Design and Electromagnetic Feature

Analysis of AC Rotating Machines

Ahmed Masmoudi
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/design-and-electromagnetic-feature-analysis-of-ac-rot
ating-machines-ahmed-masmoudi/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Control Oriented Modelling of AC Electric Machines

SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering
Masmoudi

https://textbookfull.com/product/control-oriented-modelling-of-
ac-electric-machines-springerbriefs-in-electrical-and-computer-
engineering-masmoudi/

The Art and Science of Rotating Field Machines Design A

Practical Approach 1st Edition Vlado Ostovi■

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-art-and-science-of-rotating-
field-machines-design-a-practical-approach-1st-edition-vlado-
ostovic/

The Art and Science of Rotating Field Machines Design A

Practical Approach 1st Edition Vlado Ostovi■ (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-art-and-science-of-rotating-
field-machines-design-a-practical-approach-1st-edition-vlado-
ostovic-auth/

Big and Complex Data Analysis Methodologies and

Applications Ahmed

https://textbookfull.com/product/big-and-complex-data-analysis-
methodologies-and-applications-ahmed/
Machines and mechanisms : applied kinematic analysis
David H Myszka

https://textbookfull.com/product/machines-and-mechanisms-applied-
kinematic-analysis-david-h-myszka/

Theory and Methods of Quantification Design on System

Level Electromagnetic Compatibility Donglin Su

https://textbookfull.com/product/theory-and-methods-of-
quantification-design-on-system-level-electromagnetic-
compatibility-donglin-su/

Design of Three-phase AC Power Electronics Converters

(IEEE Press) 1st Edition Wang

https://textbookfull.com/product/design-of-three-phase-ac-power-
electronics-converters-ieee-press-1st-edition-wang/

Electromagnetic Compatibility Methods Analysis Circuits

and Measurement Third Edition David A. Weston

https://textbookfull.com/product/electromagnetic-compatibility-
methods-analysis-circuits-and-measurement-third-edition-david-a-
weston/

Navier Stokes Flow Around a Rotating Obstacle

Mathematical Analysis of its Asymptotic Behavior 1st
Edition Sarka Necasova

https://textbookfull.com/product/navier-stokes-flow-around-a-
rotating-obstacle-mathematical-analysis-of-its-asymptotic-
behavior-1st-edition-sarka-necasova/
SPRINGER BRIEFS IN
ELEC TRIC AL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Ahmed Masmoudi

Design and
Electromagnetic
Feature Analysis
of AC Rotating
Machines

123
SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer
Engineering

Series editors
Woon-Seng Gan, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
C.-C. Jay Kuo, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Thomas Fang Zheng, Research Institute of Information Technology, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China
Mauro Barni, Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University
of Siena, Siena, Italy
SpringerBriefs present concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical
applications across a wide spectrum of fields. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to
125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic.
Typical topics might include: timely report of state-of-the art analytical techniques,
a bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles, and a
contextual literature review, a snapshot of a hot or emerging topic, an in-depth case
study or clinical example and a presentation of core concepts that students must
understand in order to make independent contributions.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10059

Ahmed Masmoudi

Design and Electromagnetic

Feature Analysis of AC
Rotating Machines

123
Ahmed Masmoudi
National School of Engineers of Sfax
University of Sfax
Sfax
Tunisia

ISSN 2191-8112 ISSN 2191-8120 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering
ISBN 978-981-13-0919-9 ISBN 978-981-13-0920-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0920-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018943720

© The Author(s) 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface

Following the 70th oil crisis, the world realized for the first time what it would be
like if fuels would no longer be cheap or unavailable. In order to damp the fallouts
of such a situation, renewable energies have been the subject of an intensive regain
of interest. So many R&D programs were launched so far, with emphasis on the
investigation of the power potential of conventional and emergent earth’s natural
energy reserves.
Moreover, until the 1960s, automotive manufacturers did not worry about the
cost of fuel. They had never heard of air pollution and they never thought about the
life cycle. Ease of operation with reduced maintenance costs meant everything back
then. In recent years, clean air policies are driving the market to embrace new
propulsion systems in an attempt to substitute or assist efficiently the internal
combustion engine (ICE) by an electric drive unit, yielding respectively the
so-called electric and hybrid propulsion systems.
The above sustainable energy and mobility applications consider in most if not
all cases a key component that achieves the electromechanical conversion of
energy: the electric machine. It operates as a generator which directly converts the
wind and wave energies and through a turbine the solar, biomass and geothermal
ones, into electricity. It operates as a propeller fed by a battery or a fuel cell pack
embedded on board of electric and hybrid vehicles.
This said, it should be underlined that the great penetration of electrical
machines in the above-cited and the overwhelming majority of current applications
has been made possible thanks to the great progress in the area of machine design.
Indeed, during several decades, electrical ac machines have been designed
accounting for the fact that they will be connected to the network. This has led to
the well-known conventional ac machines (induction and dc-excited synchronous
machines) in which the stator windings are sinusoidally distributed in slots around
the air gap to couple optimally with the sinusoidal supply.
Starting from the 1980s, the emergence of power electronic converters has
removed the need for such a concept as the basis for ac machine design. A new
approach based on the principle that the best machine design is the one that simply

v
vi Preface

produces the optimum match between the ac electrical machine and the power
electronic converter has led to the so-called “converter-fed machines”.
Within this trendy topic, the manuscript is devoted to the design and analysis
of the electromagnetic features of ac machines, focusing the involved winding, and
covering both grid- and converter-fed machines. The manuscript is structured in
three chapters:
• The first one deals with the basis of the design of rotating ac machines with an
emphasis on their air gap magnetomotive force (MMF). The survey is initiated
by the formulation of the air gap MMF using the Ampere's theorem and the
conservation law, followed by the investigation of its harmonic content con-
sidering the case of concentrated windings. Then, the case of distributed
windings is treated applying the superposition approach that highlights their
potentialities in reducing the MMF harmonic content.
• The second chapter is aimed at the formulation of the rotating fields that could
be generated considering different techniques involving single and polyphase
windings. It also emphasizes the effects of the rotating fields on the winding
located on the other side of the air gap. These effects are initiated by the
induction of back-EMFs which, at on-load operation, lead to the generation of a
second rotating field whose synchronization with the initial one results in the
production of an electromagnetic torque.
• The third chapter is dedicated to the design of fractional slot concentrated
winding equipping permanent magnet synchronous machines. The study is
initiated by the arrangement of the armature winding using the star of slots
approach. This latter is then applied for the determination of the winding factors
of the back-EMF fundamental and harmonics. A case study is finally treated
with emphasis on the armature MMF spatial repartition and harmonic content.

Sfax, Tunisia Prof. Ahmed Masmoudi

Head of the Renewable Energies
and Electric Vehicles Lab.
Contents

1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis . . . ..... 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 1
1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created
by Concentrated Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Single Coil MMF Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 MMF Spatial Repartition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Case of a Dual Diametral Coil Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.5 Case of a Multi Diametral Coil Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.6 Three Phase Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created
by Distributed Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.1 Motivations in Using Distributed Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.2 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2 Rotating Fields: Creation and Effects on the Machine Features . . . . 31
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Rotating Field Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.1 Case of a Single Phase Winding in the Rotor . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.2 Case of a Three Phase Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.3 Case of a Two Phase Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.4 Case of a Five Phase Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.5 Generalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3 Back-EMF Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1 Case of a Concentrated Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.2 Case of a Distributed Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.3 Root-Mean-Square of the Induced Back-EMF . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.4 Case of a Distributed Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4 Developed Electromagnetic Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

vii
viii Contents

2.4.1 Torque Production in Smooth Pole AC Machines . . . . . . . 51

2.4.2 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.3 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3 Fractional-Slot Concentrated Windings: Design and Analysis . . ... 55
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 55
3.2 Concentrated Winding Arrangement Based on the Star
of Slots Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.1 Study Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.2 Basis of the Star of Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.3 Arrangement of Double-Layer Concentrated Windings . . . . 59
3.2.4 Arrangement of Single-Layer Concentrated Windings . . . . 67
3.3 Winding Factor Star of Slots Based-Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.1 Winding Factor of the Fundamental Back-EMF . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.2 Winding Factor of the Harmonic Back-EMFs . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4 MMF Formulation and Analysis: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4.1 Double-Layer Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4.2 Single-Layer Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4.3 Double- Versus Single-Layer Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
About the Author

Ahmed Masmoudi received B.S. from Sfax Engineering National School (SENS),
University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia, in 1984, Ph.D. from Pierre and Marie Curie
University, Paris, France, in 1994, and Research Management Ability from SENS,
in 2001, all in electrical engineering. In August 1984, he joined Shlumberger as a
field engineer. After this industrial experience, he joined the Tunisian University
where he held different positions involved in both education and research activities.
He is currently a Professor of Electric Power Engineering at SENS, the Head of the
Research Laboratory on Renewable Energies and Electric Vehicles (RELEV) and
the Coordinator of the Master on Sustainable Mobility Actuators: Research and
Technology. He published up to 85 journal papers, among which 19 were published
in IEEE transactions. He presented up 367 papers in international conferences,
among which 9 have been presented in plenary sessions, and 3 have been rewarded
by the best presented paper prize. He is the co-inventor of a USA patent. He is the
Chairman of the Program and Publication Committees of the International
Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), organized
every year in Monte Carlo, Monaco, since 2006. He was also the Chairman of the
Technical Program and Publication Committees of the first International
Conference on Sustainable Mobility Applications, Renewables, and Technology
(SMART) which has been held in Kuwait in November 2015. Its involvement in
the above conferences has been marked by an intensive guest-editorship activity
with the publication of many special issues of several journals including the IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics, COMPEL, ELECTROMOTION, and ETEP. Professor
Masmoudi is a Senior Member, IEEE. His main interests include the design of new
topologies of ac machines allied to the implementation of advanced and efficient
control strategies in drives and generators, applied to renewable energy as well as to
electrical automotive systems.

ix
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Cross-section for a synchronous machine equipped by a single

coil-made field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
Fig. 1.2 Flux lines through the magnetic circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Fig. 1.3 MMF spatial repartition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Fig. 1.4 Spatial repartition highlighting the fact that F is an even
function of h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Fig. 1.5 THD of the MMF spatial repartition versus b. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Fig. 1.6 Cross-section of a synchronous machine equipped by a dual
coil-made field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
Fig. 1.7 Spatial repartition of the MMF F 110 produced by the coil in
the slot pair 1-1’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Fig. 1.8 Spatial repartition of the MMF F obtained following the
superposition of F 110 and F 220 . Legend: (continuous line)
F 220 , (interrupted line) F 110 , (dashed line) F . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Fig. 1.9 Cross-section of a synchronous machine equipped by a multi
coil-made field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Fig. 1.10 Spatial repartition of the MMF produced by the field of the
machine of Fig. 1.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Fig. 1.11 Cross-section of a machine equipped by a three phase winding
with a\ 2p 3....................................... .. 15
Fig. 1.12 Cross-section of a machine equipped by a three phase winding
with a ¼ p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Fig. 1.13 Spatial repartitions of the phase MMFs and their resultant for
p¼1 ........................................... .. 18
Fig. 1.14 Cross-section of a machine equipped by a three phase winding
with a ¼ p 2 ....................................... .. 19
Fig. 1.15 Cross-section of a synchronous machine equipped by a single
coil-made field equally-distributed in six slot pairs
with b ¼ 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21

xi
xii List of Figures

Fig. 1.16 Spatial repartitions of the MMFs created by the coils and their
resultant F B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Fig. 1.17 Total harmonic distortion THDB versus the slot angular
shift ° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Fig. 1.18 Cross-section of a synchronous machine equipped by a single
coil-made field linearly-distributed in six slot pairs
with b ¼ 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Fig. 1.19 Spatial repartitions of the MMFs created by the coils and their
resultant F L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
Fig. 1.20 Total harmonic distortion THDL versus the slot angular
shift ° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Fig. 1.21 Normalized amplitude of the harmonic of rank 3 versus the slot
angular shift ° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Fig. 1.22 Total harmonic distortion THDS versus the slot angular
shift ° in continuous line; THDB and THDL redrawn in
mixed and dashed lines, respectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Fig. 2.1 A single phase winding in the rotor achieved by connecting in
series p concentrated coils of N turns each characterized by
a ¼ sp ¼ p p (b ¼ 1Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32
Fig. 2.2 Spatial repartition of the MMF created by a single phase
winding in the rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Fig. 2.3 Cross-section of a machine equipped with a three phase
winding in the stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
Fig. 2.4 Cross-section of a machine equipped by a four phase winding
in the stator ( p ¼ 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38
Fig. 2.5 Principle of the back-EMF induction in a concentrated coil . . .. 42
Fig. 2.6 Principle of the back-EMF induction in a distributed coil
(balanced distribution). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
Fig. 2.7 Back-EMF phasor diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
Fig. 2.8 Principle of the back-EMF induction in a distributed coil
(linear distribution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
Fig. 3.1 Numeration of the slots filled by a double-layer concentrated
winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
Fig. 3.2 Star of slots and phase coil identification of a double-layer
concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, q ¼ 3,
d ¼ 1, a number of spokes equal 12, and ae ¼ 5p 6 ......... .. 62
Fig. 3.3 Armature winding arrangement of a fractional-slot
concentrated winding surface mounted PM synchronous
machine characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . .. 63
Fig. 3.4 Star of slots and phase coil identification of a double-layer
concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 9, p ¼ 4, q ¼ 3,
d ¼ 1, a number of spokes equal 9, and ae ¼ 8p 9 .......... .. 64
List of Figures xiii

Fig. 3.5 Star of slots and phase coil identification of a double-layer

concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 3, q ¼ 3,
d ¼ 2, a number of spokes equal 6, and ae ¼ 5p 3 .......... .. 65
Fig. 3.6 Star of slots and phase coil identification of a double-layer
concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 9, p ¼ 3, q ¼ 3,
d ¼ 3, a number of spokes equal 3, and ae ¼ 2p 3 .......... .. 66
Fig. 3.7 Repartition of a double-layer concentrated winding for which
Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, q ¼ 6, and d ¼ 1, with a number of spokes
equal to one, and an angular shift ae ¼ 5p 3 . Legend: (a) star of
slots, (b) machine cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
Fig. 3.8 Transformation of the star of slots of a double-layer
concentrated winding leading to feasible single-layer
distribution, characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . .. 69
Fig. 3.9 Transformation of the star of slots of a double-layer
concentrated winding leading to feasible single-layer
distribution, characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 3, and q ¼ 3 . . . . .. 70
Fig. 3.10 Transformation of the star of slots of a double-layer
concentrated winding leading to unfeasible single-layer
distribution, characterized by Ns ¼ 9, p ¼ 4, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . .. 71
Fig. 3.11 Transformation of the star of slots of a double-layer
concentrated winding leading to unfeasible single-layer
distribution, characterized by Ns ¼ 9, p ¼ 3, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . .. 72
Fig. 3.12 Star of slots based-prediction of the winding factor of the
fundamental back-EMF induced in the double-layer
concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5,
and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
Fig. 3.13 Star of slots based-prediction of the winding factor of the
sub-harmonic of rank one of the back-EMF induced in the
double-layer concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 12,
p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
Fig. 3.14 Star of slots based-prediction of the winding factor of the
sub-harmonic of rank two of the back-EMF induced in the
double-layer concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 12,
p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
Fig. 3.15 Star of slots based-prediction of the winding factor of the
sub-harmonic of rank three of the back-EMF induced in the
double-layer concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 12,
p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
Fig. 3.16 Star of slots based-prediction of the winding factor of the
super-harmonic of rank seven of the back-EMF induced in the
double-layer concentrated winding characterized by Ns ¼ 12,
p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
xiv List of Figures

Fig. 3.17 Armature winding arrangement in double-layer slots of a

FSPMM characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . .. 78
Fig. 3.18 Spatial repartitions of the MMFs produced by phase “a” coils
fed by the maximum current I and their sum F a ðhÞ
(bold line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Fig. 3.19 Spatial repartition of the MMF created by a double layer
FSPMM characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3, fed by
sinusoidal currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Fig. 3.20 Spectrum of the armature MMF F ðhÞ of a double-layer
FSPMM characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3, and fed
by sinusoidal currents, for b ¼ 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Fig. 3.21 Armature winding arrangement in single layer slots of a
FSPMM characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3 . . . . . . . .. 82
Fig. 3.22 Spatial repartition of the MMF created by a single-layer
FSPMM characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3, fed by
sinusoidal currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
Fig. 3.23 Spectrum of the armature MMF F ðhÞ of a single-layer
FSPMM characterized by Ns ¼ 12, p ¼ 5, and q ¼ 3, and fed
by sinusoidal currents, for b ¼ 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Distribution factors of the fundamental and harmonics of the

back-EMF induced in a three phase winding regularly
distributed in slot pairs characterized by a slot pitch equal to
the pole pitch for different values of the slot(s) per pole and
per phase m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Table 2.2 Kd1 of the balanced and linear distributions for m ¼ 3 . . . . . .. 48
Table 3.1 The back-EMF phasors of the six phases with the
corresponding polarities in the case of an angular shift
between the two sectors assigned to a given phase equal
to p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Table 3.2 The back-EMF phasors of the six phases with the
corresponding polarities in the case of an angular shift
between the two sectors assigned to a phase equal
to p þ a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67


Table 3.3 Evolution of ratio Rdl sl n for the fundamental and the
harmonics lower than 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84

xv
Chapter 1
Air Gap Magnetomotive Force:
Formulation and Analysis

Abstract The chapter is aimed at the basis of the design of rotating AC machines
with emphasis on their air gap magnetomotive force (MMF). The formulation of the
MMF is firstly treated using the Amperes’ theorem and the conservation law. Then,
the harmonic content of its spatial repartition is investigated. In a second part, different
case studies are considered including single and three phase concentrated windings.
The third part is devoted to the distributed windings with the superposition approach-
based formulation of their MMFs. A special attention is paid to the investigation of
the capabilities of the distributed windings in reducing the harmonic content of the
MMF.

Keywords Air gap magnetomotive force · Flux conservation law

Superposition theorem · Spatial repartition · Fourier expansion
Total harmonic distortion · Concentrated winding · Distributed winding

1.1 Introduction

Up to the beginning of the 1980s, electrical machines have been designed assuming
that they will be connected to the grid (grid fed machines). This has led to the well
known conventional AC machines, as:
• the squirrel cage induction machine,
• the wound rotor induction machine,
• the DC-excited synchronous machine.
These used to be exclusively connected to the grid through their stator windings
which are distributed in slots around the air gap so as to couple optimally with the
sinusoidal current supply.
In recent years, the emergence of power electronic converters has removed the
need of such a concept as the basis for machine design. Consequently, a new area of
electric machine technology has been evolved, based on the principle that the best
machine design is that which produces the optimum match between the machine and
the power electronic converter, yielding the so-called “converter fed machines”.
© The Author(s) 2019 1
A. Masmoudi, Design and Electromagnetic Feature Analysis
of AC Rotating Machines, SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer
Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0920-5_1
2 1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis

Much attention is presently focused on the design of new converter fed machines
where many conventional considerations are rethought, such as the number of phases,
the number of poles, the winding shape and distribution, the magnetic circuit material
and geometry, radial, axial or circumferential flux paths, and so on.
Among the most important design criteria, one can distinguish the arrangement
of the machine windings around the air gap. Two major winding arrangements are
currently considered:
• the distributed windings in the case where the machine has the same number of
pole pairs in both sides of the air gap, leading to a number of slot per pole and per
phase equal or higher than unity,
• the fractional-slot concentrated windings in the case where the stator and rotor
have different pole pairs, yielding a fractional number of slot per pole and per
phase lower than unity.
The present chapter deals with an introduction to AC machine design with empha-
sis on the winding arrangement. A special attention is paid to the formulation and
the analysis of the magnetomotive force (MMF) considering the above-described
winding arrangements.

1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF

Created by Concentrated Windings

1.2.1 Assumptions

For the sake of a simple formulation of the air gap MMF, the following assumptions
are commonly considered:
1. the magnetic permeability of the iron μFe is supposed to be infinite compared
to the air one μ0 = 4π10−7 . Assuming so, the iron could be considered as a
magnetic short-circuit with a null MMF across any flux loop portion within the
ferromagnetic circuit,
2. the magnetic circuit is supposed linear. Neglecting the magnetic saturation allows
the application of linear systems laws especially the superposition theorem,
3. the slot depth is supposed negligible compared to the air gap average radius R.
Therefore, the slotting effect could be neglected assuming that the air gap e is
constant.

1.2.2 Single Coil MMF Formulation

Let us consider the case of a single coil winding. From a practical point of view, such
a winding could equip a DC-excited synchronous generator to achieve the field in
the rotor. A cross-section of the machine is shown in Fig. 1.1.
1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created by Concentrated Windings 3

Fig. 1.1 Cross-section for a

synchronous machine
equipped by a single
coil-made field I I

2 1
α

Let us call:
• N the number of turns of the coil,
• I the field current,
• α the slot pitch, that is the angular opening of the coil counted from slot 1 to slot
2 in the anti-clockwise direction.
The MMF F in a given position θ of the air gap is defined as follows:

F= Hdl (1.1)
air gap

with the convention that considers F positive in the case where the magnetic field
 is directed from the rotor to the stator and vice-versa.
H
The formulation of F goes through the application of:
• the Ampere theorem,
• the flux conservation law.

1.2.2.1 Application of the Amperes’ Theorem

Accounting for the direction of the circulation of I in the coil of Fig. 1.1, a MMF is
created across the magnetic circuit. The resulting flux lines, drawn according to the
“tire-bouchon” technic, are shown in Fig. 1.2. One can distinguish two areas in the
air gap:
(i) area A where the flux lines are directed from the rotor to the stator,
(ii) area B where the flux lines are directed from the stator to the rotor.
Let us consider the flux line C in Fig. 1.2 which could be subdivided into four parts
delimited by the points c1 , c2 , c3 and c4 with:
4 1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis

Fig. 1.2 Flux lines through

the magnetic circuit

• c2 and c3 correspond to the crossing points from the rotor to the air gap and from
the air gap to the stator in the upper part of C, respectively,
• c4 and c1 correspond to the crossing points from the stator to the air gap and from
the air gap to the rotor in the lower part of C, respectively.
The application of the Amperes’ theorem to the flux line C yields:

Hdl = NI (1.2)
(C)

which could be rewritten as follows:

  c2  c3  c4  c1
Hdl = Hdl + Hdl + Hdl + Hdl (1.3)
(C) c1 c2 c3 c4

The first assumption of Sect. 1.2.1 leads to:

 c2  c4
Hdl = Hdl = 0 (1.4)
c1 c3

while
 c3
Hdl = FA (1.5)
c2

and
 c1
Hdl = −FB (1.6)
c4
1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created by Concentrated Windings 5

Taking into account Eqs. (1.2), (1.4), (1.5), and (1.6), one can deduce the
following:

FA − FB = NI (1.7)

1.2.2.2 Application of the Flux Conservation Law

The flux conservation law says that all flux lines crossing the air gap area A return
back through the air gap area B, that is to say:

A + B = 0 (1.8)

In general, the flux  in a given area of the air gap is expressed as:

 = SB (1.9)

where S is the surface of the considered air gap area and B is its flux density, with:

B = μ0 H (1.10)

Equation (1.1) can be rewritten accounting of the third assumption of Sect. 1.2.1,
as follows:

F = eH (1.11)

Combining Eqs. (1.10) and (1.11) yields:

μ0
B= F (1.12)
e
Combining Eqs. (1.9) and (1.12) leads to:
μ0
= SF (1.13)
e
The application of equation (1.13) to areas A and B of the air gap gives the
following:
 μ
A = e0 SA FA
μ (1.14)
B = e0 SB FB

where:

SA = αRLs
(1.15)
SB = (2π − α)RLs
6 1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis

where Ls is the machine stuck length.

Equation (1.8) can be rewritten taking into account Eqs. (1.14) and (1.15),
as follows:
μ0 μ0
αRLs FA + (2π − α)RLs FB = 0 (1.16)
e e
that leads to:

αFA + (2π − α)FB = 0 (1.17)

1.2.3 MMF Spatial Repartition

Let us recall Eqs. (1.7) and (1.17):


FA − F B = NI
(1.18)
αFA + (2π − α)FB = 0

The resolution of such a system leads to:

 α )NI
FA = (1 − 2π
α NI (1.19)
FB = − 2π

that gives:
 μ α )NI
BA = e0 (1 − 2π
μ α (1.20)
BB = − e0 2π NI

Let us consider the magnetic axis corresponding to the middle of area A, as

shown in Fig. 1.2, and let us describe the air gap starting from this axis and turning in
the anti-clockwise direction. Doing so along with recording the values of the MMF
(respectively the flux density) in each point of the air gap yields the spatial repartition
of the MMF (respectively of the flux density).
Figure 1.3 illustrates the spatial repartition of the MMF along the air gap.
The MMF spatial repartition can be redrawn considering a rotation in the same
direction but starting from the position −π with respect to the magnetic axis, as shown
in Fig. 1.4. One can notice that the MMF spatial repartition is an even function of
the position θ with a null average value and a angular frequency of the fundamental
equal to air gap length (2π). In other words, the fundamental flux density B1 (θ) is
bipolar with a pole angular opening, also called pole pitch and noted τp , equal to π.
1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created by Concentrated Windings 7

F (A)
α
(1 − 2π )N I

θ (rad)
α α
0 2 π 2π − 2 2π
α
− 2π NI

Fig. 1.3 MMF spatial repartition

F (A)
α
(1 − 2π )N I

θ (rad)
-π − α2 α
2 π
α
− 2π NI

Fig. 1.4 Spatial repartition highlighting the fact that F is an even function of θ

1.2.3.1 Air Gap MMF Fourier Expansion

Let us call β the ratio of the slot pitch α to the pole pitch τp which corresponds to
the angular opening of a pole of the fundamental FFM, as:
α
β= (1.21)
τp

In the case of as single coil winding, the pole pitch τp = π.

8 1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis

The MMF spatial repartition can be formulated as follows:

⎧
⎨ (1 − β )NI − α ≤ θ ≤ α
F(θ) = 2 2 2 (1.22)
⎩ β
− 2 NI −π ≤ θ ≤ − α α
2 & 2 ≤θ≤π
The general term Fn of its Fourier transform is calculated as follows:
 π 
2 2β β π
β
Fn = (1 − )NI cos nθd θ + − NI cos nθd θ (1.23)
π 0 2 π
2β
2

which leads to:

π
2 sin n 2 β
Fn = NI (1.24)
π n
and finally:
π
2 sin n 2 β
n=∞
F(θ) = NI cos nθ (1.25)
n=1
π n

In order to characterize the harmonic content of F(θ), one can consider its total
harmonic distortion THD, such as:


n=∞ sin n π β 2
n=∞
 2
Fn2 n
n=2 n=2
THD(%) = 100 = 100 (1.26)
F1 sin π
2β
Fig. 1.5 shows the variation of the THD with respect to β.

1.2.3.2 Case of a Diametral Coil

Referring to Fig. 1.5, it clearly appears that a unity slot pitch to the pole pitch ratio
β offers the lowest value of the THD of the air gap MMF. This case is characterized
by α = π, yielding the so-called “diametral coil”.
The formulation of the MMF spatial repartition turns to be as follows:
⎧
⎨ NI
2 −π
2 ≤θ≤ 2
π
F(θ) = (1.27)
⎩ − NI −π ≤ θ ≤ − π & π ≤ θ ≤ π
2 2 2
1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created by Concentrated Windings 9

95

90

85

80

75
THD (%)

70

65

60

55

50

45
0.5 1 1.5
β

Fig. 1.5 THD of the MMF spatial repartition versus β

The general term Fn of its Fourier expansion is expressed as follows:

⎧
⎪ 2 1
π
2 sin n 2 ⎨ π NI n for n = 1, 5, 9, ....
⎪
Fn = NI = − 2 NI 1 for n = 3, 7, 11, .... (1.28)
π n ⎪
⎪ π n
⎩
0 for n = 2, 4, 6, ....

which could be rewritten as:

2 (−1)n
F2n+1 = NI for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .... (1.29)
π (2n + 1)

and then the Fourier enpension is expressed as:

n=∞
2 (−1)n
F(θ) = NI cos(2n + 1)θ (1.30)
n=0
π (2n + 1)

Although the diametral winding exhibits the lowest harmonic pollution, its THD
remains high equal to 48.3167% with a remarkable dominance of the harmonics of
low ranks. Indeed, the Fourier expansion of F(θ) could be rewritten as:
 
2 1 1 1 (−1)n
F (θ) = NI cos θ − cos 3θ + cos 5θ − cos 7θ + .... + cos(2n + 1)θ (1.31)
π 3 5 7 (2n + 1)
10 1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis

Fig. 1.6 Cross-section of a

synchronous machine
equipped by a dual I
coil-made field
1

I
1 2

I
2

that gives the following normalized amplitudes of the harmonics of low ranks:
⎧ 
⎪  F3  1
⎪
⎪ F  = 3
⎪
⎨ 1
 F5  1
F  = (1.32)
⎪
⎪  1
5
⎪
⎪
⎩  F7  = 1
F1 7

1.2.4 Case of a Dual Diametral Coil Winding

This case is illustrated in Fig. 1.6 where the field of the synchronous machine is made
up of two coils connected in series with N turns each inserted in two equidistant pair
of slots 1-1’ and 2-2’. Such a winding is characterized by:

α= π
2 (1.33)
β=1

Referring to Fig. 1.6, one can distinguish four areas in the air gap: A, B, C, and
D. In order to formulate the air gap MMF, the superposition approach is applied
assuming, in a first step, the case where just the coil inserted in the couple of slots
1-1’ is supplied by the field current I .
The application of the Amperes’ theorem gives the following:
⎧
⎪
⎪ FA − FD = NI considering the flux line C1
⎨
FA − FB = NI considering the flux line C2
(1.34)
⎪
⎪ FC − FB = 0 considering the flux line C3
⎩
FC − FD = 0 considering the flux line C4

The application of the flux conservation law yields:

1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created by Concentrated Windings 11

F1−1 (θ)

3
4NI

θ (rad)
-π − π4 − 14 N I
π
4 π

Fig. 1.7 Spatial repartition of the MMF F1−1 produced by the coil in the slot pair 1-1’

F A + FB + FC + FD = 0 (1.35)

The resolution of equations (1.34) and (1.35) has led to:

⎧
⎪
⎪ F = 43 NI
⎪ A
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ FB = − 1 NI
4 (1.36)
⎪
⎪ 1
⎪ FC = − 4 NI
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
FD = − 41 NI

This solution could be found in another manner considering the formulation

treated in Sect. 1.2.2, with:

α= π 2 (1.37)
β = 21

and with areas B, C, and D combined in a single area called B.

Considering the magnetic axis of the coil inserted in 1-1’ as the origin of angles
θ, the application of the equation (1.22) gives:
⎧
⎨ 3 NI − π ≤ θ ≤ π
F1−1 (θ) = 4 4 4 (1.38)
⎩ − 1 NI −π ≤ θ ≤ − π & π ≤ θ ≤ π
4 4 4

which confirms the expressions given in Eq. (1.34).

The resulting spatial repartition is shown in Fig. 1.7.
12 1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis

Fig. 1.8 Spatial repartition of the MMF F obtained following the superposition of F1−1 and F2−2 .
Legend: (continuous line) F2−2 , (interrupted line) F1−1 , (dashed line) F

Now, let us assume the case where just the coil inserted in the couple of slots 2-2’
is supplied by the field current I . In this case, the area C surrounded by the supplied
coil behaves like area A in the previous case, producing an MMF of 43 NI . Thus, one
can deduce the following:
⎧
⎪
⎪ FA = − 41 NI
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ FB = − 1 NI
4 (1.39)
⎪
⎪ F = 3 NI
⎪
⎪ C 4
⎪
⎪
⎩
FD = − 41 NI

Considering the magnetic axis of the coil inserted in 1-1’ as the origin of angles
θ, the resulting MMF spatial repartition is expressed as follows:
⎧
⎨ 3 NI −π ≤ θ ≤ − 3π & 3π ≤ θ ≤ π
F2−2 (θ) = 4 4 4 (1.40)
⎩ − 1 NI − 3π ≤ θ ≤ 3π
4 4 4

The spatial repartition representation of the MMF F2−2 is illustrated in Fig. 1.8;
while the one of the MMF F1−1 is recalled in interrupted lines. The resultant MMF
F is shown in dashed mixed lines in the same figure.
One can notice that F(θ) presents two periods along the air gap with a pole
pitch τp = π 2 . Similarly, the flux density is characterized by a two pole pairs. In
order to characterize the difference between the mechanical periodicity related to
the coil repartition and the electrical one related to the MMF and flux density spatial
1.2 Formulation and Repartition of the Air Gap MMF Created by Concentrated Windings 13

Fig. 1.9 Cross-section of a

synchronous machine
equipped by a multi
coil-made field I
1 1
I
2 p

2 p

repartitions, the so-called “electrical angle”, noted θe , is introduced, such that:

θe = 2θ (1.41)

The Fourier expansion is expressed in terms of the electrical angle as:

n=∞
2 (−1)n
F(θe ) = NI cos(2n + 1)θe (1.42)
n=0
π (2n + 1)

or in terms of the mechanical one as:

n=∞
2 (−1)n
F(θ) = NI cos(2n + 1)2θ (1.43)
n=0
π (2n + 1)

1.2.5 Case of a Multi Diametral Coil Winding

This case is illustrated in Fig. 1.9 where the field of the synchronous machine is made
up of p coils connected in series with N turns each inserted in p equidistant pairs of
slots 1-1’, 2-2’, ....., p-p’. Such a winding is characterized by:

α= π
p (1.44)
β=1

The MMF spatial repartition, resulting from feeding such a winding, could be
deduced from the ones obtained in the cases of a single and double coils, as shown
in Fig. 1.10.
Referring to Fig. 1.10, one can notice that the fundamental MMF presents p peri-
ods, that is to say that the flux density exhibits p pole pairs, with a pole pitch τp = π
p.
14 1 Air Gap Magnetomotive Force: Formulation and Analysis

F (A)

NI
2

1’ 2 2’ p p 1 θ (rad)
π 3π 5π
0 2p 2p 2p
2π- 5π
2p
2π- 3π
2p
π 2π
2π- 2p

- N2I - - -- - -

Fig. 1.10 Spatial repartition of the MMF produced by the field of the machine of Fig. 1.9

Consequently, the electrical angle θe is expressed in terms of the mechanical one θ

as:

θe = pθ (1.45)

The Fourier expansion is expressed in terms of the electrical angle as:

n=∞
2 (−1)n
F(θe ) = NI cos(2n + 1)θe (1.46)
n=0
π (2n + 1)

or in terms of the mechanical one as:

n=∞
2 (−1)n
F(θ) = NI cos(2n + 1)pθ (1.47)
n=0
π (2n + 1)

1.2.6 Three Phase Windings

A three phase winding is a set of three identical circuits, called phases and noted “a”,
“b” and “c”, which are arranged within the air gap in slots in such away that their
respective positions are shifted by a 120◦ -electrical angle. For the sake of simplicity,
the cases treated in this paragraph concern three phase windings where each phase
is made up of coils of N turns concentrated in a single pair of slots.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
HERE AND THERE IN MARYLAND
BY EDWARD G. McDOWELL.
Near Pen-Mar, Western Maryland Railroad.
Old Mill Race, Walbrook.
Near Annapolis.
In Green Spring Valley.
The Old Liberty Road.
Tred Avon River.
On Gwynn’s Falls.
Smith’s Lane, Walbrook.
 HOW RANDALL GOT INTO THE
SALON

It was fully a minute before Joe Randall could summon up his

courage to knock. He was ordinarily a phlegmatic Englishman, not
easily moved, but to-day he was out of breath from an exceptionally
long walk, and the excitement which invariably attends the first visit
of an inconsequential young art student to the studio of a world-
renowned painter. At length he resolutely pulled himself together and
rapped. He received in reply a command, rather than an invitation, to
enter. In obedience to the imperative summons he slowly pushed the
massive door ajar and the next instant perceived he was standing in
the actual, awful presence of the famous Master. The shock
produced on him by the sudden change from the comparative
darkness of the hall to the fierce, out-of-door light of the studio,
blinded and troubled him nearly as much as did the contrast of his
own littleness and poverty with the evidences of oppressive
affluence and power before him. In his confusion a large, weather-
beaten canvas, ill-tied and wrapped in an old journal, which he had
carried under his arm all the way over from the Latin Quarter to far-
away Montmartre, slipped from its flimsy envelope and fell with a
resounding bang upon the floor, thereby adding to his already great
embarrassment. He stooped nervously to pick it up, giving vent at
the same time to a half audible “Bon jour!”
He had timed his visit so as not to interfere with the Master’s
morning work, and noticed with a feeling of satisfaction and returning
confidence, that the model had gone, and that the Master himself
was languidly engaged in cleaning up his palette. The Master, on his
part, was evidently used to visits of the kind from other shabbily-
dressed young men, for he promptly roared back, “Bon jour,” and
even added “mon ami!” in tones in which it would have been difficult
to detect a single friendly note. The unexpectedness of the second
part of the greeting served partially to reassure Randall, and enabled
him to explain the cause of his intrusion.
“I have come,” he began in halting, broken French, “to ask you if
you will criticise a picture which I intend to submit to the Salon jury
next month? I am not a pupil of yours at present, although I have
studied for a short time under you at Julian’s,—before I entered
Monsieur Rousseau’s class at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, where I am
now working. I have been told that you are always willing to give
advice to young men of your profession, and especially to those
who, like myself, have once been members of your school.”
The Master, who was a fat, energetic little man of about sixty,
glared at the intruder from under a pair of bushy eyebrows, as
though he were trying to look him through and through and read if he
had any other motive in coming to call upon him; and then, with a
movement bordering on brusqueness, whisked the canvas from his
trembling hand and placed it on a vacant easel by his side. He
intended no unkindness by his action, as Randall soon found out for
himself. He was only authoritative, and this was his habitual manner
towards friend and foe alike, as well as the secret that underlay his
success and power in the artistic world. For power he certainly had;
not the kind perhaps that comes from fine achievement or a noble
personality, but a sort of brutal, political,—and as he put it,
“administrative”—power, which caused him to be courted and feared,
and enabled him to make and unmake the reputations of countless
of his fellow craftsmen. It was an open secret that he managed the
only Salon then in existence practically as he pleased, and put in or
put out all those whom he happened at the moment either to like or
dislike; that he medalled, or left without recompense, whomsoever
he chose; and that on more than one occasion (it must be confessed
to his shame) he had even unjustly withheld the official honors from
those who were most eminently entitled to receive them.
He regarded the picture with the stony stare of the Sphinx for what
appeared to Joe Randall to be an eternity, and then, turning
suddenly towards him, said, with astounding candor—perfected by a
long and constant cultivation,—“Personally, I don’t like your picture at
all: It is a landscape, even if there are two unimportant little figures in
it, and landscapes, however well done, are of little consequence and
prove nothing. This one, with the exception of the distance, which is
passably good, is not comprehensively treated; the foreground is not
at all right in values and doesn’t explain itself; it is, in fact, a wretched
piece of work and spoils whatever small merit there may be in the
picture. Can’t you yourself see that it does so?”
Randall had thought his picture fairly good when he had taken it
away from his poor little studio in the Latin Quarter that morning, but
here, in the midst of all these gorgeous surroundings, he had to
admit that it looked insignificant enough.
“If I were in your place,” the Master continued, “I should not waste
any more time on that production, but would paint a figure piece—a
Jeanne d’Arc, or some classical, or Biblical subject: pictures of this
kind always create a sensation in the Salon, and—get three-fourths
of the recompenses besides,” he added shrewdly.
“But it is too late to do that this year,” answered Joe; “there is
barely a month before the pictures must be sent to the Palais de
l’Industrie.”
“That is true,” admitted the Master wearily.
“I must send this picture in,” continued Joe, “or nothing.”
“Then,” replied the Master promptly, “I would send in nothing.”
 Randall was silenced and thoroughly discouraged by this
rejoinder. He thought bitterly over his want of success. He had sent
pictures to the three preceding Salons, and all of them had been
declined. If he followed the advice just given him he would have to
wait a whole year before he would have another chance to make his
bow to the public as a real, a professional painter. It was too
maddening and the more he thought about it the more miserable he
became. He showed this state of feeling plainly in his face, and the
Master forgot himself long enough to notice it, and to his own very
great astonishment was touched.
“Is it very important that you should exhibit something this year?”
he inquired in a kinder voice.
“Yes,” replied Joe, nearly bursting into tears, “it is of the utmost
importance to me. I have been refused for three years in succession,
and if I do not get something into the Salon this spring, my father will
think that my picture has been rejected again, and will probably send
for me to come home and make me give up art.”
“In that case,” said the Master firmly, “we must get you in.”
He walked over to his Louis XV desk and picked up a small red
note-book, bound in Russia leather, which was filled with the names
of his private pupils and alphabetically and conveniently arranged.
“What is your name, young man?” he asked; and on receiving his
reply, he turned the page reserved for the R’s and wrote down
hastily, “Randall, J.—landscape.” “Now,” he went on, “do what I tell
you! Go home and paint up that foreground more carefully. Even I
could not get my associates to vote for it as it stands. I will see to the
rest—don’t worry! You can count on me!”
Randall, light-hearted once more, expressed his thanks profusely
for these highly comforting assurances, and was on the point of
departing when the Master abruptly demanded, “Why didn’t you go
to the Pere Rousseau, instead of coming to me? He is your teacher
now, not I!”
“I did go to him.” admitted Randall, blushing deeply, “and he said
my work wasn’t half bad, and⸺”
 “But did you ask him to speak a good word for you to the jury?”
inquired the Master maliciously.
“Yes,” nodded Randall, smiling but blushing still more deeply. “I felt
that so many of the professors protected their pupils that it was only
fair that I should receive the same treatment.”
“Well! what then?” demanded the Master, ill-concealing an
irrepressible tendency to laugh.
“He became very angry and ordered me out of his place,”
responded Joe. “He said that any man who was not strong enough
to get into the Salon on his own merit, ought to be thrown out.”
The Master was rolling over and over on his divan in a most
indecorous way, holding his plump hands on his plump sides, in an
explosion of merriment. Then, suddenly realizing how undignified his
behavior must appear, he recovered his composure with a jerk, and
remarked thoughtfully, with just a tinge of pity in his voice, “The Pere
Rousseau—the dear old man—always acts like that when he is
requested to protect anyone! He is a sort of modern Don Quixote
and can’t understand how matters are arranged to-day. If it weren’t
for me—his best friend—he wouldn’t see the work of many of his
pupils in the Salon; and let me add, young man, that it is a mighty
good thing for you that you could say just now you were a pupil of his
and not of some of the other so-called artists I could name to you if I
chose.”
The Master’s eyebrows became ominously contracted again, and
he only deigned to snap out a ferocious “Bon jour!” to the departing
Randall, omitting the more cordial “mon ami” of the first salutation.
The annual banquet given by the Alumni and the present students
of the Atelier Rousseau, was offered to that distinguished artist, as
was usual, just before the opening of the colossal Parisian picture
show. It was also, as usual, a very gay affair. The Pere Rousseau
himself, affable and stately, appeared punctually on the scene of the
festivities and was promptly ensconced in a huge armchair,
thoughtfully placed half way down a long vista of coarse, but snowy,
tablecloth. Opposite to him, in another similar armchair, sat his best
friend—the Master, to whom Randall had so recently gone for
advice. He was radiant and happy; a sense of duty well done
pervaded his entire personality. The dinner—a truly marvelous
production at the price—was eaten with avidity by the younger men,
who were not used to such luxury every day, and with a good-
natured tolerance by Monsieur Rousseau, the Master, and those few
of the guests who had been born with silver spoons in their mouths,
or whose feet were, by their own creditable endeavors, firmly planted
on the highroad which leads to fame and fortune. Such small
formality as existed at the commencement of the feast gradually
disappeared and, when the inevitable champagne was finally
brought forth, there were not over a hundred individuals with a
hundred diverse interests present, but one great human family,
presided over by a dearly loved and affectionate father. Then
speeches were made, and Lecroix, the most irrepressible, fun-loving
man in the school, became bold enough to produce a Punch and
Judy booth from a room nearby and proceeded to give an audacious
parody on the Atelier and its illustrious chief.
Randall not having heard from his picture, and dying to know its
fate, managed, under the pretence of seeing the performance better,
to work his way up close to the Master’s chair. The Master saw him
and smiled: “It is all right,” he whispered, “you are well placed, nearly
on the line in the Salle d’Honneur. Why, however, did you change
your picture so much? The distance was fairly good when you
showed it to me at my studio, and you ought only to have worked on
the foreground. The changes you have made in the composition
were so badly done, and ill-advised, that I had to fight hard, I can tell
you, against a pack of over-conscientious fellows, before I could get
them to vote for it at all. If it hadn’t been lunch time, and so many of
them were hungry and wanted to leave, rather than to dispute over
pictures, I don’t think that even I could have managed them
satisfactorily.”
“But,” interrupted Joe in astonishment, “I didn’t change the
composition a bit. I only altered the foreground as you told me to do.”
“Then there must be some mistake,” said the Master uneasily. “But
no! Here we are.” He produced his faithful note book from his pocket
and fumbled its pages until he came to the one devoted to the R’s,
and pointed to the words he had written over a month before,
“Randall, J.—landscape;” after which he had scribbled with a blue
pencil the words “Accepted” and “John.” “You did not give me your
first name when I wrote this here, so I copied it down afterwards from
your picture when I saw that it was safely and desirably hung. You
see that it’s all right after all: you almost made me feel for the
moment as though there were some error.”
“But there is a mistake!” groaned the young man in his agony, “my
first name is Joseph, not John, and you have protected some body
else whose last name and initial happen to be the same as mine.”
“’Cre nom de nom!” whistled the master profanely.

John Randall—an American from Vermont—returned from the

Salon on Varnishing Day. He sat down and wrote to his people
across the water, telling them triumphantly the news of his
acceptance—the bare fact of which he had cabled to them the week
before. He described graphically the memorable opening day, and
thus ended up his letter:
“You have heard no doubt long ago that I have passed the difficult
test of the Salon jury, and that my very first picture has been
accepted. I am all the more pleased and proud over the result
because it was received solely on its own merits. I painted it by
myself, without any outside advice or criticism, and did not solicit the
protection of the professors of the school, as I found, to my disgust,
so many of my comrades were engaged in doing. Besides the fact of
getting in under these circumstances, I am also pleased to be able to
tell you that the hanging committee have seen fit to give me one of
the very best places in the whole Salon—in the Gallery of Honor.
Having done so well with my first picture, I feel that I am fully justified
in anticipating a like measure of success with my second.
Give my love to all at home, and believe me,
Most affectionately your,
JOHN RANDALL.”
—Clinton Peters.
 A VALENTINE.
I send my heart across the years to you!
With all its humanness and all its waste;
With all that yet is tender and is true,
Though time has triumphed and youth’s hope disgraced.

What though the snows are gathered on the ground,

And bare the bough within the aching chill?
I think of you—and in my ear a sound
Breaks, and enraptures with its April thrill!

I hear the trailing hem of laggard Spring,

And daffodils seem leaning to my hand,
And on the air I glimpse the eager wing
Of birds that wander from a softer land.

And I forget—forget the world of loss,

The drift and change of things, the pain of age:
For dreams have turned to gold life’s gifts of dross;
A sweetness lingers on time’s yellowed page.

I send my heart across the years to you

As missive of the season’s hallowed day,
To you who make the heavens seem so blue—
Make love forget its livery’s grown gray:

—Maurice Weyland.
 ELENA’S DAUGHTERS
BY D. RAMON ORTEGA Y FRIAS
From the Spanish by L. Solyom.

CHAPTER I.
DOÑA ELENA, DOÑA LUZ, DOÑA ESTRELLA.

Never, either in the times when the Spaniards were ruled by a

King who was the best of cavaliers and worst of poets—yet still a
poet—a King who paid too much attention to pretty women, and
none whatever to affairs of state,—nor yet up to the present time,
has any one known or hoped to know the history of the famous
Elena and her three daughters who have acquired a fame scarcely
inferior to her own. Yet it has become known. We know it, and the
reader shall know all that afterwards happened to these three
women and to their mother, who made them worthy of the celebrity
which they acquired.
Doña Elena used to affirm that she was the widow of an “Alcalde
de casa y corte” (a sort of justice of the peace), and that she was
able to live decently and at ease on the property consisting of her
marriage portion and what her husband had left her; and certainly
she did live in this style. She was very devout, went to mass every
day, to confession and communion every Sunday, and there was
never a religious festival at which she was not present. She received
no visitors except a Dominican friar, a very virtuous man; a
gentleman who was very rich, old, and belonged to the order of
Santiago, who never left the cross except when he went to sleep,
and then only because he had another at the head of his bed; and a
retired captain, lame and one-eyed, who had once held an important
position in the Indies. Neither their age, characters, nor condition
could give rise to any suspicion, or give any reason for censure.
The widow had three daughters, grown to womanhood, and
brought up in the fear of God, as they must have been with such a
mother. It was supposed that they wanted to get married, which was
very natural, yet as they never gave any cause for scandal, it was
impossible not to recognize their virtue. As far as could be
ascertained, the family was as honorable as any other, and led a
saintly life, yet the widow and her daughters were looked upon with a
certain avoidance, some distrust and some fear. Why? Nobody
knew. The suspicions, though apparently unjust, were instinctive.
People persisted in their determination to see something
mysterious in the family, and that was enough. When the occasion
arises, we shall repeat some of the grave and extraordinary things
that were said about them, things touching the miraculous and
supernatural; but, as no one could affirm that he had actually seen
anything, it was all hearsay, and there was reason to suppose that
an evil-disposed, hidden and despicable enemy had spread these
reports, in order to harm the widow and her daughters with impunity.
Many people came to this sensible conclusion, but still there was
always some doubt left, and a lack of confidence was justifiable
because the vox populi might be right, and it has always been
considered better to err on the side of prudence than that of daring.
If the enemy was some discarded suitor, who was resolved that no
one else should have what he could not obtain, he might well have
rejoiced at the success of his scheme, for it was not an easy thing for
these three girls to find husbands while such doubts and rumors