2. Owen JM, Rogers RH (1989) Flow and heat transfer in rotating disc systems, vol 1,
Rotor-stator systems. Research Studies, Taunton
3. Owen JM, Rogers RH (1989) Flow and heat transfer in rotating disc systems, vol 2, Rotating
cavities. Research Studies, Taunton
4. Shevchuk IV (2009) Convective heat and mass transfer in rotating disk systems. Springer,
Berlin
5. Kreith F (1968) Convection heat transfer in rotating systems. Adv Heat Tran 5:129–251
6. von Karman T (1921) Über laminare und turbulente Reibung. ZAMM 1(4):233–252
7. Dennis RW, Newstead C, Ede AJ (1970) The heat transfer from a rotating disc in an air
crossflow. In: Proceedings of 4th International Heat Transfer Conference, Versailles, 1970
(paper FC 7.1)
8. Booth GL, de Vere APC (1974) Convective heat transfer from a rotating disc in a transverse
air stream. In: Proceedings of 5th International Heat Transfer Conference, Tokyo, 1974
(paper FC1.7)
9. He Y, Ma L, Huang S (2005) Convection heat and mass transfer from a disk. Heat Mass Transf
41:766–772
10. aus der Wiesche S (2007) Heat transfer from a rotating disk in a parallel air crossflow.
Int J Therm Sci 46:745–754
11. Trinkl CM, Bardas U, Weyck A, aus der Wiesche S (2011) Experimental study of the
convective heat transfer from a rotating disc subjected to forced air streams. Int J Therm Sci
50:73–80
Chapter 2
Basic Principles

This chapter briefly reviews some basic principles that are useful when studying
flow and heat transfer in rotating disk systems. Further details about these principles
can be found in the literature, and it is therefore not necessary to present all of their
implications here. The flow over an inclined disk with finite thickness is in general
three-dimensional and characterized by flow separation. The transitions between
different flow and heat transfer regimes can be described in terms of the critical
point theory proposed for the first time in the early 1950s. This approach has been
developed further over the last decades, and its connections to bifurcation theory
became apparent. Its great potential for analyzing rotating disk systems has been
recently realized, and its basic principles are given here.

2.1 Governing Equations

In this book, the air is considered to be an incompressible, Newtonian fluid with

practically constant material properties. The assumption of an incompressible fluid
is justified for low speed levels corresponding to Mach numbers below Ma < 0.2
[1], giving, for air at atmospheric conditions, a maximum velocity limit between
60 and 80 m/s. Although in air there is a temperature dependency of the material
properties such as viscosity or thermal conductivity, these effects can be neglected
at small or moderate temperature differences within the system. For disks with high
thermal loads, this rather simple assumption should be replaced by a more appro-
priate treatment taking the temperature dependency of the quantities into account
[2]. For fluid flows over disks rotating with sufficiently high angular velocities ω or
subjected to strong streams, contributions due to natural convection or effects of
gravitational forces on momentum transfer can be neglected.
Under the above assumptions, the governing flow equations are given by the
Navier–Stokes equations that call in the usual Cartesian tensor notation

© The Author(s) 2016 5

S. aus der Wiesche, C. Helcig, Convective Heat Transfer From Rotating
Disks Subjected To Streams Of Air, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-20167-2_2
6 2 Basic Principles

2
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂ p μ ∂ ui
þ uj ¼ þ ð2:1Þ
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂xi ρ ∂x2j

and the continuity equation

∂ui
¼ 0: ð2:2Þ
∂xi
Since heat transfer is involved, the energy equation has to be considered. It can be
written under the above assumptions as a partial differential equation
2
∂T ∂T ∂ T
þ ui ¼ aT 2 : ð2:3Þ
∂t ∂xi ∂xi

for the temperature field T in the flow domain. In addition to the governing
equations (2.1)–(2.3), appropriate boundary conditions have to be given. For
rotating solids, the no-slip condition is usually applied to the velocity field. With
regard to heat transfer, a prescribed wall heat flux q_ w or a prescribed wall
temperature distribution Tw are frequently used boundary conditions. Since the
classic investigation by Dorfman, the assumption of a temperature distribution in
accordance to a power law

T w ¼ T 0 þ C r n* : ð2:4Þ

with constant parameters T0, C, and n* is common for analytical treatments [3]. The
isothermal case with constant wall temperature Tw corresponds to n* ¼ 0.
For axisymmetric configurations such as free rotating disks in a resting fluid or
flow impingement onto orthogonal disks, a cylindrical coordinate system can be
usefully applied. This configuration with its main parameters is shown in Fig. 2.1.
In Fig. 2.1, the rotation axis of the disk is chosen as z-coordinate axis, while the
point z ¼ 0 is located at the disk surface. In this case, the governing equations for
stationary flow are explicitly given by the following set of partial differential
equations:

∂ur ∂ur u2φ 1 ∂ p μ
ur 

ur þ uz  ¼ þ Δur  2 ; ð2:5Þ
∂r ∂z r ρ ∂r ρ r

Fig. 2.1 Axisymmetric z

configuration and its main
parameters (flow and
temperature profile over
a rotating disk in still air) ur
T

r
Tw
2.2 Boundary-Layer Approach 7

∂uφ ∂uφ ur uφ μ
uφ 
ur þ uz þ ¼ Δuφ  2 ; ð2:6Þ
∂r ∂z r ρ r
∂uz ∂uz 1 ∂p μ
ur þ uz ¼ þ Δuz ; ð2:7Þ
∂r ∂z ρ ∂z ρ
∂ur ur ∂uz
þ þ ¼0 ð2:8Þ
∂r r ∂z

with the operator

2 2
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
Δ¼ þ þ : ð2:9Þ
∂r 2 r ∂r ∂z2

In a rotating coordinate system (i.e., a frame fixed with the disk), the governing
equations include additional Coriolis force terms. For further details about formu-
lating the corresponding Navier–Stokes equations in moving or rotating frames, the
reader is referred to [3].

2.2 Boundary-Layer Approach

In fluid mechanics, the boundary-layer theory is of fundamental importance, and

many problems can only be treated successfully within its framework [4]. In the
case of a rotating disk in still air, the usual boundary-layer assumptions are [3, 4]:
1. The velocity component uz is by an order of magnitude lower than the other
components.
2. The change of velocity, pressure, and temperature in the normal direction is
much larger than in the radial direction.
3. The static pressure is constant in the normal direction.
Under these assumptions, it is possible to replace the Navier–Stokes equations
(2.6) and (2.7) by the following set of boundary-layer equations
2
∂ur ∂ur u2φ 1 ∂ p μ ∂ ur
ur þ uz  ¼ þ ; ð2:10Þ
∂r ∂z r ρ ∂r ρ ∂z2
2
∂uφ ∂uφ ur uφ μ ∂ uφ
ur þ uz þ ¼ ; ð2:11Þ
∂r ∂z r ρ ∂z2
∂p
¼ 0: ð2:12Þ
∂z

The continuity equation (2.8) remains invariable. The equation for a stationary
thermal boundary layer is
8 2 Basic Principles

Fig. 2.2 Flow over a

parallel rotating disk
z

ux

x
Wake

2
∂T ∂T ∂ T
ur þ uz ¼ aT 2 : ð2:13Þ
∂r ∂z ∂z

The above set of equations is closed by the equation

1 du2r, 1 u2φ, 1 1 d p1
 ¼ ð2:14Þ
2 dr r ρ dr
that connects the flow variables in the potential flow domain.
For a thin disk subjected to a parallel stream of air, the boundary-layer approach
has to be applied to the flow arrangement illustrated in Fig. 2.2, which differs
substantially from the situation shown in Fig. 2.1 and is described by the set of
equations (2.10)–(2.14).
For parallel or inclined disks with finite thickness, wakes and three-dimensional
flow separation become essential. While the phenomenon of separation in
two-dimensional flow is fairly well understood, the situation in three dimensions
is much more complicated and far from being clear. Furthermore, a moving solid
boundary wall (i.e., the rotating disk surface) changes the separation condition.
Then, Prandtl’s well-known two-dimensional separation condition

∂u
¼0 ð2:15Þ
∂z w
at the wall has to be replaced by the so-called MRS-criterion [5–7]

∂u
¼ 0 at regions with vanishing velocity u ¼ 0; ð2:16Þ
∂z
satisfied typically within the flow domain. The separated flow is usually unsteady,
and the laminar boundary-layer theory does not provide a fully efficient approach
2.3 Self-Similar Solutions 9

for calculating the entire flow field. For these types of flows and phenomena, the
critical point and bifurcation theory offers a valuable approach that will be
discussed in more detail in following sections of this chapter.
The integral method is a classic and powerful approach to solving stationary
axisymmetric boundary-layer problems arising from rotating disks. Commonly, the
first step in this method is to replace the differential equations with integral
boundary-layer equations (which are in fact integrodifferential equations). In a
second step, the integral boundary-layer equations are solved using appropriate
models for the involved velocity and wall shear-stress components. Models for
temperature (or enthalpy thickness) profiles and wall heat flux expressions are
required for solving the thermal boundary-layer problem. It is possible to account
for laminar and turbulent flow. The integral method is capable of solving a large
variety of flow and heat transfer problems in rotating disk systems [3, 8, 9], but
applying this method to fully three-dimensional flow including flow separation and
reattachment of turbulent boundary layers is difficult or nearly impossible.

2.3 Self-Similar Solutions

For laminar flows over a single rotating disk, exact solutions of the Navier–Stokes
equations can be obtained by means of the concept of self-similar solutions. Since
the pioneering work [10] by von Karman in 1921, this class of exact solutions has
been also termed von Karman swirling flows, and a review of its mathematical
properties has been given by Zandbergen and Dijkstra [11]. For a free rotating disk
subjected to a perpendicular stream of air, the following self-similar variables are
introduced:

ur ¼ ða þ ωÞ rFðζ Þ; ð2:17Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uz ¼ ða þ ωÞv Hðζ Þ; ð2:18Þ

uφ ¼ ða þ ωÞ r Gðζ Þ; ð2:19Þ

p ¼ ρ v ωPðζ Þ ð2:20Þ

with the new coordinate

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
aþω
ζ¼z : ð2:21Þ
v

The functions F, G, H, and P obey a set of ordinary differential equations

0 N 2  B2 00
F2  G2 þ F H ¼ 2
þF ; ð2:22Þ
ð1 þ N Þ
10 2 Basic Principles

0 00
2FG þ G H ¼ G ; ð2:23Þ
0 0 00
HH ¼ P þ H ; ð2:24Þ
0
2F þ H ¼ 0; ð2:25Þ

derived from the boundary-layer equations. The potential flow variable a is

connected with the assumed flow

ζ ! 1 : ur, 1 ¼ ar, uz, 1 ¼ 2az, uφ, 1 ¼ Ωr ð2:26Þ

at infinity and has the dimension of 1/s. The ratio between the disk angular velocity
ω and the outer flow rotation Ω is denoted by parameter B ¼ Ω/ω and is assumed to
be constant. The non-dimensional radial velocity in the potential flow outside the
boundary layer is given by N ¼ ur, 1 =ω r ¼ a=ω. At the disk surface, the boundary
conditions are

ζ ¼ 0 : F ¼ H ¼ 0, G ¼ 1: ð2:27Þ

In the past, the above set of equations has been solved by means of expansions in
power or exponential series and by using the shoot-method. Today, modern math-
ematical software tools enable user-friendly handling of such sets of ordinary
differential equations. The exact solutions provide a reliable database for validation
studies of CFD methods. Using self-similar solutions also provides a good oppor-
tunity for obtaining approximate analytical solutions for other configurations, but it
should be remarked that currently this approach has been mainly replaced by
numerical methods (CFD) in engineering applications.

2.4 Dimensional Analysis and Correlations

The general behavior of all fluid mechanical systems can be best understood
through dimensional analysis. This is the formal procedure whereby the group of
involved variables representing the flow and heat transfer configuration is reduced
to a smaller number of dimensionless groups. When the number of independent
variables is not too great, dimensional analysis enables a clear and transparent
picture. Several methods for constructing non-dimensional groups have been
described [12]. In the case of flow and convective heat transfer from an inclined
rotating disk as illustrated in Fig. 2.3, the following groups are useful based on the
main parameters of the considered problem.
The mean heat transfer coefficient hm is used for the definition of a mean or
average Nusselt number with the disk radius R
2.4 Dimensional Analysis and Correlations 11

Fig. 2.3 Main parameters

for the flow and heat
transfer from an inclined
rotating disk R

Tw

hm R
Num ¼ ð2:28Þ
λ

with

2ðπ ð
R
q_ w, m 1
hm ¼ and q_ w, m ¼ 2 q_ w r dr dφ: ð2:29Þ
T w, m  T 1 πR
0 0

Instead of a mean Nusselt number Num, the use of a local Nusselt number

q_ w r
Nu ¼ ð2:30Þ
λðT w  T 1 Þ

is also common, employing local values at the radial coordinate r.

The flow behavior is described by an inflow or translational Reynolds number

u1 R
Reu ¼ ð2:31Þ
v

based on the velocity u1 of the outer uniform forced flow and a rotational Reynolds
number

ωR2
Reω ¼ : ð2:32Þ
v

Sometimes, a local rotational Reynolds number

ωr 2
Reω, r ¼ ð2:33Þ
v

based on the radial coordinate r is also used (in many cases in connection with a
local Nusselt number (2.30)).
12 2 Basic Principles

The thermal fluid properties are generally described by the Prandtl number
v
Pr ¼ ; ð2:34Þ
aT

but in this book only dry air at atmospheric conditions with Pr ¼ 0.71 is considered.
Since incompressible flow is assumed, the Mach number is equal to zero, Ma ¼ 0.
Body forces or natural convection effects are also neglected in the present analyt-
ical treatment, and hence no Grashof or Rayleigh numbers are required, but in light
of the actual experiments and their results, the role of natural convection has to be
carefully considered (see Chap. 3).
The geometric arrangement is described by the angle of attack (or incidence) β.
This variable is of major importance because it governs the symmetry. The case
β ¼ 90 corresponds to the axisymmetric stagnation flow, whereas the three-
dimensional flow over a parallel disk would be represented by β ¼ 0 .
Of further influence is the thickness ratio d/R of the disk because, together with
the angle of attack β, this parameter governs the location of a stagnation point and
hence the flow regime over the disk.
The resulting flow regime also depends on the turbulence level of the inflow and
the roughness of the disk surface because under certain circumstances these param-
eters govern the transition from a laminar boundary-layer flow to a turbulent
boundary layer.
In summary, the mean Nusselt number for a thin rotating disk should be
expressed at least as the function

Num ¼ Num ðReu , Reω , βÞ Pr ¼ 0:71, Ma ¼ 0 ð2:35Þ

of the involved three major parameters. However, we demonstrate later that other
minor parameters such as d/R or the inflow turbulence level Tu are also, under
certain circumstances, of some importance for heat transfer correlations.

2.5 Topology of Three-Dimensional Separated Flows

Three-dimensional separated flow represents a domain of great practical interest

that is still beyond the reach of definitive theoretical analysis or numerical compu-
tations. At present, the understanding of three-dimensional flow separation rests on
observations drawn from experiments. However since the pioneering works in the
early 1950s by Legendre [13–15], the topology of such flows can also be described
in terms of a critical point theory that is particularly useful for classifying and
interpreting transitions between different flow and heat transfer regimes of rotating
disk systems.
Describing and understanding three-dimensional flows present challenges
because of the use of inappropriate terms linked to two-dimensional flows. In the
2.5 Topology of Three-Dimensional Separated Flows 13

case of rotating surfaces, Prandtl’s classic two-dimensional description has only

limited value, but as pointed out by Legendre [16] in 1956, the pattern of stream-
lines immediately adjacent to the surface might be considered as trajectories having
properties consistent with those of a continuous vector field. On the basis of his
postulate, it follows that there is a strong connection to the theory of autonomous
differential equations and bifurcation theory. This can be demonstrated by consid-
ering the Navier–Stokes equations (2.1) and the continuity equation (2.2) for the
flow field. Assuming that the solutions of that set of equations are regular at all
points, an arbitrary point O in the flow field can be chosen and a Taylor series

ui ¼ Ai þ Aij x j þ Aijk x j xk þ . . . ¼ x_ i ð2:36Þ

can be used to expand the velocity ui in terms of the coordinates xj with the origin
for xj located at O. The coefficients Ai, Aij, . . . are functions of time if the flow is
unsteady, and they are symmetric tensors in all indices except the first. Except at
singular points, it follows from (2.36) that at a point O very close to a rigid surface,
the velocity components must grow linearly with a coordinate ζ directed out of the
surface normal to the general curvilinear coordinates being orthogonal axes in the
surface. The velocity components of a streamline near the surface obey then a set of
autonomous ordinary differential equations [13]. If O is located at a critical point,
then the streamline slope is indeterminate, which means that the lowest order
coefficients Ai are equal to zero. There are two types of critical points [14], namely
(1) no-slip critical points such as a separation point on a no-slip boundary (Aij ¼ 0),
and (2) free-slip critical points occurring within the fluid away from the surface
(Aij finite). No-slip critical points are classifiable into nodes and saddle points,
and nodes may be further subdivided into two subclasses (nodal points and foci
of separation or attachment) as discussed by Lighthill [17] in more detail.
Mathematically, they are governed by the properties of the tensors Aijk.
In the case of inclined rotating disks subjected to a stream of air, parameters such
as the angle of attack or the Reynolds numbers determine the three-dimensional
flow separation. In line with the terminology of Andronov et al. [18], the pattern of
skin friction lines on the body constitutes the phase portrait of the surface shear-
stress vector. Two phase portraits have the same topological structure if a mapping
from one to the other phase portrait preserves the paths. A topological property is
any characteristic of the phase portrait that remains invariant under all path-
preserving mappings. The number and types of critical points are examples of
such topological properties. The set of all topological properties of the phase
portrait describes the topological structure.
The most important issue for the present purpose is the structural stability of
phase portraits relative to a control parameter Ψ . The control parameter Ψ can be
given directly by a relevant variable that governs the flow regime (e.g., Ψ ¼ β) or it
can be given by suitable non-dimensional groups (e.g., Ψ ¼ Reω/Reu). A phase
portrait is structurally stable at a given value of the control parameter Ψ if the phase
portrait resulting from an infinitesimal change in the parameter has the same
topological structure. It is useful to distinguish between structural stability and
14 2 Basic Principles

asymptotic stability of the flow. A mean flow is called asymptotically stable if small
perturbations from it at a fixed value of the control parameter γ decay to zero as
time t ! 1. Furthermore, it is useful to distinguish between local and global
properties of the instabilities. Instability is called global if it permanently alters
the topological structure of either the external three-dimensional velocity field or
the phase portrait of the surface-stress field. Instability is local if it does not result
in a change of the topological structure of vector fields. A structural instability is
always global while an asymptotic instability implies non-uniqueness in the solu-
tions of the governing flow equations.
Asymptotic instability of the external flow leads to the notions of bifurcation,
symmetry breaking, and dissipative structures that have been applied to rotating
disk systems [19]. The fluid motions evolve according to the time-dependent
equations of the general form

∂ui  
¼ G u j; Ψ ð2:37Þ
∂t

that is governed by the control parameter Ψ . The steady mean flow is represented by
 
0 ¼ G u j; Ψ : ð2:38Þ

A mean flow u0,i is an asymptotically stable flow if small perturbations from it

decay with increasing time. When the control parameter Ψ is varied, one mean flow
u0,i may persist in the mathematical sense that it remains a valid solution of (2.38)
but becomes unstable to small perturbations as the control parameter Ψ crosses a
critical or transitional value Ψ tr. At such a transition point Ψ ¼ Ψ tr, a new mean flow
may bifurcate from the known flow u0,i. It is assumed that the flow and heat transfer
behavior can be sufficiently described by an order parameter or amplitude Λ. Such
an order parameter Λ might be given by a mean Nusselt number related to a
reference value, or by another quantity that characterizes the bifurcation flow
alone (e.g., the amplitude of an oscillating velocity component [20]). The behavior
is well illustrated by means of the bifurcation diagram shown in Fig. 2.4. Stable
flows are indicated by solid lines in Fig. 2.4 and unstable flows by dashed lines.
Over the range Ψ < Ψ tr where the flow is stable, the order parameter Λ remains
constant. The flow becomes unstable for all values Ψ > Ψ tr, as the dashed line on
the abscissa in Fig. 2.4 indicates. A new mean flow bifurcates from Ψ ¼ Ψ tr either
supercritically or subcritically. At a supercritical bifurcation, the new flow that
replaces the unstable one differs infinitesimally from it. As Ψ increases beyond Ψ tr,
the bifurcation flow departs significantly from the unstable flow. The bifurcation
breaks the symmetry of the known flow, adopting a form of lesser symmetry in
which dissipative structures arise to absorb just the amount of excess energy that the
more symmetrical flow is no longer able to absorb.
At a subcritical bifurcation, there are no adjacent new flows that differ only
infinitesimally from the unstable flow. Here, a finite jump in the development of
the order parameter Λ occurs at Ψ ¼ Ψ tr for increasing Ψ . This finite jump
Another random document with
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"Don't you think that seems rather ungrateful, when she
has been so kind to you?" asked the nurse. "Shall I say that
you do not feel strong enough to see her to-day, but you
hope to do so in a day or two?"

"No, no, no!" cried Michael vehemently. "Say nothing of the

kind. I can't see her, I tell you. I can't and I won't, so
there!"

"You're a strange man," said the nurse; and she went away,
perhaps to repeat the same remark below stairs.

When she came back into the room a little later, Michael's
eyes were fixed on her anxiously.

"Has she gone?" he asked.

"Yes, she has gone."

"What did she say?"

"Oh, she was sorry you would not see her, and she asked
me to give you this." And the nurse held out to him a little
bunch of sweet violets.

But Michael recoiled as if she were offering him something

disagreeable.

"I wish she hadn't," he said.

"Well, you are ungrateful," said the nurse. "Catch me ever

giving you flowers! And why you couldn't have let her come
up to see you, I can't think. She would have read a chapter
of the Bible to you, perhaps, and that would have done you
good."

"I can read one to myself," said Michael.

"You're hardly strong enough for that yet. Have you a
Bible?"

"Of course I've got a Bible," replied Michael indignantly.

"What do you take me for? There is one somewhere that
belonged to my mother, and there are plenty of them in the
shop. Pretty old some of them are, too. The older they are,
the more precious they are, you know."

"The Bible is precious anyhow," said the nurse. "It is a

grand comfort, especially when one is weak and low. But
you're thinking only of the binding, and the paper, and the
print, Mr. Betts."

"Of course I am," he said; "it's my business to think of

them."

"And does it not concern you to think of what is written in

the Bible?"

"Oh, I know all about that. I was taught the Bible when I
was young. I used to go to Sunday School. You need not
look at me, nurse, as if you thought me a great sinner. I've
always lived honest and respectable. I've never—"

The words that Michael had been about to utter stuck in his
throat. It was no longer possible for him to declare that he
had never done wrong.

"Well, I know that I am a sinner," said the nurse, "and I'm

glad I know it, since it was not the righteous, but sinners,
whom Jesus came to save. And I can't help thinking that
perhaps the worst sin of all is not to be conscious of sin."

"I don't know what you mean," said Michael; "I can't
profess to be a worse man than I am. I've always tried to
do my duty. And I've been good to other people, though
they've only repaid me with ingratitude."

"Ah, it's hard to meet with ingratitude," said the nurse; "it
does make you feel as if you would never do anything for
people again. But then we forget how often we ourselves
are ungrateful to God. Now don't you go and be ungrateful,
Mr. Betts."

"Why should you say that?" he asked.

"Oh, I was only thinking how good God has been in

restoring you to health."

"Was I so very bad?" asked Michael.

"Indeed you were ill. There was one day when I almost
gave you up. But that seems long ago now, and you are
making a good recovery. You'll soon be as well as ever."

Michael looked grave. He doubted the nurse's last

statement. He felt that his illness had made an old man of
him. Most people had thought him one before. Michael
heaved a deep sigh, and was silent. He lay still for some
time, his contracted brow showing that he was thinking
deeply, and when at last he spoke, his words puzzled the
nurse, since she had not been able to follow his train of
thought.

"Was she smartly dressed?" he asked.

"She? Who? Of whom are you speaking, Mr. Betts?"

"The lady who brought those flowers," he said.

"Why, no; she's in widow's mourning, poor thing."

"Ah, to be sure, I forgot," he murmured.

"I don't fancy she would have been smart in any case,"
continued the nurse. "I don't think she has much to be
smart with. I noticed that her gloves were shabby. And the
little girl's frock was the worse for wear."

"Ah, then the little girl was there," said Michael, with some
eagerness.

"Yes, indeed, and she's the sweetest little mite that ever I
saw, and with such a quick tongue. She asked me ever so
many questions about you, Mr. Betts. She wanted to know
how old you were, and whether your hair had turned white
in your illness, and if you were able to read in bed. I think
she would have liked to come and see you. Oh, and I was to
be sure to tell you that if you would like her 'Pilgrim's
Progress' to read whilst you were ill she would lend it to
you."

"Bless her!" murmured old Michael.

He felt it would be delightful to see her come into his room.

How her fair face and sunny locks would light up the old
gloomy attic! Her pretty tones would be like music in his
ears. But then he remembered that he had wronged her
too. He could not look on her without feeling that he had
injured her. It would hurt him to receive kindness from her.
The wrong that he had done had raised a barrier between
them. How he wished that he had taken the notes to Mrs.
Lavers at once! It would have been so much easier to
explain then. The thought of that past action was beginning
to weigh on his mind like a load.

As he felt it thus, there was suddenly recalled to his mind

the picture in the "Pilgrim's Progress" to which little Margery
had drawn his attention—the picture of the man with the
heavy burden on his back. He could hear the childish voice
saying:

"Oh, weren't you glad, Mr. Betts, when his burden fell off?
Have you lost your burden, Mr. Betts?"

Well, if he had not known then, he knew now that he had a

burden to carry. With the thought he gave such a groan,
that the nurse came in haste to see what was the matter
with him.

"Can't you rest comfortably?" she asked.

"No, I can't," he answered; "I'm very uneasy—very uneasy

indeed."

The next day Michael was permitted to sit up for a little

while. He scarcely appreciated the privilege, for when he
moved from the bed, he realized how very, very weak he
was, and felt so good-for-nothing that he was thankful
when he was allowed to lie down again. But the following
day he felt stronger, and was able to sit up a little longer,
and he continued to make progress till the day came when
he was able to go downstairs.

One day, Michael asked his nurse to go downstairs and fetch

him a Bible. She would have no difficulty in finding one in
the shop, he said, if she looked on a certain shelf to which
he directed her. And then Michael sighed as he thought of
the shop. What would become of his business with the shop
shut up for so long? His rival in the Tottenham Court Road
was probably flourishing at his expense, and drawing away
some of his best customers. What a thing it was to be all
alone, with no one to depend on in time of need!

When his nurse brought him the Bible, Michael opened it

and sat for some time studying its pages. It was years since
he had read the Bible, and though he professed to "know all
about it," the old, almost forgotten words impressed him
now with strange freshness and vividness. But though he
read passage after passage, what he read gave him little
comfort. The Book seemed to speak only to condemn him.
"He that loveth not his brother whom he has seen: how can
he love God whom he hath not seen?" Here were words that
set him thinking.

Michael knew that he did not love his poor outcast brother.
No, he had wished him dead. Nor did he love God. No, his
heart was so cold and dead he hardly knew what love
meant.

Michael never forgot the evening when he first came

downstairs, and had his tea served to him in the little back
sitting-room. It was a dreary return to his old surroundings.
There was no one to give him a welcome except Mrs.
Wiggins, and her greeting was of a lugubrious character.
According to her code of propriety, it was the correct thing
to express sympathy by assuring him that he looked "awful
bad yet," and that it would be long ere he lost the effects of
his illness, and indeed he could never hope to be the man
he was, with other such cheering truths.

His nurse had done her best to give to the dingy old room a
cheerful appearance. There was a bright fire in the grate,
the table was set quite daintily, and hot buttered toast, a
poached egg and fresh watercress were there to tempt his
appetite. But Michael had never felt so depressed in his life
as when he looked round on his old familiar haunt. On the
morrow his nurse was to leave, and he would be thrown
entirely on himself again. The prospect filled him with
despair. The old, lonely, loveless life looked hateful to him
now.
Michael had finished his tea, and was resting in the big
armchair, when the shop bell rang sharply, and Mrs. Wiggins
came a few minutes later to say that a messenger had
come, who wished to speak with the nurse. She went out to
attend the summons, and Michael waited, wondering what it
might mean. In a few minutes she returned, her demeanour
betraying some excitement.

"I am sorry to say, Mr. Betts, that I must leave you this
evening," she began; "at once, indeed. The doctor knows
that you can do without me now, and he has sent to beg
that I will go at once to Mrs. Lavers' house. Her little girl is
very ill."

"Ill! The little girl!" exclaimed Michael, starting forward in

his chair. "You don't mean that?"

"Indeed I do, unhappily. It's diphtheria she has, poor little

dear, and that's a terrible thing with children. You won't
mind my leaving you a few hours earlier?"

"Mind! Of course not. Go at once, nurse; go and do all you

can for her. Oh, do try your utmost to save her life, for I—I
love that little girl, nurse. I could not bear to hear that she
was dead."

"You may be sure I shall do my best for her," she

responded, looking at him in amazement. So he had the
remnant of a heart after all, this poor old man.

CHAPTER IX
 RESTITUTION

THE night that followed was a wretched one for Michael

Betts. He could not sleep for thinking of poor little Margery
stricken with the dire disease of childhood, which so often
proves fatal.

He had spoken truly when he said that he loved the little

winsome maiden; though it had but come to him as he
spoke, with the flash of a sudden inspiration, that it was
love, the feeling that drew him to little Margery and made
him long to see her fair, wee face and to hear her sweet,
childish voice. It was terrible to think of her dying, choked,
poisoned by that terrible malady.

Ere he went upstairs to bed, Michael had hunted amongst

the encyclopædias in his shop till he found what he believed
to be an able and trustworthy article on diphtheria. Of this,
he had read every word more than once, with the result
that his fears for the little one's life were intensified, and he
was tortured by a sense of what her sufferings must be.

If only he could do anything to help her in the sore struggle!

But, alas! Of what use could a poor old man, weakened by
recent illness, be? And then, with a bitter pang, he
remembered that though he loved her, he had done her
wrong. He had defrauded this little fatherless child. He could
no longer hide from himself the truth. He could no longer
justify his conduct respecting the notes he had found in the
professor's books. He saw that transaction now in its true
light. He, Michael Betts, had robbed the widow and the
fatherless, and God would surely visit upon him his sin.

He groaned aloud as he turned to and fro on his sleepless

bed. His action looked darker in every fresh aspect that he
viewed it. How could he have done such a thing, he, Michael
Betts, who had always prided himself on his uprightness?
Well, he could never boast himself now. He knew now that
he was a sinner indeed. Again he recalled the day when he
had first seen little Margery standing within his shop. He
heard her sweet tones saying:

"Have you lost your burden, Mr. Betts?"

Ah, he had resented her speaking of him as a sinner then!

He knew better now. He saw now that he had always been a
sinner, slighting and neglecting the love of God, and living
the hard, narrow, loveless life into which God cannot enter.

But one thing was borne in upon Michael's mind with the
force of an irresistible conviction during those weary,
restless hours. He must, as far as possible, undo the wrong
he had done. He must restore the money he had stolen.
Much as he shrank from all that restitution involved, he
knew he could have no peace of mind, or even rest of body,
till it was done.

Michael felt too ill to rise early the next morning; but as
soon as he could, he got up and went feebly downstairs,
sadly conscious that little Margery's words were coming
true, and that he was getting to be a very old man.

"My! you do look bad!" was Mrs. Wiggins' encouraging

greeting. "I declare you look worse than you did yesterday.
You'll have to be very careful of yourself, Mr. Betts, if you
don't want to slip away altogether."

"Do mind your own business and leave my looks alone,"

responded old Betts fretfully. "I shall be all right when I've
had some lunch."
"I'll get you some beef-tea at once," said Mrs. Wiggins,
bustling away.

But when she returned with the steaming cup, Michael

seemed in no haste to drink it.

"Mrs. Wiggins," he said slowly, as he held his spoon

suspended, "do you know where that lady lives?"

"What lady?" she asked.

"Why, the lady whose little girl is ill, Mrs. Lavers of course."

"Certainly I knows where she lives. It's in Clarendon

Gardens, No. 48. My cousin works for 'er landlady, and
she's told me about 'er many times."

"Never mind that," said Michael. "I don't want to hear about
your cousin. I just want you to go round to the house and
ask how the little girl is. Never mind your work. Go at once;
do you hear?"

Mrs. Wiggins did hear, and, startled by the peremptory

manner in which Michael spoke, she prepared to go at once.

The house was but a little way off, but she was gone more
than half an hour, having lingered to talk with her cousin.
Michael awaited her return in painful suspense.

"Well?" he said, when at last she appeared.

"She's no better," said Mrs. Wiggins; "the doctor gives little

'ope, and 'er poor mar's in a terrible state about 'er."

Michael's face grew white.

"What doctor is attending her?" he asked hoarsely.

"Dr. Newman," she replied.

"There are other doctors in London cleverer than he is," said

Michael eagerly.

"P'raps so; but is it likely a poor widow like Mrs. Lavers can
afford to 'ave them? Not that they'd be any good,"
continued Mrs. Wiggins, her tones expressive of supreme
contempt for the medical profession. "If she's goin' to die,
she'll die, whatever they may do or say, and my cousin says
that if ever she saw death on a child's face she saw it on
'ers this mornin'! But, good gracious! Mr. Betts, you're never
thinkin' of goin' out?"

"I am not thinking about it, I am going out," said Michael

grimly, as he reached down his great-coat from the peg
behind the door.

"Oh, but you must not, Mr. Betts. You're not fit, indeed.
Why, you only came downstairs yesterday, and you're
looking as white as a sheet now."

She might as well not have spoken, for any heed Michael
paid to her words. He buttoned his coat across his chest,
armed himself with a stout walking-stick, and set out. He
felt very weak and tremulous as he walked along. He was
glad to lean heavily on his stick for support. Somehow the
familiar streets seemed to have grown longer and wider
since he last trod them. His bank was at no great distance,
yet he felt as though he should never reach it. When he did
arrive there, he sank on to a bench just within the door, and
was fain to rest and take breath for a while ere he could
attend to his business.

A little later, with fifty pounds carefully lodged in his pocket-

book within his breast-pocket, he quitted the bank, and,
walking as quickly as his strength permitted, turned in the
direction of Clarendon Gardens.

He found the house with little difficulty. A brougham stood

at the door. Michael waited a few minutes, pacing to and
fro, till he saw the doctor come out of the house and drive
away. As he waited, he noticed a girl standing close by,
leaning against the palings, a girl with a big white apron
over her dark gown and a large much-be-feathered hat
upon her head; but he paid little heed to her, nor she to
him. As soon as the carriage drove off, he went up to the
door and gently knocked.

"Can I speak to Mrs. Lavers for a minute?" he asked of the

maid who opened the door.

The girl looked at him, and hesitated. Then she asked him
to step inside, and closed the door behind him, whilst she
went to speak to some one in the little back parlour. In a
moment she reappeared and beckoned to him to advance.
He did so, and entering the room, found himself in the
presence of Mrs. Lavers.

She stood leaning against the mantel-piece. In her hand

was the prescription the doctor had just written. Her face
was utterly colourless, save for the pinkened eyelids which
testified to recent tears, and had the wan, strained look
which tells of protracted sleeplessness. She looked
surprised to see Michael, but greeted him kindly.
"Are you better, Mr. Betts? You do not look good for much
yet. Are you wise to come out to-day?"

"How is the little lady, ma'am?" Michael asked, ignoring her

inquiries respecting himself.

"No better, I fear," answered the lady, with a quiver in her

voice. "It is terrible to see her suffer so. And the doctor
holds out only the faintest hope."

"There are other doctors in London, ma'am," said Michael.

"If he cannot find a remedy, another may."

"Ah, yes; but—"

Michael was trembling from excessive weakness and

emotion. He could not speak; it seemed impossible to
explain. He could only go up to her and put the bank-notes
in her hand.

"Mr. Betts! What is the meaning of this?" she asked, and her
manner was not without a touch of pride.

"It is yours, ma'am, yours, all of it," he faltered.

"I do not understand," she said.

"It was yours, ma'am, and I—God forgive me!—I stole it

from you."

"Mr. Betts!"

Then brokenly, incoherently, and with much shame and

confusion, Michael made his confession.

Mrs. Lavers listened in bewilderment at first; but gradually

light dawned on her mind.

"Oh, Mr. Betts!" she exclaimed, "If only I had known this
before, it would have saved me so much trouble. We have
wondered so what could have become of that fifty pounds.
Some weeks after my husband's death, a gentleman called
on me and stated that some time previously he had given
Professor Lavers fifty pounds as a subscription to a scientific
society in which my husband was interested. He had made
inquiries of the treasurer of the society, and had learned
that the money had never been paid in. You may fancy how
worried I was when I heard that. I searched amongst my
husband's papers, and could find no entry of the money.
Yet, of course, I could not doubt the gentleman's word.
Since it was impossible to trace the money, and I could not
imagine what my husband had done with it, I had to make
the amount good at considerable sacrifice. But now I see
perfectly what he did. That book must have been lying on
his table at the time, and he just slipped the notes inside its
leaves, meaning to remove them afterwards, and then
forgot all about them. It was just like him. He was so
absent-minded, my poor husband."

"And I, in keeping them, acted like a common thief," said

Michael gloomily. "You had better send for a policeman,
ma'am, and give me in charge."

"No, no," said the lady, with a melancholy smile, "I will not
do that. You did not think what you were doing; you did not
know the trouble you were causing me. But oh! It made
such a difference to me having to find those fifty pounds in
my poverty and widowhood. But for that, I might have
afforded to settle in a nicer neighbourhood, and then,
perhaps, my child would never have taken this terrible
disease."

Michael gave a groan. "If she dies, I shall have caused her
death!" he said.

"God forbid!" cried the mother, turning paler, and shivering.

"Oh, ma'am, won't you have another doctor?" said Michael.

"Yes, I will—I can, now I have this money," she said

eagerly. "There is a physician who is said to have great skill
in treating diphtheria. My doctor mentioned him just now."
"Where does he live?" asked Michael. "I'll go and fetch him.
I'll go and bring him at once, if you'll let me."

She looked at the old man, so eager, yet so weak and

tremulous, and hesitated.

"You don't look fit to go," she said. "No, I'll send some one
else."

"Oh, let me go," he cried. "I'll take a cab. No one could go

quicker than I'll go. And it will be doing something for her,
don't you see? I can never make amends; but it will be
doing something if I go."

So she yielded, and gave him the physician's address. He

went hurriedly from the house.

CHAPTER X
MICHAEL FINDS A FRIEND

WHEN Michael came out of the house, the girl he had before
observed was still leaning against the palings. She was
bending forward, her face resting on her hands, which were
wrapped in her shawl; but she raised her head as she heard
the door close behind Michael, and glancing at her, he saw
to his surprise that her eyes were wet with tears. The next
moment she sprang to his side, saying imploringly, "Do tell
me how she is, sir. You have been in, and you must know
the latest."
"She is no better, poor little dear," said Michael, a lump
rising in his throat as he spoke. "They fear the worst; but
I'm going to fetch a doctor that I hope will cure her. Can
you tell me where I can find a cab?"

"Yes, yes," she answered eagerly; "there's a stand just

round the corner. I'll show you. Why, I declare if you ain't
Michael Betts."

Michael looked at her in wonder. He had a dim idea that he

had seen the girl before, but where or how he could not
determine.

"That is my name, certainly," he said. "Who are you, I

wonder, that you know me so well?"

"P'raps my name is Betts too," she said, giving him a quick

glance of her bright, dark eyes.

"Don't be impertinent," he said sternly, "and don't tell me

lies, please."

"You needn't fear," she said in a subdued tone. "I haven't

the spirit to be impertinent. My heart is like to break
thinking of that little angel lying there in such pain."

"Is she in great pain?" asked Michael sadly.

"To be sure. You never had diphtheria, I suppose? Well, I've

had it, and I can tell you it's awful. I had it years ago in the
hospital, and I'll never forget it, never."

"But the doctors saved your life," said Michael. "Why

shouldn't they save hers?"

"Ah! Why not? See, there are the cabs. Oh, Mr. Betts, I wish
you would let me come with you!"
"So you shall if you like," said Michael, touched by the grief
the girl displayed, and feeling drawn to her by a bond of
sympathy.

The girl signalled to a cabman, and when the vehicle drew

up by the kerb, she helped Michael to get into it. She was
struck by the feebleness of his movements.

"Have you been ill, Mr. Betts?" she asked. "I really hardly
knew you when first I looked at you. You've altered sadly
since I last saw you."

"When was that?" he asked. "I can't remember where I've

seen you before, yet I seem to know your face."

"Oh, I'm about sometimes in the neighbourhood of your

shop," she answered vaguely.

"And how did you come to know Mrs. Lavers and her little
girl?"

"Oh, I belongs to a girls' club, and Mrs. Lavers is one of the

ladies who comes there. But there ain't another like her; no,
we all says that. She's an angel of a woman, that's what
she is. Sometimes she would bring her little girl with her to
the club. She's the prettiest, daintiest little creature you
ever could see."

"I know," said Michael, the choking sensation rising again in

his throat.

"She'd talk away to us girls, that wee mite,—my! You never

heard anything like it. The veriest little chatterbox, yet with
such wisdom in her words too. Oh, it would be terrible if she
should die! It would just break her mother's heart."
"Ay, it would," said Michael, thinking sorrowfully how heavy
a burden of guilt and remorse would rest on his conscience
if the little one were taken. "She's a gentle-hearted lady, is
Mrs. Lavers."

"She's the dearest lady in the world!" cried the girl

fervently. "Ah, I can never tell you what she has been to
me. Do you know what it is to have a friend that helps you
to be good, a friend who you know would do anything for
you, and for whom you'd do anything, even die, if need be?
Well, she's such a friend to me."

Michael could only listen in wonder. He had never had such

a friend; he had never felt such warm, passionate love as
the girl's words expressed.

"Have you no one belonging to you?" he asked. "No mother

or father?"

"Ay, I've a father," she said; "but he's a poor creature, my

father, always weak and ailing. It's me has to take care of
him, and not he, of me. I've took care of him ever since my
mother died, eight years ago. It seems sometimes almost
as if I were the parent, and he the child. Men are helpless
creatures, you know. But here we are in the square. Now,
which is the doctor's house?"

Happily the doctor was at home when Michael arrived at the

house. After waiting some minutes, Michael was able to see
him, but, to his despair, the busy physician was not to be
persuaded to come with him at once. He had engagements
which prevented his doing so, he said; but he listened
patiently to all Michael could tell him about the little child,
and promised that he would see her during the afternoon.
Michael went away with his hopes somewhat dashed.
The girl drove back with him to his house. She sprang out
there and helped him to alight, stood by his side as he
settled with the driver, and then saw him safely down the
stone steps to the door of the shop. She did it with a
careful, almost motherly air, which seemed strange for so
young a girl. Evidently she was used to taking care of
others. Michael invited her to enter his house, but she
declined resolutely.

"No, thank you," she said; "it's high time I went home to
look after father. He'll be wondering what has become of
me. If you like, I'll come round and tell you how she is this
evening, after that doctor has seen her, you know. You
ought not to go out again to-day, Mr. Betts; it's a bitter cold
wind."

Michael thanked her and went inside. "She's a good girl," he

said to himself, as he walked through the shop, "a much
nicer girl than any one looking at her would take her to be.
A rough kind of girl, of course, but with good feelings."

Mrs. Wiggins had gone home, and Michael was sitting alone
by his fire, feeling very weary and depressed, when a loud,
impetuous knock on the street door resounded through the
quiet house.

"There she is," said Michael, and he went out as quickly as

he could to open the door.

"Come in," he said, as he opened it; "come in quickly and

tell me."

"No, thank you," said the girl decidedly, "I won't come
inside. I haven't much to tell. She's neither better nor
worse; that's all they can say."