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Databook of Plasticizers 2nd Edition
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



Published by ChemTec Publishing
38 Earswick Drive, Toronto, Ontario M1E 1C6, Canada
© ChemTec Publishing, 2013, 2017

ISBN 978-1-895198-96-6 (hard cover); 978-1-927885-15-4 (epub)
Cover design: Anita Wypych
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission of
copyright owner. No responsibility is assumed by the Author and the Pub-
lisher for any injury or/and damage to persons or properties as a matter of
products liability, negligence, use, or operation of any methods, product
ideas, or instructions published or suggested in this book.
Library and Archives of Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Wypych, Anna, 1937-

[Plasticizer databook]
Databook of plasticizers / Anna Wypych. -- 2nd edition.
Revision of: Wypych, Anna, 1937-. Plasticizer databook.

Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-895198-96-6 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-927885-15-4 (PDF)
1. Plasticizers--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.

II. Title: Plasticizers. III. Title: Plasticizer databook.
TP247.7.W96 2017 668.4’11 C2016-907338-6

C2016-907339-4
Printed in Australia, United Kingdom and United States of America

Table of Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Information on data fields 2
3 Plasticizers 17
3.1 Abietates 18
Methyl abietate (generic) 18
Methyl abietate (Abalyn D-E) 20
Ethyl abietate (generic) 22
Benzyl abietate (generic) 23
3.2 Adipates 24
Dimethyl adipate (generic) 24
Di-n-butyl adipate (generic) 26
Di-n-butyl adipate (Adimoll DB Lanxess) 28
Diisobutyl adipate (generic) 30
Diisobutyl adipate (Plasthall DIBA HallStar) 32
Diisobutyl adipate (Uniplex 165 Unitex) 34
Diisooctyl adipate (generic) 36
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (generic) 38
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (Dioctyl adipate Polytrans SA) 41
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (Diplast D Polynt) 43
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (Eastman DOA Eastman) 45
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (Plastomoll DOA BASF) 47
Diisononyl adipate (generic) 49
Diisononyl adipate (Plastomoll DNA BASF) 51
Diisononyl adipate (Jayflex DINA ExxonMobil) 53
Diisodecyl adipate (generic) 54
Diisodecyl adipate (Edenol DIDA Emery Oleochemicals) 56
Diisodecyl adipate (Lexolube 2X-108 Inolex) 58
Diisodecyl adipate (Vinycizer 50 Kao) 60
Ditridecyl adipate (DTDA Oxea GmbH) 62
Ditridecyl adipate (Lexolube 2X-109 Inolex) 63
Dibutoxyethyl adipate (Plasthall 203 LP HallStar) 65
Dibutoxyethyl adipate (Proviplast 0142) 66
Dibutoxyethylethoxy adipate (Edenol 111 Emery Oleochemicals) 67
Benzyl octyl adipate (Adimol BO Lanxess) 69
Polyhydric alcohol (Uraplast RA 19 Polynt SpA) 71
3.3 Alkyl sulfonates 72
Alkylsulfonic phenyl ester (Mesamoll Lanxess) 72
Alkylsulfonic phenyl ester (Mesamoll II Lanxess) 74
Plasticizers Databook, Copyrights 2017, ChemTec Publishing

3.4 Azelates 76
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) azelate (generic) 76
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) azelate (Monoplex DOZ HallStar) 78
Dibutyl azelate (generic) 80
Dimethyl azelate (generic) 81
Azelaic acid (Emerox 1144 Henkel Corporation) 82
3.5 Benzoates 83
Butyl benzoate (generic) 83
Butyl benzoate (Unitex) 85
2-Ethylhexyl benzoate (Benzoflex 181 Eastman) 87
Isodecyl benzoate (Velate 262 Eastman) 88
Benzyl benzoate (generic) 90
Benzyl benzoate (Benzyl Benzoate Emerald Performance Materials) 92
Benzyl benzoate (Benzyl Benzoate Vertellus) 94
Sucrose benzoate (Uniplex 280CG Unitex) 96
Propylene glycol dibenzoate (Benzoflex 284 Eastman) 98
Propylene glycol dibenzoate (Uniplex 400 Rhein Chemie (Lanxess)) 100
Diethylene glycol dibenzoate (generic) 102
Diethylene glycol dibenzoate (K-Flex DE Emerald Performance Materials) 104
Diethylene glycol dibenzoate (Monocizer PB-3A DIC Corporation) 106
Diethylene glycol dibenzoate 107
(Kalama K-Flex 850 Emerald Perfomance Materials)
Diethylene glycol dibenzoate 109
(Kalama K-Flex 975 P Emerald Perfomance Materials)
Dipropylene glycol dibenzoate (generic) 111
Dipropylene glycol dibenzoate (Benzoflex 9-88 SG Eastman) 113
Dipropylene glycol dibenzoate 115
(K-Flex DP Emerald Performance Materials)
1,4-Cyclohexanedimethanol dibenzoate (Benzoflex 352 Eastman) 117
1,4-Cyclohexanedimethanol dibenzoate (Uniplex 262 Rhein Chemie 119
(Lanxess))
Neopentyl glycol dibenzoate (Uniplex 512 Rhein Chemie (Lanxess)) 121
2,2,4-Trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol dibenzoate (Benzoflex 354 Eastman) 123
Glyceryl tribenzoate (Uniplex 260 Rhein Chemie (Lanxess)) 125
Pentaerythritol tetrabenzoate (Uniplex 552 Rhein Chemie (Lanxess)) 127
Glycol benzoate (Vesiflex 328 Velsicol Chemical LLC) 129
3.6 Bioplasticizers 131
Canola oil 131
Corn oil 132
Safflower oil 133
Soybean oil 134
Sunflower oil 135
Domplast BIO Green3000 (Domus Chemicals) 136
Domplast BIO TGM08 (domus Chemicals) 137
DOW Ecolibrium LPLAS-1101 EXP 1 138
DOW Ecolibrium LPLAS-HT EXP 3 139
Radia 7295 140
Hallgreen B-7034 142
Polysorb ID 37 143
KBB Z1 Blown Menhaden Oil 144
Drapex Alpha 200C 145
Cardanol 146
3.7 Biodegradable plasticizers 147
Glycerol 147
3.8 Chlorinated paraffins 148
Short chain chlorinated paraffin (Cereclor 50LV Orica Australia) 148
Short chain chlorinated paraffin (Cereclor 63L Orica Australia) 150
Short chain chlorinated paraffin 152
(Chlorowax 50 Dover Chemical Corporation)
Short chain chlorinated paraffin (Paroil 1650 Dover Chemical Corporation) 153
Intermediate chain chlorinated paraffin (Cereclor 51L Orica Australia) 154
Intermediate chain chlorinated paraffin (Cereclor AS45 Orica Australia) 155
Intermediate chain chlorinated paraffin 156
(Paroil 10-NR Dover Chemical Corporation)
Long chain chlorinated paraffin (Cereclor A42 Orica Australia) 157
Long chain chlorinated paraffin 158
(Chlorowax 40 Dover Chemical Corporation)
Long chain chlorinated paraffin (Paroil 140 Dover Chemical Corporation) 159
Bromochlorined paraffin 160
(Doverguard 8207-A Dover Chemical Corporation)
3.9 Citrates 161
Acetyl triethyl citrate (generic) 161
Acetyl triethyl citrate (ATEC-NF Vertellus) 163
Acetyl triethyl citrate (Citroflex A-2 Vertellus) 165
Acetyl triethyl citrate (Citrofol AII Jungbunzlauer AG) 167
Acetyl triethyl citrate (Uniplex 82 Rhein Chemie (Lanxess)) 169
Acetyl tributyl citrate (generic) 171
Acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC-NF Vertellus) 173
Acetyl tributyl citrate (Citroflex A-4 Vertellus) 175
Acetyl tributyl citrate (Citrofol BII Jungbunzlauer AG) 177
Acetyl tributyl citrate (Ketjenflex 12 Axcentive bv) 179
Acetyl tributyl citrate (Scandinol SP -22 ATBC Scandiflex/Eastman) 181
Monostearyl citrate (Morflex MSC Vertellus) 182

Triethyl citrate (generic) 183
Triethyl citrate (Citroflex 2 Vertellus) 185
Triethyl citrate (Citrofol AI Jungbunzlauer AG) 187
Triethyl citrate (Uniplex 80 Rhein Chemie (Lanxess)) 189
Tri-n-butyl citrate (generic) 191
Tri-n-butyl citrate (Citroflex 4 Vertellus) 193
Tri-n-butyl citrate (Citrofol BI Jungbunzlauer AG) 195
Tri-n-butyl citrate (Indo-TBC Indo-Nippon Co., Ltd.) 197
Tri-n-butyl citrate (Uniplex 83 Unitex) 199
Acetyl tri-n-hexyl citrate (Citroflex A-6 Vertellus) 201
Trihexyl o-butyryl citrate (Citroflex B-6 Vertellus) 203
3.10 Cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid, diisononyl ester 205
Cyclohexane dicarboxylate (Hexamoll DINCH BASF) 205
Cyclohexane dicarboxylate (Elatur CH Evonik) 207
3.11 Energetic plasticizer 209
Di-(2,2-dinitropropyl) formal 209
3.12 Epoxides 210
Epoxidized linseed oil (Drapex 10.4 Galata Chemicals) 210
Epoxidized linseed oil (Edenol B316 Spezial Emery Oleochemicals) 212
Epoxidized linseed oil (Lankroflex L Akcros Chemical, Inc.) 213
Epoxidized linseed oil (Plasthall ELO HallStar) 214
Epoxidized linseed oil (Vikoflex 7190 Arkema) 215
Epoxidized soybean oil (generic) 217
Epoxidized soybean oil (Drapex 39 Galata Chemicals) 219
Epoxidized soybean oil (Drapex 6.8 Galata Chemicals) 221
Epoxidized soybean oil (Edenol D 81 Emery Oleochemicals) 223
Epoxidized soybean oil (Kapox S-6 Kao Corporation) 224
Epoxidized soybean oil (Lankroflex E2307 Akcros Chemical, Inc.) 225
Epoxidized soybean oil (Paraplex G-60 HallStar) 227
Epoxidized soybean oil (Plastoflex 2307 Akcros Chemical, Inc.) 229
Epoxidized soybean oil (Plasthall ESO HallStar) 230
Epoxidized soybean oil (Type K Fluid Enviroblend, Inc.) 232
Epoxidized soybean oil (Vikoflex 7170 Arkema) 233
Epoxidized soybean oil (Markplast SNS Makwell Plasticizers) 235
Epoxidized soybean oil (Epocizer W-100-EL DIC Corporation) 236
Octyl epoxy stearate (Lankroflex ED6 Akcros Chemical, Inc.) 237
Octyl epoxy tallate (Drapex 4.4 Galata Chemicals) 238
Octyl epoxy tallate (Plasthall S-73 HallStar) 239
Epoxidized soybean fatty acid (Vikoflex 4050 Arkema) 240
Epoxidized propylene glycol dioleate (Vikoflex 5075 Arkema) 241

Proviplast PLS Green 5 (Proviron) 242
3.13 Glutarates 243
Dialkyl diether glutarate (Plasthall 7050 HallStar) 243
Di-(butoxyethoxyethoxyethyl) glutarate (Plasthall DBEEEG HallStar) 244
Diisodecyl glutarate (Plasthall DIDG HallStar) 245
3.14 Glycols 246
1,4-Butanediol (Ashland Specialty Products) 246
Ethylene glycol (generic) 248
Ethylene glycol (Ethylene Glycol - Electrolytic Grade Hunstman) 250
Ethylene glycol (Ethylene Glycol, Fiber Grade Dow Chemical Company) 252
Propylene glycol (Propylene Glycol - Electronic Grade Huntsman) 254
Propylene glycol 256
(Propylene Glycol Industrial Grade Dow Chemical Company)
Propylene glycol (Propylene Glycol Industrial LyondellBasell) 258
Methoxypolyethylene glycol 260
(Carbowax MPEG 350 Dow Chemical Company)
Polyethylene glycol (Carbowax PEGs 200 Dow Chemical Company) 263
Diethylene glycol (generic) 276
Diethylene glycol (Diethylene glycol Hunstman) 278
Diethylene glycol (Diethylene Glycol – E Dow Chemical Company) 280
Diethylene glycol (Diethylene Glycol Industrial Grade LyondellBasel) 282
Diisopropylene glycol (Diisopropylene Glycol Dow Chemical Company) 284
Dipropylene glycol (Dipropylene Glycol Dow Chemical Company) 286
Dipropylene glycol (Dipropylene Glycol Hunstman) 288
Triethylene glycol (generic) 290
Triethylene glycol (Triethylene Glycol Huntsman) 292
Triethylene glycol (Triethylene Glycol Dow Chemical Company) 294
Triethylene glycol (Proviplast 1783) 296
Tripropylene glycol (Tripropylene Glycol Dow Chemical Company) 298
Tetraethylene glycol 300
(Tetraethylene Glycol High Purity Dow Chemical Company)
Polyoxyalkylene glycol (Jeffox PPG-230 Hunstman) 302
Polyoxyalkylene glycol (Jeffox PPG-2000 Hunstman) 303
Polyoxyalkylene glycol (Jeffox WL-5000 Hunstman) 304
Glyceryl monoacetate (Monoacetin Tennants Fine Chemicals, Ltd.) 305
Methyl propanediol (MPDiol Glycol LyondellBasell) 307
3.15 Hydrocarbon oils 309
Hydrotreated heavy paraffinic distillate (Britol 20T R.E. Carroll, Inc.) 309
Hydrotreated heavy paraffinic oil (Chevron ParaLux Process Oil 1001 310
Chevron Texaco Global Lubricants)
Hydrotreated heavy paraffinic distillate 311
(ConoPure Process Oils 12P ConocoPhillips)
Hydrotreated light naphthenic distillate (Nyflex 200 Nynas Naphthenics AB) 312
Hydrotreated middle naphthenic distillate (Nyflex 8120 Nynas Naphthenics 314
AB)
Hydrotreated heavy naphthenic distillate (Nyflex 210B Nynas Naphthenics 316
AB)
Hydrotreated naphthenic rubber process oil (Plasticizer LN Akrochem 318
Corporation)
Paraffinic distillate (CITGO Procoil 915 CITGO Petroleum Corporation) 319
Paraffinic distillate (CITGO Tufflo 4070 Process oil CITGO Petroleum 321
Corporation)
Paraffinic distillate (Viplex 530-A Crowley Chemical Company Inc.) 323
Paraffinic hydrocarbon (Plaxolene MS Total) 324
Light paraffinic distillate solvent extract (Exarol 11 Total) 325
Heavy paraffinic distillate solvent extract (Exarol 25 Total) 326
Naphthenic hydrocarbon (Jayflex 210 ExxonMobil Chemical) 327
Aliphatic hydrocarbon (Jayflex 215 ExxonMobil Chemical) 328
Aromatic mineral oil (Plaxolene 10 Total) 329
Petroleum distillate (Kenplast G Kenrich Petrochemicals, Inc.) 333
3.16 Isobutyrates 334
2,2,4-Trimethylpentanediol diisobutyrate (Eastman TXIB Eastman) 334
3.17 Levulinic acid and its derivatives 337
Levulinic acid (generic) 337
SGP100D 339
SGP300D 340
3.18 Maleates 341
Dibutyl maleate (Octomer DBM Tiarco Chemical) 341
Diisobutyl maleate (Octomer DIBM Tiarco Chemical) 342
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) maleate (Kalflex-23 Varteco) 343
Dioctyl maleate (Octomer DOM Tiarco Chemical) 344

3.19 Oleates 345
Isopropyl oleate (Tilol IS Undesa) 345
Butyl oleate (generic) 346
Butyl oleate (Tilol B Undesa) 347
Butyl oleate (Vinycizer 30 Kao Corporation) 348
Octyl oleate (Plasthall 425 HallStar) 349
Glyceryl trioleate (Plasthall GTO HallStar) 350
3.20 Pentaerythritol derivatives 351
Pentaerythritol tetraheptanoate (Uniplex 542 Unitex) 351
Pentaerythritol ester of fatty acids (Hercoflex 707 Ashland) 352
Dipentaerythritol (Dipentaerythritol Perstorp Specialty Chemicals AB) 353
3.21 Phosphates 355
Tri-n-butyl phosphate (generic) 355
Triisobutyl phosphate (Reomol TIBP Chemtura) 358
Tributoxyethyl phosphate 360
(Phosflex T-BEP ICL Industrial Products (Supresta))
Trioctyl phosphate (Disflamoll TOF Lanxess) 362
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (generic) 364
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (Reomol TOP Chemtura) 366
Diphenyl isodecyl phosphate (generic) 368
Diphenyl isodecyl phosphate 370
(Phosflex 390 ICL Industrial Products (Supresta))
Diphenyl isodecyl phosphate (Santicizer 148 Valtris Specialty Chemicals) 372
2-Ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (generic) 374
2-Ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (Disflamoll DPO Lanxess) 376
2-Ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate 378
(Phosflex 362 ICL Industrial Products (Supresta))
2-Ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (Santicizer 141 Valtris Specialty 380
Chemicals)
Triaryl phosphate ester (generic) 382
Triaryl phosphate ester (Phosflex 71B ICL Industrial Products (Supresta)) 384
p-tert-Butylphenyl diphenyl phosphate (Santicizer 154 Valtris Specialty 386
Chemicals)
Di-tert-butylphenyl phenyl phosphate (generic) 388
Triisopropyl phenyl phosphate (generic) 389
Triisopropyl phenyl phosphate 391
(Phosflex 31L ICL Industrial Products (Supresta))
Triisopropyl phenyl phosphate (Reofos 35 Chemtura) 393
Tributyl phosphate (Phosflex 4 ICL Industrial Products (Supresta)) 395
Butyl triphenyl phosphate ester 397
(Phosflex 72B ICL Industrial Products (Supresta))
p-tert-Butylphenyl diphenyl phosphate (Santicizer 143 Ferro Corporation) 398

Tricresyl phosphate (generic) 400
Tricresyl phosphate (Disflamoll TP Lanxess) 403
Tricresyl phosphate (Kronitex TCP Chemtura) 405
Tricresyl phosphate (Lindol ICL Industrial Products (Supresta)) 407
Triphenyl phosphate (generic) 409
Triphenyl phosphate (Disflamoll TP Lanxess) 411
Triphenyl phosphate (Phosflex TPP ICL Industrial Products (Supresta)) 413
Triphenyl phosphate (Triphenyl phosphate) 415
Trixylenyl phosphate (generic) 417
Trixylenyl phosphate (Kronitex TXP Chemtura) 419
Cresyl diphenyl phosphate (Disflamoll DPK Lanxess) 421
Cresyl diphenyl phosphate (Kronitex CDP Chemtura) 423
Bisphenol A bis-(diphenylphosphate) 425
(Fyrolflex BDP ICL Industrial Products (Supresta))
Resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) 426
(Fyrolflex RDP ICL Industrial Products (Supresta))
3.22 Phthalate-free plasticizers 427
Terephthalate (Eastmant 168 Eastman) 427
Dioctyl terephthalate (Plasthall DOTP HallStar) 429
Santicizer Platinum P1400 431
Eastman VersaBond 432
Eastman Versafix 434
3.23 Phthalates 435
Dimethyl phthalate (generic) 435
Dimethyl phthalate (Palatinol M BASF) 438
Dimethyl phthalate (Indo-DMP Indo-Nippon Co., Ltd.) 440
Dimethyl phthalate (Uniplex 110 Unitex) 442
Diethyl phthalate (generic) 444
Diethyl phthalate (Indo-DEP Indo-Nippon Co., Ltd.) 447
Dipropyl phthalate (generic) 449
Di-n-butyl phthalate (generic) 450
Di-n-butyl phthalate (AK DBP Aekyung Petrochemical Co., Ltd) 453
Di-n-butyl phthalate (Eastman DBP Eastman) 455
Di-n-butyl phthalate (Plasthall DBP HallStar) 458
Di-n-butyl phthalate (Uniplex 150 Unitex) 460
Di-n-butyl phthalate (Dibutyl Phthalate Polytrans S.A.) 462
Diisobutyl phthalate (generic) 464
Diisobutyl phthalate (Diplast B Polynt) 466
Di-n-hexyl phthalate (generic) 468
Di-n-hexyl phthalate (Indo-DnHP Indo-Nippon Co., Ltd.) 470
Dicyclohexyl phthalate (generic) 472

Dicyclohexyl phthalate (Morflex 150 Vertellus) 474
Dicyclohexyl phthalate (Uniplex 250 Lanxess) 476
Di-n-octyl phthalate (generic) 478
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (generic) 480
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (AK DOP Aekyung Petrochemical Co., Ltd) 483
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Eastman DOP Eastman) 485
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Plasthall DOP HallStar) 488
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Indo-DOP Indo-Nippon Co., Ltd.) 490
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Vinycizer 80 Kao Corporation) 492
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Dioctyl Phthalate Perstorp Specialty Chemicals 494
AB)
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Diplast O Polynt) 496
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Dioctyl Phthalate Zhejiang Holley Group, 498
Huatai Chemical C., Ltd.)
Di-(2-propylheptyl) phthalate (Palatinol 10-P BASF) 500
Di-(2-propylheptyl) phthalate (Emoltene 100 TOP Perstorp Oxo AB) 502
Di-(2-propylheptyl) phthalate (Emoltene 100 IRG Perstorp Oxo AB) 504
Diisononyl phthalate (generic) 506
Diisononyl phthalate (AK DINP Aekyung Petrochemical Co., Ltd) 508
Diisononyl phthalate (Palatinol N BASF) 510
Diisononyl phthalate (Vestinol 9 Evonik) 513
Diisononyl phthalate (Jayflex DINP ExxonMobil Chemical) 515
Diisononyl phthalate (Plasthall DINP HallStar) 517
Diisononyl phthalate (Diplast NS Polynt) 519
Di-n-decyl phthalate (Vinycizer 105 Kao Corporation) 521
Diisodecyl phthalate (generic) 523
Diisodecyl phthalate (AK DIDP Aekyung Petrochemical Co., Ltd) 525
Diisodecyl phthalate (Jayflex DIDP ExxonMobil Chemical) 527
Diisodecyl phthalate (Plasthall DIDP HallStar) 529
Diisodecyl phthalate (Diplast R Polynt/Lonza Group Ltd.) 531
Di-2 propyl heptyl phthalate (Palatinol DPHP-P BASF) 533
n-Decyl n-octyl phthalate (generic) 534
Diundecyl phthalate (generic) 536
Diundecyl phthalate, branched and linear (Palatinol 11-9P-I BASF) 538
Diundecyl phthalate, branched and linear (Jayflex DIUP ExxonMobil 540
Chemical)
Diundecyl phthalate (Diplast L11/ST Polynt) 541
Ditridecyl phthalate (Jayflex DTDP ExxonMobil Chemical) 543
Ditridecyl phthalate (Plasthall DTDP HallStar) 545
Ditridecyl phthalate (Vinycizer 20 Kao Corporation) 547
Benzyl phthalate (Santicizer 278 Valtris Corporation) 548

Butyl benzyl phthalate (generic) 550
Butyl benzyl phthalate (Plasthall BBP HallStar) 553
n-Butyl phthalyl-n-butyl glycolate (generic) 555
Butyl cyclohexyl phthalate (Uniplex BCHP Lanxess) 557
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate (Uniplex FRP 45 Lanxess) 559
3.24 Polymeric plasticizers 561
Acrylated polybutadiene (Ricacryl 3100 Cray Valley) 561
Adipic acid polyester based on 1,2-propanediol 562
(Edenol 1200 Emery Oleochemicals)
Adipic acid & 1,2-propanediol (Palamoll 632 BASF) 563
Adipic acid polyester based on butanediol & neopentylglycol 564
(Edenol 1233 Emery Oleochemicals)
Adipic acid and polyhydric alcohols (Palamoll 654 BASF) 565
Adipic polyester (Ultramoll III Lanxess) 566
Dibasic acid glycol polyester (Admex 523 Eastman) 567
Ethylene/vinyl acetate/carbon monoxide (Elvaloy 4924 DuPont) 572
Ethylene/butyl acetate/carbon monoxide copolymer 573
(Elvaloy HP 771 DuPont)
Hexanedioic acid based polymer (Admex 6996 Eastman) 574
Hexanedioic acid based polymer (Admex 760 Eastman) 576
Maleinized polybutadiene (Ricon 184 Cray Valley) 578
Polybutadiene resin (Ricon 156 Cray Valley) 579
Polybutene (Indopol H-100 Ineos Oligomers) 580
Polyethylene glycol adipate (Plasthall BH-1 HallStar) 590
Polyester adipate (HallStar Dioplex PLA HallStar) 591
Polyester glutarate (Plasthall P-550 HallStar) 592
Polyester phthalate (Paraplex A-9000 HallStar) 593
Polyester sebacate (Paraplex G-25 HallStar) 594
Polymerized castor oil (Vorite 110 Vertellus) 596
Terpentene resin (Sylvagum TR 90 Arizona Chemical, Inc.) 597
Monocizer W-260 (DIC Corporation) 599
Polycarboxylate ether PCE 40% Liquid (Finoric LLC) 600
Polyglykol 4000 PF (Clariant) 601
Polyglykol M 500 PU (Clariant) 603

Polyglykol 1500 FL PU (Clariant) 604
3.25 Pyrrolidones 605
2-Pyrol (generic) 605
Flexidone 300 607
Flexidone 500 609
reFlex 100 611
3.26 Reactive plasticizers 612
Diallyl phthalate (Monoplex DAP HallStar) 612
Dibutyl maleate (Kalflex-18 Varteco) 613
Reactive plasticizer (Plasthall RP-1020 HallStar) 614
3.27 Ricinoleates 615
Ethylene glycol mono-ricinoleate (Flexricin 15 Vertellus) 615
Glycerol mono-ricinoleate (Flexricin 13 Vertellus) 616
Glycerol tri-(acetyl ricinoleate) (Flexricin P-8 Vertellus) 617
Methyl ricinoleate (Flexricin P-1 Vertellus) 618
Butyl ricinoleate (Flexricin P-3 Vertellus) 619
3.28 Sebacates 620
Dimethyl sebacate (generic) 620
Dimethyl sebacate (Dimethyl Sebacate Polytrans S.A.) 622
Dimethyl sebacate (Dimethyl Sebacate Shandong Hainua Tianji Chemical 623
Co., Ltd.)
Di-n-butyl sebacate (generic) 625
Di-n-butyl sebacate (Edenol DBS Emery Oleochemicals) 627
Di-n-butyl sebacate (Dibutyl Sebacate Polytrans S.A.) 629
Di-n-butyl sebacate (Dibutyl Sebacate Shandong Hainua Tianji Chemical 631
Co., Ltd.)
Di-n-butyl sebacate (DBS-NF Vertellus) 633
Dibutoxyethyl sebacate (Plasthall 207 DBES HallStar) 634
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate (generic) 636
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate (Edenol 888 Emery Oleochemicals) 638
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate (Monoplex DOS HallStar) 640
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate (Dioctyl Sebacate Polytrans S.A.) 642
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate (Dioctyl Sebacate Zhejiang Holley Group, 644
Huatai Chemical C., Ltd.)
Diisodecyl sebacate (Plasthall DIDS HallStar) 646
3.29 Succinate 647
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) succinate (OXBLUE DOSX OXEA Corporation) 647
3.30 Sulfonamides 649
N-Methyl o,p-toluene sulfonamide (Uniplex 171 Unitex) 649
N-Ethyl-toluene sulfonamide (Ketjenflex 8 Axcentive bv) 650

N-Ethyl-4-toluenesulfonamide (Uniplex 108 Rhein Chemie (Lanxess)) 652
N-Ethyl o,p-toluene sulfonamide (Plasthall TSA HallStar) 654
N-Butyl benzene sulfonamide (Ketjenflex 4 Axcentive bv) 655
N-Butyl benzene sulfonamide (Plasthall BSA HallStar) 657
N-Butyl benzene sulfonamide (Uniplex 214 Unitex) 659
o-Toluene sulfonamide (Ketjenflex 2 Axcentive bv) 661
Toluene sulfonamide formaldehyde condensation product 662
(Ketjenflex MH Axcentive bv)
3.31 Trimellitates 663
Tri-n-hexyl trimellitate (Morflex 560 Vertellus) 663
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (generic) 665
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Palatinol TOTM BASF) 668
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Eastman TOTM Eastman) 671
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Edenol TOT (stab) Emery Oleochemicals) 673
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Plasthall TOTM HallStar) 675
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Trimex T-08 Kao Corporation) 677
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Indo-TOTM Indo-Nippon Co., Ltd.) 679
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Oxsoft TOTM Oxea GmbH) 681
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Diplast TM/ST Polynt) 683
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (OXSOFT TOTM ST OXEA Corporation) 685
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Mexichem -TOTM PRIME Mexichem) 687
Tri-(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (Monocizer W-705 DIC Corporation) 689
Trinonyl trimellitate (OXSOFT L9TH OXEA Corporation) 690
Triisononyl trimellitate (Jayflex TINTM ExxonMobil Chemical) 693
Triisodecyl trimellitate (Morflex 530 Vertellus) 694
Triallyl trimellitate (Plasthall TATM HallStar) 695

1 Introduction
A large number of applica ons of plas cizers are driven by an even larger number of ex-
pecta ons of improvement of original proper es of polymers and products into which
these polymers are formulated with the use of plas cizers. A list below shows the most
important expecta ons of plas cizer influence on the development of desired proper es:
• the decrease of the glass transi on temperature of the polymer  the most typical
reason for plas cizer use. This expecta on is frequently related to and explained by
mechanism of plas cizer ac on
• making material more flexible  the influence related to the changes in polymer struc-
ture  frequently measured by the decrease in the glass transi on temperature
• increased elonga on and decreased tensile strength are typical results from glass
transi on decrease caused by the addi on of plas cizers, although in some polymers
or products specific results are also observed, especially when the plas cizer concen-
tra on in material varies
• decrease in the duc lity of materials and improvement of its impact resistance
• low-temperature proper es of many materials are improved by different types and
concentra ons of plas cizers
• viscosity control  plas cizers are low viscosity liquids, which reduce viscosity of poly-
mer solu ons and improve workability of the complex industrial formula ons. There
are numerous cases reported wherein viscosity also increases due to the polymer
solubility in a plas cizer (e.g., PVC plas sols) or interac on with other liquid compo-
nents present in formula on (e.g., water in water-based products in which forma on
of water-in-oil emulsion causes viscosity to increase)
• modifica on of rheological proper es  most products, especially products having
high polymer content are non-Newtonian liquids. Their apparent viscosity is a func on
of shear rate. This, in turn, causes a complex rheological behavior
• effect on chemical reac vity  lower viscosity makes molecules move and thus interact
and chemically react. At the same me, addi on of a plas cizer dilutes reac ng com-
ponents, causing plas cizer to influence reac vity, which is a composite influence of
both dilu on and mobility
• decrease of the temperature of dissolu on  gela on and coalescence temperatures
are the most frequently affected parameters but many other effects are discovered
in various products (e.g., improved smoothness of coa ng, decreased temperature of
adhesive applica on, etc.)
• effect on processability  in addi on to lowering the fusion and gela on temperatures,
plas cizers also lower mel ng temperature. The addi on of plas cizers frequently
opens new possibili es of material processing (lower degrada on rate, allows for
processing on different types of equipment, reduces the pressure of extrusion, etc.).
Mixing me is also reduced in the presence of plas cizers
• modifica on of interac on with water by products containing plas cizers. Hydropho-
bic plas cizers reduce water sensi vity of some products and hydrophilic plas cizers
increase water absorp on, which may increase curing rate in water-reac ve systems,
decrease skin me, decrease or increase tackiness, cause swelling, etc.
• assists dispersion of liquid and solid addi ves (liquid addi ves especially benefit if they
are easily soluble in a plas cizer; predispersion of fillers, pigments, and solubiliza on
of other liquid addi ves improves their incorpora on)
• effect on electric conduc vity depends on electric proper es of plas cizers which may
act as addi onal conductors or insulators
Plasticizers Databook / Copyrights 2017; ChemTec Publishing 1

• fire behavior  most plas cizers generally increase suscep bility of material to burn,
drip during burning, and produce smoke but some plas cizers (phosphates and chloro-
paraffins) reduce burneability of materials and smoke produc on
• resistance to biological degrada on  most plas cizers increase poten al of biologi-
cal a ack and some products containing plas cizers must be protected by biocides.
In biodegradable materials, selected plas cizers are deliberately added to increase
biodegrada on rate
• improvement of sound blocking and vibra on damping proper es
• improvement of op cal clarity by homogenizing system components
• effect on vola liza on of product components. Plas cizers generally reduce amount of
VOC by helping to replace some solvents but slow diffusion and evapora on also cause
release of liquid component leading to the so-called fogging and indoor pollu on
• effect on crystalliza on is generally causing reduc on of crystallinity but in many cases
crystallizing ability can be substan ally increased by increased mobility of crystallizing
polymer chains or their segments
• increased compa bility between addi ves, polymer with addi ves, and polymers in
blends
• improvement of photorefrac ve proper es of some composi ons
• migra on of low molecular weight substances into the product and out of the product
is increased. This is especially important in pharmaceu cal products in which coa ng
containing a plas cizer regulates drug release rate but it is also essen al in tex le dye-
ing and many other applica ons
• increase in gas permeability
• in addi on, to the above-listed expecta ons based on physical-chemical proper es of
plas cizers and their effect on other materials, namely polymers, we also have several
sociopoli cal factors and expecta ons, which are the trademark of our present mes.
This includes:
• renewable resources (as a source of raw materials used in the produc on of plas ciz-
ers)
• biodegradable (a certain degree of biodegradability, considering that it does not harm
either performance or life me of the final products)
• non-phthalate (even though some of the so-called “non-phthalate plas cizers” are also
phthalates but tere- rather than ortho- or cyclohexane deriva ves, similar in structure
to ortho-phthalates)
Many of the above proper es of plas cizers are included in the data tables which charac-
terize individual plas cizers.
Plas cizers are commonly classified based on their chemical composi on because it is easier
to understand the influence of structural elements (e.g., different alcohols in a homologous
series of phthalates, adipates, etc.) on proper es of plas cizers and their effect on materials,
which contain them. For this reason, we also group plas cizers by chemical family (or cat-
egory) such as esters, phthalates, chlorinated paraffin. It is important to consider that clas-
sifica on should help in the extrac on of an objec ve truth rather than to be used for crude
simplifica ons. For example, grouping paraffins by the length of their carbon chain and con-
centra on of chlorine helps in understanding their ecological effect and proper categoriza-
on of informa on and literature on the subject. Similarly, the study of migra on rate of
phthalates having different alcohols or their solubili es in different solvents helps to formu-

late be er products. On the other hand, calls for the elimina on of an en re group of plas-
cizers without understanding benefits or disadvantages given by the proper es of the indi-
vidual members of the group is a crude simplifica on which should have no place in science.
The data on plas cizers are organized according to their chemical composi on. Plas cizers
belonging to a par cular group (e.g., adipates, phthalates, etc.) are listed in order of the
molecular weight of the alcohol used in par cular plas cizer (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, etc.)

2 Information on data fields
The fields used in the database are listed in alphabe cal order below. The informa on on
data in a par cular field includes glossary of term, unit of measurement, typical methods
used to measure quan es available in the database.
A
Absolute viscosity is the ra o of shear stress to shear rate. It is a fluid’s internal resistance to
flow. The common unit of absolute viscosity is the poise (1P = 100 cps). Absolute viscosity
divided by fluid density equals kinema c viscosity. It is occasionally referred to as dynamic
viscosity. Absolute viscosity and kinema c viscosity are expressed in fundamental units.
A
Twenty-five grams of a plas cizer is placed in 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask and 50 ml alcohol
is added to dissolve the sample. If the sample is not completely soluble, 50 ml of equal
amounts of alcohol and acetone are used. This sample is trated with 0.01N NaOH or KOH
in the presence of bromothymol blue used as an indicator. ISO standard uses a method of
tra on similar to just described ASTM standard but phenolphthalein is used as an indicator
and 0.1 N NaOH is used as a tra ng agent. The results are expressed in mg KOH per 1 g of
sample.
A
The results of tra on (see Acid number) are expressed in weight percents as ace c acid.
A
Abbrevia ons of plas cizer names can be found in the standard terminology (ASTM D1600-
08 Standard Terminology for Abbreviated Terms Rela ng to Plas cs). ISO standard has a
separate sec on for symbols used for plas cizers (ISO 1043-3:1996 Plas cs -- Symbols and
abbreviated terms -- Part 3: Plas cizers). In addi on to the abbrevia ons for individual plas-
cizers, Annex A contains a list of symbols for plas cizer components (alcohol part, acid part,
and other elements of composi on). Abbrevia ons of plas cizers used in rubber are given
in a separate standard (ISO 6472:2010 Rubber compounding ingredients -- Symbols and ab-
breviated terms).
ADR/RID
A number corresponding to one of the eight classes of cargo defined in the European Agree-
ment concerning the Interna onal Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) or the Inter-
na onal Regula ons concerning the Transport of Dangerous goods by Rail (RID)
A
The minimum temperature of complete miscibility of equal volumes of aniline and the sam-
ple under test according to ASTM Method D611. A product of high aniline point will be low
in aroma cs and naphthenes and high in paraffins.
A ,
Acute toxicity describes the adverse effects resul ng from a single exposure to a substance.
Typical methods of measurement include LD50 which is the amount of a solid or liquid mate-
rial that is required to kill 50% of test animals in one dose.
A
The adverse effects to marine life (aqua c organisms) that result from exposure to a toxic
substance. Aqua c toxicity can be expressed as the lethal concentra on of a chemical sub-
stance in miligrams per liter that caused death to 50% popula on of aqua c species (LC50)
during a me of experiment (usually 24, 48 or 96 hours).

A
Carbon distribu on and ring content data are used in characteriza on of oils in the refin-
ing/manufacturing process and can also correlate to cri cal performance proper es (ASTM
D3238 Calcula on of Carbon Distribu on and Structural Group Analysis of Petroleum Oils by
the n-d-M Method). Aroma c carbon concentra on in weight percent characterizes proper-
es and toxicity of plas cizers obtained from petroleum products.
A
The lowest temperature at which a material will ignite and sustain combus on in the ab-
sence of a spark or flame. The proper es of liquid can be tested by standardized methods
(ASTM E659-78 (2005) Standard Test Method for Autoigni on Temperature of Liquid Chemi-
cals). The igni on temperature is the temperature in degrees Cen grade at which the sub-
stance shows spontaneous combus on when touching hot bodies.
B
The probability that an organic substance will biodegrade under aerobic condi ons. This
field includes the general statements regarding biodegrada on probability of plas cizers.
Experimental data are included in the following fields: Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical
Oxygen Demand, and Theore cal Oxygen Demand.
B O D
The biological oxygen demand, BOD, is the mass concentra on of dissolved oxygen con-
sumed under specific condi ons in a given me (e.g., BOD-5 stands for 5 days test) by the
aerobic biological oxida on of a chemical or organic ma er in water. BOD is an empirical
test, which evaluates the ul mate aerobic biodegradability of organic compounds in water.
The following ISO standards can be applied: ISO 10708:1997 Water quality -- Evalua on in an
aqueous medium of the ul mate aerobic biodegradability of organic compounds -- Determi-
na on of biochemical oxygen demand in a two-phase closed bo le test and ISO 5815-1:2003
Water quality -- Determina on of biochemical oxygen demand a er n days (BODn). -- Part 1:
Dilu on and seeding method with allylthiourea addi on.
B
The boiling point is the temperature in degrees Cen grade at which the substance under-
goes transi on from the liquid into the gaseous phase under normal pressure.
B
The quality of copolymers containing acrylonitrile depends on bound acrylonitrile content
which can be determined using ISO 3900:1995 Rubber - Nitrile latex - Determina on of
bound acrylonitrile content.
B
Lowest temperature in degrees Cen grade at which a material withstands an impact test un-
der standardized condi ons. These methods determine temperature at which plas cs and
elastomers experience bri le failure under the specified impact condi ons (ASTM D746-07
Standard Test Method for Bri leness Temperature of Plas cs and Elastomers by Impact).
Specimens are secured in a specimen holder and immersed in a cooling liquid. The speci-
mens are struck at a specified linear speed and examined. A temperature at which 50% of
specimens fail is considered as bri leness temperature. Two types of clamps and striking
members are specified as well as three types of samples. When type B fixture and type III
specimen are used, ASTM method and ISO method (ISO 974:2000 Plas cs -- Determina on
of the bri leness temperature by impact) are technically equivalent. Test specimen type III
for fixture of type B is 20 mm long, 2.5 mm wide, and 1.6 mm thick. Specimens are condi-
oned before tes ng (23oC and 50% RH). Silicone oil or methanol are used as cooling liquids
(silicone oil up to -76oC and methanol up to -90oC). Specimens are impacted by a striking
member having a speed of 2,000 mm/s.

B
Data on bromine content are relevant for some plas cizers having fire retarding proper es.
The concentra on of bromine can be determined using ISO 15597:2001 Petroleum and re-
lated products -- Determina on of chlorine and bromine content -- Wavelength-dispersive
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry.
B
Some polymeric plas cizers contain butadiene as their building block. Its concentra on de-
termines proper es of plas cizer.
C
A carcinogenic material is one that is known to cause cancer. The process of forming can-
cer cells from normal cells or carcinomas is called carcinogenesis. A summary of findings
included in this field is based on general principles of material assessment, which includes:
a  There is limited evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans. A cause and effect
interpreta on is credible, but that alterna ve explana ons such as chance, bias, other vari-
ables etc. cannot be ruled out. Again, science can never prove a hypothesis, only disprove
one. Scien fic “facts” are established only when a preponderance of the evidence supports
a hypothesis and there is 1) no evidence to disprove it and 2) no equally viable alterna ve
hypotheses. b  There is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental
animals, which indicates there is an increased incidence of malignant and/or a combina on
of malignant and benign tumors (1) in mul ple species or at mul ple ssue sites, or (2) by
mul ple routes of exposure, or (3) to an unusual degree with regard to incidence, site, or
type of tumor, or age at onset. c  There is less than sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in
humans or laboratory animals; however, the substance is structurally related to other mate-
rials that are either human carcinogens or reasonably an cipated to be human carcinogens.
d  There is convincing relevant informa on that the material acts through mechanisms that
are likely to cause cancer in humans.
CAS
A number assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service that uniquely iden fies a chemical
substance.
C
Twenty-five groups of plas cizers were selected on the basis of chemical similarity and two
on the basis of applica ons (explosives and biodegradable products). Similar system of clas-
sifica on is also adapted in Handbook of Plas cizers which contains summaries of informa-
on for each group.
C O D
A measure of the oxygen-consuming capacity of inorganic and organic ma er present in
wastewater. COD is expressed as the amount of oxygen consumed in mg/l. Results do not
necessarily correlate with the biochemical oxygen demand, BOD, because the chemical oxi-
dant may react with substances that bacteria do not stabilize.
C
Some plas cizers contain chlorine. Its concentra on determines their proper es and behav-
ior. The data included are in weight percent
C B
This test method covers the determina on of the s ffness characteris cs of plas cs over a
wide temperature range by direct measurement of the apparent modulus of rigidity. The
samples can be tested by one of two standards: ASTM D1043-10 Standard Test Method for
S ffness Proper es of Plas cs as a Func on of Temperature by Means of a Torsion Test or
ISO 458-1:1985 Plas cs -- Determina on of s ffness in torsion of flexible materials -- Part
1: General method and Part 2: Applica on to plas cized compounds of homopolymers and

copolymers of vinyl chloride. The test methods are not equivalent and results cannot be
directly compared between the two methods.
C
A number indica ng the degree of expansion or contrac on of a substance. The coefficient
of expansion is not constant and it varies with temperature (constant temperature of 55oC is
used in the database unless indicated otherwise).
C A
Vapor pressure of pure liquids can be calculated from Antoine equa on: ln(p)=A-B/
(t+273.15+C). Four fields in the database give coefficients of Antoine equa on (A, B, and C)
and temperature range in which the equa on is fulfilled.
C
This field gives a descrip on of color that is typical of commercial product or pure sample.
C ,G
Gardner color scale is made of arbitrary glass standards numbered from 1 to 18. Measure-
ments are made according to standardized method (ASTM D1544-04 (2010) Test Method for
Color of Transparent Liquids (Gardner Color Scale)).
C , -
Pla num-cobalt scale was originally developed by Hazen and it is some mes referred to as
Hazen color or APHA color because it was developed by the American Public Health Associa-
on for determining the color of water. Both names are incorrect because they do not reflect
procedures used in the current method (ASTM D1209-05 (2011) Standard Test Method for
Color of Clear Liquids (Pla num-Cobalt Scale)). Pla num cobalt reference standards are solu-
ons of potassium chloropla nate and cobalt chloride, which have different concentra ons.
They can be prepared from these chemical reagents or purchased as ready made standards.
Measurement is made in a visible spectrophotometer by comparison of readings for sample
and standards and selec on of the closest standard. If the color lies midway between stan-
dards, a darker standard is reported. ISO standard provides a procedure which is based on
the original Hazen pla num-cobalt scale (ISO 2211:1973 Liquid chemical products -- Mea-
surement of colour in Hazen units (pla num-cobalt scale)). The results of tes ng based on
color comparison of the test tubes and the plas cizer are given in Hazen units. Pla num-
cobalt scale is used for es ma on of color of clear liquids (ISO 6271:2004 Clear liquids -- Es-
ma on of colour by the pla num-cobalt scale). This method gives results of measurements
in units equivalent to ASTM method (ASTM D1209-05 (2011) Standard Test Method for Color
of Clear Liquids (Pla num-Cobalt Scale)). There are some small differences in the methods of
color comparison and equipment used.
C ,S
Saybolt chromometer originally designed for petroleum products is also used, especially in
the case of mineral oils (ASTM D156-00 Standard Test Method for Saybolt Color of Petro-
leum Products (Saybolt Chromometer Method)). Saybolt chromometer is used for deter-
mina on of color of refined oils, petroleum waxes and pharmaceu cal white oils. The color
standard is compared with the sample by changing the height of the column of a sample
un l the color is lighter than the standard. The recorded depth of oil is given a Saybolt color
number which is reported. It was reported (ASTM D1544-04 (2010) Standard Test Method
for Color of Transparent Liquids (Gardner Color Scale)) that +25 in Saybolt scale is equivalent
to 25 in the pla num-cobalt system. Exact equivalence between two methods is not known.
C
Many plas cizers have commercial names (see under label – Name). This frequently does
not permit to recognize chemical composi on of the plas cizer. Common name helps in
recogni on of chemical nature of material.

C
Common synonym has similar applica on as the Common name. It is used to help in iden -
fica on of chemical nature of the product.
D
The density, also referred to as specific weight, is the mass per volume unit in kilograms per
cubic meter.
D
The dielectric constant is a measure of the behavior of the substance when introduced into
an electric field (it indicates the mul ple to which the capacity of a condenser increases if
the substance is between the plates instead of vacuum).
DOT
Transporta on instruc ons require DOT Hazard Class in which materials are divided into the
following classes: 1 – Explosives, 2 – Gases, 3 – Flammable and combus ble liquids, 4 – Flam-
mable spontaneously combus ble solids, 5 – Oxidizers & organic peroxides, 6 – Poisonous &
infec ous materials, 7 – Radioac ve materials, 8 – Corrosives, 9 – Miscellaneous. In addi on
UN number and packaging group is also given.
EC
Number assigned by the EU commission to a substance (previously EINECS and ELINCS)
E
Elas c elonga on is the percent strain that does not permanently deform sample of tested
material.
E
The empirical formula is the molecular formula of a chemical compound. The order of atoms
follows the Hill system which is u lized by the Chemical Abstracts Services and by the Beil-
stein Ins tute. Within the empirical formula C is the first element symbol, H is the second,
the other element symbols are added in alphabe cal order. The empirical formula does not
take into account of any crystal water content. Using this field for searches requires that the
above guidelines are strictly followed.
EPA
Those chemicals which exhibit a characteris c hazard are assigned an EPA code that begins
with “D” (Ignitability - D001, Corrosivity - D002, Reac vity - D003, Toxicity - D004-D043).
About 400 chemicals and chemical wastes from specific research and industrial processes
are listed as hazardous wastes. Listed wastes have EPA codes that begin with “F”, “K”, “P” or
“U”. Wastes on the “P” list are also known as “acutely hazardous.”
E
Purity of a plas cizer is determined by ester content using tra on (ASTM D1045-08 Stan-
dard Test Methods for Sampling and Tes ng Plas cizers Used in Plas cs). For this purpose,
2 g of plas cizer are saponified with 0.5N KOH under reflux for 1 to 4 hours (depending on
ester type). The content is trated with 0.5N HCl.
E LEL
The explosion limits are the lower and the upper border concentra on in volume percent of
a flammable gas or vapor mixed with air between which the mixture can be made to explode
by hea ng or by a spark.
E UEL
The explosion limits are the lower and the upper border concentra on in volume percent of
a flammable gas or vapor mixed with air between which the mixture can be made to explode
by hea ng or by a spark.

E
Extrac on data are important determinants of plas cized system. The following informa on
is given in addi on to extrac ng substance: dura on, temperature, and the amount of plas-
cizer in formula on (phr) as per hundred parts of resin.
E ( )
The informa on included in this field comes from exis ng human experience, animal obser-
va ons related to the poten al irrita on of human eye, and in vitro studies.
F , DMC
Measurement is made of the a enua on of a light beam by smoke accumula ng within a
closed chamber due to non-flaming pyroly c decomposi on and flaming combus on. Re-
sults are expressed in terms of specific op cal density which is derived from a geometrical
factor and the measured op cal density, a measurement characteris c of the concentra-
on of smoke. Tes ng is done according to standard method (ASTM E662-12 Standard Test
Method for Specific Op cal Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials).
F
The flash point is the lowest temperature in degrees Cen grade at which so much vapor
develops under normal pressure that it results in a flammable mixture together with the air
over the liquid level. Different methods are used in the test with Cleveland cup being the
most suitable method for tes ng plas cizers. Cleveland open cup is used to determine flash
and fire points of liquids with flash point above 79oC and below 400oC, such as plas cizers
(ASTM D92-12 Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup). Stan-
dard gives the methods of determina on using manual and automa c Cleveland open cup
apparatus. About 70 ml of test liquid is heated first rapidly then slowly on approaching an
expected flash point. Test flame is applied to surface to ignite vapors. Test flame is natural or
bo led gas flame (full descrip on included in the standard). Test flame is applied first when
the temperature is 28oC below expected flash point and then in 2oC intervals. The flash point
is the lowest temperature at which vapors are ignited by the test flame.
F
Fogging tests measure the tendency for plas c or elastomeric materials to vola ze substanc-
es which can condense and collect on other surfaces when in use. These tests provide 2
methods for evalua ng the likelihood of a material to leave a light sca ering film on a glass
surface (photometric method), or to deposit foreign material onto an aluminum foil surface
(gravimetric method). Fog number is calculated from photometric readings.
F ( )
US Food and Drugs Administra on, FDA, the World Health Organiza on, WHO, and the Eu-
ropean Commission’s Scien fic Commi ee on Food, SCF, must confirm that inges on of all
addi ves remains within safe levels. It applies to people of all ages, children as well as adults.
Health consumer protec on in Germany (Bundesins tute, BgW) also examines poisonous
effect of chemicals present in commercial products.
F
The freezing point is the temperature in degrees Cen grade at which the substance under-
goes transi on from the liquid state into the solid state.
G
The approximate midpoint of the temperature range at which a break or discon nuity oc-
curs in the curve when molar volume is plo ed against temperature. The temperature at
which an amorphous polymer (or the amorphous regions in a par ally crystalline polymer)
changes from a hard and rela vely bri le condi on to a viscous or rubbery condi on.

H
The total energy of vaporiza on of liquid consists dispersion, dipole, and hydrogen bonding
forces. The total (or Hildebrand) solubility parameter square equals to the sum of squares of
dispersion, polar, and hydrogen bonding contribu ons. The unit of measurement is square
root of MPa.
H
It is the quan ty of heat liberated per unitary weight when a substance undergoes complete
oxida on. It is expressed in MJ per kg.
H
The amount of heat required to vaporize one gram of a liquid with no change in tempera-
ture. It is expressed in kJ/g.
H ’
Henry’s Law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is propor onal to the pressure of
the gas over the solu on. The constant is a propor onality factor.
H
The solubility parameter is a numerical value that indicates the rela ve solvency behavior of
a specific solvent. It is the square root of the cohesive energy density. It is expressed as the
square root of MPa, the same as Hansen solubility parameter.
HMIS
Sugges ons regarding personal protec on equipment are given based on manufacturer’s
recommenda ons.
H
Three test methods (pressure bo le, reflux, and perchloric acid catalyzed method) cover
the determina on of hydroxyl groups a ached to the primary and secondary carbon atoms
in alipha c and alicyclic compounds and phenols. These methods (ASTM E222-10 Standard
Test Methods for Hydroxyl Groups Using Ace c Anhydride Acetyla on) and simple acidimet-
ric tra on help to determine free hydroxyl groups in plas cizer.
ICAO/IATA
Classifica on for transport by cargo aircra . The statements are based on the Dangerous
Goods Regula on issued by IATA (Interna onal Air Transport Associa on). The class and the
packaging group are stated. No account is taken of special regula ons s pulated by indi-
vidual countries or airlines.
IMDG
This field contains the hazard classifica on for transport by sea.
I
An indica on of the quan ty of unsaturated fa y acids present in a fat; it represents the
number of grams of iodine absorbed by each 100 g of fat.
IUPAC
Interna onal Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, standardized names of organic
compounds and created a systema c naming system.
K
A coefficient defined as the ra o of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its density.
L O I
This test method covers a fire-test-response procedure. This test method describes a pro-
cedure for measuring the minimum concentra on of oxygen that will just support flam-
ing combus on in a flowing mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. ASTM standard describes the
details of the tes ng (ASTM D2863-12 Standard Test Method for Measuring the Minimum
Oxygen Concentra on to Support Candle-Like Combus on of Plas cs (Oxygen Index)).

L
This property is measured by torsional tests over a wide-range of temperatures.
M
The name of manufacturer is given for commercial plas cizers having a par cular brand
name.
M 30
This data contains exis ng values of concentra ons that are immediately dangerous to life
or health, IDLH. The data are provided by Na onal Ins tute for Occupa onal Safety and
Health, NIOSH, to help in selec on of appropriate respirators. Two factors were considered
when establishing the IDLH limits: (a) workers must be able to escape such an environment
without suffering permanent health damage, (b) workers must be able to escape without
severe eye or respiratory tract irrita on or other condi ons that might impair their escape.
The current defini on has no exposure dura on associated with it. Workers should not be in
an IDLH environment for any length of me unless they are equipped and protected to be in
that environment. IDLH values were determined based on animal and human data.
M
The mel ng point is the temperature in degrees Cen grade at which the substance under-
goes transi on from the solid state into the liquid state.
M
Informa on helps to dis nguish between plas cizers composed of a single components and
mixtures of plas cizing compounds.
M (100%)
Stress (in MPa) required to elongate sample by 100%.
M
Moisture concentra on in commercial plas cizer as declared by its manufacturer.
M
The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule. The weight of a molecule of
any gas or vapor as compared with the hydrogen atom as a standard.
M
The capacity of a chemical or physical agent to cause permanent altera on of the gene c
material within living cells. Tests of chemical substances and physical agents for mutagenic
poten al include microbial, insect, mammalian cell, and whole animal tests.
N
A proper name is used, which, in the case of commercial product, is a brand name given by
manufacturer and the most commonly used name in the case of generic compounds.
N
Naphthenic content data are used in characteriza on of oils in the refining/manufacturing
process and may also correlate to the cri cal performance proper es of oil-based products.
NFPA
A ra ng system has been devised by the Na onal Fire Protec on Associa on, NFPA, to assist
emergency responders. The following are the simple explana ons of numerical symbols.
Health: 0 – Like ordinary material, 1 – Slightly hazardous, 2 – Hazardous – use breathing ap-
paratus, 3 – Extremely dangerous – use full protec ve clothing, 4 – Too dangerous to enter
– vapor or liquid. Flammability: 0 – Will not burn, 1 – Must be preheated to burn, 2 – Ignites
when moderately heated, 3 – Ignites at normal temperature, 4 – Extremely flammable. Re-
ac vity: 0 – Normally stable, 1 – Unstable if heated – use normal precau on, 2 – Violent
chemical change possible – use hose from distance, 3 – Strong shock or heat may detonate
– use monitors, 4 – May detonate – evacuate area if materials are exposed to fire.

O
Any property detected by the olfactory system. In the case of chemical materials and par-
cularly plas cizers it helps to dis nguish different materials and select non-intrusive mate-
rials for applica on.
OSHA
Occupa onal Safety & Health Administra on, OSHA, provided a defini on of hazardous and
non-hazardous substances as per OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200.
O
The most important reasons for the use of a plas cizer are given in this field.
O
Concentra on of epoxy groups in plas cizer are characterized by this data.
P
Paraffinic content data are used in characteriza on of oils in the refining/manufacturing pro-
cess and may also correlate to cri cal performance proper es of oil-based products.
P
The organic carbon adsorp on coefficient, Koc, is only applicable to individual substances.
The Koc can generally be calculated from the octanol/water par on coefficient, Kow. The
following equa on can be used: log Koc = 0.937 (log Kow) - 0.006. The log Kow is determined in
a laboratory without the use of organisms. It is a measure of how polar the substance is by
determining whether the substance par ons primarily to water or to octanol. Substances
that par on primarily to octanol are likely to bioaccumulate in the fat of organisms.
pH
The pH value is the nega ve decadic logarithm of the concentra on of hydrogen ions (di-
mensionless).
P
Phosphorus content is a good indicator of proper es of organic phosphates used as plas ciz-
ers.
P
The lowest temperature at which oil will pour. The pour point is the lowest temperature at
which a material can be handled without excessive amounts of wax crystals forming so pre-
ven ng flow. If a material is below the pour point, wax will begin to separate out which will
block the filters. The wax will also build up on tank bo oms and on hea ng coils.
R
Manufacturers recommenda ons are given in this field.
R
Manufacturers recommenda ons are given in this field.
R
The ra o of the velocity of propaga on of an electromagne c wave in vacuum to its velocity
in the medium. It is a parameter that helps to iden fy chemical compounds and means of
their selec on for use in composi ons having predesigned op cal proper es.
RTECS
The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS®) is a comprehensive database
of basic toxicity informa on for over 150,000 chemical substances including: prescrip on
and non-prescrip on drugs, food addi ves, pes cides, fungicides, herbicides, solvents, di-
luents, chemical wastes, reac on products of chemical waste, and substances used in both
industrial and household situa ons. Reports of the toxic effects of each compound are cited.
In addi on to toxic effects and general toxicology reviews, data on skin and/or eye irrita on,
muta on, reproduc ve consequences and tumorigenicity are provided. Federal standards
and regula ons, NIOSH recommended exposure limits and informa on on the ac vi es of

the EPA, NIOSH, NTP, and OSHA regarding the substance are also included. The toxic ef-
fects are linked to literature cita ons from both published and unpublished governmental
reports, and published ar cles from the scien fic literature. The database corresponds to
the print version of the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, formerly known as
the Toxic Substances List started in 1971. Originally prepared by the Na onal Ins tute for Oc-
cupa onal Safety and Health (NIOSH), the RTECS® database is now produced and distributed
by MDL Informa on Systems, Inc.
S
The saponifica on value is the amount of alkali necessary to saponify a definite quan ty of
the sample. It is expressed as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to
saponify 1 gram of the sample.
S A
The test involves the penetra on of a specific shaped point when forced onto the elastomer
surface. “Shore A” specifies the type of durometer.
S
Although several mammalian species may be used, the albino rabbit is the preferred species.
Exposure dura on normally is four hours.
S , DMC
Measurement is made of the a enua on of a light beam by smoke accumula ng within a
closed chamber due to nonflaming pyroly c decomposi on and flaming combus on. Re-
sults are expressed in terms of specific op cal density which is derived from a geometrical
factor and the measured op cal density, a measurement characteris c of the concentra-
on of smoke. Tes ng is done according to standard method (ASTM E662-12 Standard Test
Method for Specific Op cal Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials).
S
The concentra on of solid material in solu on weight percent.
S
Data on solubility of plas cizer in water.
S
Several methods are used to determine specific gravity of the plas cizers, such as hydrom-
eter, digital density meter, displacement, and pycnometer methods.
S
The amount of heat in kilojules needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a sub-
stance by 1 degree of Kelvin.
S
States of plas cizers at room temperature are contained in this field.
S
Weight concentra on of sulfur in sulfur-containing materials.
S
The force ac ng on the surface of a liquid, tending to minimize the area of the surface; quan-
ta vely, the force that appears to act across a line of unit length on the surface. Also known
as interfacial force; interfacial tension; surface tensity.
T
The stress required to break material.
T
The ability to cause defects in a developing fetus. This is dis nct from mutagenicity, which
causes gene c muta ons in sperms, eggs or other cells.

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which the spermatozoa are packed; they are often very large and assume
characteristic shapes, especially in the Decapoda.
The spermatozoa show a great variety of structure, but they conform to
two chief types—the filiform, which are provided with a long whip-like
flagellum; and the amoeboid, which are furnished with radiating
pseudopodia, and are much slower in their movements. The amoeboid
spermatozoa of some of the Decapoda contain in the cell-body a peculiar
chitinous capsule, and Koltzoff[12] has observed that when the
spermatozoon has settled upon the surface of the egg the chitinous
capsule becomes suddenly exceedingly hygroscopic, swells up, and
explodes, driving the head of the spermatozoon into the egg. We cannot
enter here into a description of the embryological changes by which the
egg is converted into the adult form. Crustacean eggs as a whole contain a
large quantity of yolk, but in some forms total segmentation occurs in the
early stages, which is converted later into the pyramidal type, i.e. the
blastomeres are arranged round the edge, and the yolk in the centre is
only partly segmented to correspond with them. The eggs during the early
stages of development are in almost all cases (except Branchiura, p. 77,
and Anaspides, p. 116) carried about by the female either in a brood-
pouch (Branchiopoda, Ostracoda, Cirripedia, Phyllocarida, Peracarida),
or agglutinated to the hind legs or some other part of the body (Copepoda,
Eucarida), or in a chamber formed from the maxillipedes (Stomatopoda).
Development may be direct, without a complicated metamorphosis, or
indirect, the larva hatching out in a form totally different to the adult
state, and attaining the latter by a series of transformations and moults.
The various larval forms will be described under the headings of the
several orders.
The respiratory organs are typically branchiae, i.e. branched
filamentous or foliaceous processes of the body-surface through which
the blood circulates, and is brought into close relation with the oxygen
dissolved in the water. In most of the smaller Entomostraca no special
branchiae are present, the interchange of gases taking place over the
whole body-surface; but in the Malacostraca the gills may reach a high
degree of specialisation. They are usually attached to the bases of the
thoracic limbs (“podobranchiae”), to the body-wall at the bases of these
limbs, often in two series (“arthrobranchiae”), and to the body-wall some
way above the limb-articulations (“pleurobranchiae”). In an ideal scheme
each thoracic appendage beginning with the first maxillipede would
possess a podobranch, two arthrobranchs, and a pleurobranch, but the
full complement of gills is never present, various members of the series
being suppressed in the various orders, and thus giving rise to “branchial
formulae” typical of the different groups.
After this brief survey of Crustacean organisation we may be able to
form an opinion upon the position of the Crustacea relative to other
Arthropoda, and upon the question debated some time ago in the pages of
Natural Science[13] whether the Arthropoda constitute a natural group.
The Crustacea plainly agree with all the other Arthropoda in the
possession of a rigid exoskeleton segmented into a number of somites, in
the possession of jointed appendages metamerically repeated, some of
which are modified to act as jaws; they further agree in the general
correspondence of the number of segments of which the body is
primitively composed; the condition of the body-cavity or haemocoel is
also similar in the adult state. An apparently fundamental difference is
found in the entire absence during development of a segmented coelom,
but since this organ breaks down and is much reduced in all adult
Arthropods, it is not difficult to believe that its actual formation in the
embryo as a distinct structure might have been secondarily suppressed in
Crustacea.
The method of breathing by gills is paralleled by the respiratory
structures found in Limulus and Scorpions; the transition, if it occurred,
from branchiae to tracheae cannot, it is true, be traced, but the separation
of Arthropods into phyletically distinct groups of Tracheata and
Branchiata on this single characteristic is inadmissible. On the whole the
Crustacea may be considered as Arthropods whose progenitors are to be
sought for among the Trilobita, from whose near relations also probably
sprang Limulus and the Arachnids.
CHAPTER II
CRUSTACEA (CONTINUED): ENTOMOSTRACA
—BRANCHIOPODA—PHYLLOPODA—
CLADOCERA—WATER-FLEAS
SUB-CLASS I.—ENTOMOSTRACA.
The Entomostraca are mostly small Crustacea in which the

segmentation of the body behind the head is very variable, both in regard
to the number of segments and the kind of differentiation exhibited by
those segments and their appendages. An unpaired simple eye, known as
the Nauplius eye from its universal presence in that larval form, often
persists in the adult, and though lateral compound eyes may be present
they are rarely borne on movable stalks. In the adult the excretory gland
(“shell-gland”) opens on the second maxillary segment, but in the larval
state or early stages of development a second antennary gland may also
be present, which disappears in the adult. The liver usually points
forwards, and is simple and saccular in structure, and the stomach is not
complicated by the formation of a gastric mill. With the exception of most
Cladocera and Ostracoda the young hatch out in the Nauplius state.
Order I. Branchiopoda.[14]
The Branchiopods are of small or moderate size, with flattened and

lobate post-cephalic limbs, and with functional gnathobases. Median and
lateral eyes are nearly always present. The labrum is large, and the second
maxillae are small or absent in the adult.
Branchiopods are found in every part of the world; a few are marine,
but the great majority are confined to inland lakes and ponds, or to
slowly-moving streams. The fresh waters, from the smallest pools to the
largest lakes, often swarm with them, as do those streams which flow so
slowly that the creatures can obtain occasional shelter among vegetation
along the sides and bottom without being swept away, while even rivers of
considerable swiftness contain some Cladocera. Several Branchiopods are
found in the brackish waters of estuaries, and some occur in lakes and
pools so salt that no other Crustacea, and few other animals of any kind,
can live in them. The great majority swim about with the back
downwards, collecting food in the ventral groove between their post-oral
limbs, and driving it forwards, towards the mouth, by movements of the
gnathobases (p. 10). The food collected in this way consists largely of
suspended organic mud, together with Diatoms and other Algae, and
Infusoria; the larger kinds, however, are capable of gnawing objects of
considerable size, Apus being said to nibble the softer insect larvae, and
even tadpoles. Many Cladocera (e.g. Daphnia, Simocephalus) may be
seen to sink to the bottom of an aquarium, with the ventral surface
downwards, and to collect mud, or even to devour the dead bodies of their
fellows, while Leptodora is said to feed upon living Copepods, which it
catches by means of its antennae.
The Branchiopoda fall naturally into two Sub-orders, the Phyllopoda
including a series of long-bodied forms, with at least ten pairs of post-
cephalic limbs, and the Cladocera with shorter bodies and not more
than six pairs of post-cephalic limbs.
Sub-Order 1. Phyllopoda.
The Phyllopoda include a series of genera which differ greatly in

appearance, owing to differences in the development of the carapace,
which are curiously correlated with differences in the position of the eyes.
Except in these points, the three families which the sub-order contains
are so much alike that they may conveniently be described together.
In the Branchipodidae the carapace is practically absent, being
represented only by the slight backward projection on each side of the
head which contains the kidney (Fig. 2); the paired eyes are supported on
mobile stalks, and project freely, one on either side of the head.
In the Apodidae[15] the head is broad and depressed, the ventral side
being nearly flat, the dorsal surface convex; the hinder margin of the head
is indicated dorsally by a transverse cervical ridge, bounded by two
grooves, behind which the carapace projects backwards as a great shield,
covering at least half the body, but attached only to the back of the head.
In Lepidurus productus the head and carapace together form an oval
expansion, deeply emarginate at the hinder, narrower end, the sides of
the emargination being toothed. The carapace has a strong median keel.
The kidneys project into the space between the folds of skin which form
the carapace, and their coils can be seen on each side, the terminal part of
each kidney-tube entering the head to open at the base of the second
maxilla. In all Branchiopoda with a well-developed carapace the kidney is
enclosed in it in this way, whence the older anatomists speak of it as the
“shell-gland.”
Fig. 2.—Chirocephalus diaphanus, female, × 5, Sussex. D.O, Dorsal
organ; H, heart; Ov, ovary; U, uterus; V, external generative opening.
Associated with the development of the carapace, in this and in the next
family, is a remarkable condition of the lateral eyes, which are sessile on
the dorsal surface of the head, and near the middle line, the median eye
being slightly in front of them. During embryonic life a fold of skin grows
over all three eyes, so that a chamber is formed over them, which
communicates with the exterior by a small pore in front.
In the Limnadiidae the body is laterally compressed, and the carapace
is so large that at least the post-cephalic part of the body, and generally
the head also, can be enclosed within it.
In Limnetis (Fig. 3) the dorsal
surface of the head is bent
downwards and is much
compressed, the carapace being
attached to it only for a short
distance near the dorsal middle line.
The sides of the carapace are bent
downwards, and their margins can
be pulled together by a transverse
adductor muscle, so that the whole
structure forms an ovoid or
spheroidal case, from which the
head projects in front, while the rest
Fig. 3.—Limnetis brachyura, × 15. (After
of the body is entirely contained G. O. Sars.)
within it. When the adductor muscle
is relaxed the edges of the carapace
gape slightly, like the valves of a Lamellibranch shell, and food-particles
are drawn through the opening thus formed into the ventral groove by the
movements of the thoracic feet, locomotion being chiefly effected by the
rowing action of the second antennae, as in the Cladocera, to which all the
Limnadiidae present strong resemblances in their method of locomotion,
in the condition of the carapace, and in the form of the telson.
In Limnadia and Estheria the carapace projects not only backwards
from the point of attachment to the head, but also forwards, so that the
head can be enclosed by it, together with the rest of the body.
In all these genera the carapace is flexible along the middle dorsal line;
in Estheria especially the softening of the dorsal cuticle goes so far that a
definite hinge-line is formed, and this, together with the deposition of the
lateral cuticle in lines concentrically arranged round a projecting umbo,
gives the carapace a strong superficial likeness to a Lamellibranch shell,
for which it is said to be frequently mistaken by collectors.
The eyes of the Limnadiidae are enclosed in a chamber formed by a
growth of skin over them, as in Apodidae, but the pore by which this
chamber communicates with the exterior is even more minute than in
Apus. The paired eyes are so close together that they may touch
(Limnadia, Estheria) or fuse (Limnetis); they are farther back than in the
Apodidae, while the ventral curvature of the head causes the median eye
to lie below them. In all these points the eyes of the Limnadiidae are
intermediate between those of Apus and those of the Cladocera.
Dorsal Organ.—A structure very characteristic of adult Phyllopods is
the “dorsal organ” (Figs. 2, 5, D.O), whose function is in many cases
obscure. It is always a patch of modified cephalic ectoderm, supplied by a
nerve from the anterior ventral lobe of the brain on each side; but its
characters, and apparent function, differ in different forms. In the
Branchipodidae the dorsal organ is a circular patch, far forward on the
surface of the head (Figs. 2, 5, D.O). Its cells are arranged in groups,
which remind one of the retinulae in a compound eye; each cell contains a
solid concretion, and the concretions of a group may be so placed as to
look like a badly-formed rhabdom. Claus,[16] who first called attention to
this structure in the Branchipodidae, regarded it as a sense-organ. In
Apodidae the dorsal organ is an oval patch of columnar ectoderm,
immediately behind the eyes; it is slightly raised above the surrounding
skin, and is covered by a very delicate cuticle (with an opening to the
exterior?), and below it is a mass of connective tissue permeated by blood;
Bernard has suggested that it is an excretory organ.
Most Limnadiidae resemble the Cladocera in the possession of a
“dorsal organ” quite distinct from the above; in Limnetis and Estheria it
has the form of a small pit, lined by an apparently glandular ectoderm,
and this is its condition in many Cladocera; in Limnadia lenticularis it is
a patch of glandular epithelium on a raised papilla. Limnadia has been
observed to anchor itself to foreign objects by pressing its dorsal organ
against them, and many Cladocera do the same thing; Sida crystallina,
for example, will remain for hours attached by its dorsal organ to a
waterweed or to the side of an aquarium. Structures resembling a dorsal
organ occur in the larvae of many other Crustacea, but the presence of
this organ in the adult is confined to Branchiopods, and indeed in many
Cladocera it disappears before maturity. It is certain that the sensory and
adhesive types of dorsal organ are not homologous, especially as
rudimentary sense-organs may exist on the head of Cladocera together
with the adhesive organ.
The telson differs considerably in the different genera. In the
Branchipodidae[17] the anus opens directly backwards; and the telson
carries two flattened backwardly directed plates, one on each side of the
anus, the margins of each plate being fringed with plumose setae. In
Artemia the anal plates are rarely as large as in Branchipus, and never
have their margins completely fringed with setae; in A. salina from
Western Europe, and in A. fertilis (Fig. 4, A) from the Great Salt Lake of
Utah, there is a variable number of setae round the apical half of each
lobe, but in specimens of A. salina from Western Siberia the number of
setae may be very small, or they may be absent; in the closely allied A.
urmiana from Persia the anal lobes are well developed in the male, each
lobe bearing a single terminal hair, but they are altogether absent in the
female. Schmankewitch and Bateson have shown that there is a certain
relation between the salinity of the water in which Artemia salina occurs
and the condition of the anal lobes, specimens from denser waters having
on the whole fewer setae; the relation is, however, evidently very complex,
and further evidence is wanted before any more definite statements can
be made.
Fig. 4.—A, Ventral view of the anal region in Artemia fertilis, from the
Great Salt Lake; B, ventral view of the telson and neighbouring parts of
Lepidurus productus; C, side view of the telson and left anal lobe of
Estheria (sp.?).
In the Apodidae the anal lobes have the form of two-jointed cirri, often
of considerable length; in Apus the anus is terminal, but in Lepidurus
(Fig. 4, B) the dorsal part of the telson is prolonged backwards, so as to
form a plate, on the ventral face of which the anus opens, much as in the
Malacostraca.
In the Limnadiidae (Fig. 4, C) the telson is laterally compressed and
produced, on each side of the anus, into a flattened, upwardly curved
process, sharply pointed posteriorly, and often serrate; the anal lobes are
represented by two stout curved spines, while in place of the dorsal
prolongation of Lepidurus we find two long plumose setae above the
anus. In the characters of the telson and anal lobes, as in those of the
head, the Limnadiidae approximate to the Cladocera. In Limnetis
brachyura the ventral face of the telson is produced into a plate
projecting backwards below the anus, in a manner which has no exact
parallel among other Crustacea.
The appendages of the Phyllopoda are fairly uniform in character,
except those affected by the sexual dimorphism, which is usually great.
Fig. 5.—Chirocephalus diaphanus, male. Side view of head, showing
the large second antenna, A2, with its appendage Ap, above which is
seen the filiform first antenna; D.O, dorsal organ; E1, median eye.
Of the cephalic appendages, the first antennae are generally small, and
are never biramous; in Branchipus and its allies they are simple unjointed
rods, in some species of Artemia they are three-jointed, in Apus they are
feebly divided into two joints, while in Estheria they are many-jointed.
The second antennae are the principal organs of locomotion in the
Limnadiidae, where they are large and biramous; in all other Phyllopoda
they are uniramous in the female, being either unjointed triangular plates
as in Chirocephalus (Fig. 2), or minute vestigial filaments as in Apus, in
which genus Zaddach, Huxley, and Claus have all failed to find any trace
of a second antenna in some females. In the male Branchipodidae the
second antennae are modified to form claspers, by which the female is
seized, the various degrees of complication which these claspers exhibit
affording convenient generic characters. In Branchinecta each second
antenna is a thick, three-jointed rod, the last joint forming a claw, while
the second joint is serrate on its inner margin; in Branchipus the base is
much thickened, and bears on its inner side a large filament (perhaps
represented by the proximal tubercle of Branchinecta and Artemia),
which looks like an extra antenna. In Streptocephalus the terminal joint
of the antenna is bifid, and there is a basal filament like that of
Branchipus; in Chirocephalus
diaphanus (Figs. 5, 6) the main
branch of the antenna consists of
two large joints, the terminal joint
being a strong claw with a serrated
process at its base, while the
proximal joint bears two
appendages on its inner side; one of
these is a small, subconical tubercle,
the second is more complicated,
consisting of a main stem and five
outgrowths. The main stem is
many-jointed and flexible, its basal
joint being longer than the others,
and bearing on its outer side a large,
triangular, membranous appendage,
and four soft cylindrical
appendages, the main stem and its
appendages being beset with
curious tubercles, ending in short
spines, whose structure is not
understood. Except during the act of
copulation this remarkable Fig. 6.—Chirocephalus diaphanus.
Second antenna of male, uncoiled.
apparatus is coiled on the inner side
of the antennary claw, the jointed
stem being so coiled that it is often compared to the coiled proboscis of a
butterfly, and the triangular membrane folded like a fan beside it, so that
much of the organ is concealed, and the general appearance of the head is
that shown in Fig. 5. During copulation, the whole structure is widely
extended.
The males of Artemia (Fig. 7) have the second antenna two-jointed, the
basal joint bearing an inner tubercle, the terminal joint being flattened
and bluntly pointed, its outer margin provided with a membranous
outgrowth. In A. fertilis the breadth of the second joint varies greatly, the
narrower forms presenting a certain remote resemblance to
Branchinecta. In the males of Polyartemia the second antennae have a
remarkable branched form not easily comparable with that found in other
Branchipodidae.
The cephalic jaws are fairly uniform throughout the order. The
mandibles have an undivided molar surface, and no palp; the first maxilla
is very generally a triangular plate, with a setose biting edge; mandibles
and maxillae are covered by the
labrum. The second maxilla
generally lies outside the chamber
formed by the labrum, and is a
simple oval plate, with or without a
special process for the duct of the
kidney.
The thoracic limbs, in front of the
genital segments, are not as a rule
differentiated into anterior
Fig. 7.—Artemia fertilis. Front view of the maxillipedes and posterior
head of a male, showing the large second locomotive appendages, as in higher
antennae, A.2; A.1, first antennae. forms; we have seen, however, that
all these limbs take part in the
prehension of food, and except in
the Limnadiidae they all assist in locomotion. One of the middle thoracic
legs of Artemia (Fig. 8, A) has a flattened stem, with seven processes on
its inner, and two on its outer margin. The gnathobase (gn) is large, and
fringed with long plumose setae, each of which is jointed; this is followed
by four smaller “endites” (or processes on the median side), and then by
two larger ones, the terminal endite (the sixth, excluding the gnathobase)
being very mobile and attached to the main stem by a definite joint. On
the outer side are two processes; a proximal “bract,” a flat plate with
crenate edges, partly divided by a constriction into two, and a distal
process, cylindrical and vascular, called by Sars and others the
“epipodite.” In other Branchipodidae we have essentially the same
condition, except that the fifth endite often becomes much larger than in
Artemia, throwing the terminal endite well over to the outer edge of the
limb; such a shift as this, continued farther, might well lead to the
condition found in the Limnadiidae, or Apodidae, where the lobe which
seems to represent the terminal endite of Artemia is entirely on the outer
border of the limb, forming what most writers have called the exopodite
(Lankester’s “flabellum”).[18] In the two last-named families the basal
exite or bract of the Branchipodidae does not appear to be represented.
Fig. 8.—A, Thoracic limb of Chirocephalus diaphanus; B, prehensile
thoracic limb of male Estheria. gn, Gnathobase; 1–6, the more distal
endites.
The limbs of the Apodidae are remarkable in two ways; those in front of
the genital opening (very constantly ten pairs) are not so nearly alike as in
most genera of the sub-order, the first two pairs especially having the axis
definitely jointed, while the endites are elongated and antenniform;
further, while the first eleven segments bear each a single pair of limbs, as
is usual among Crustacea, many of the post-genital segments bear several
pairs; thus in Apus cancriformis there are thirty-two post-cephalic
segments in front of the telson, the first eleven having each one pair of
limbs, while the next seventeen have fifty-two pairs between them, the
last four segments having none.
In all the Phyllopoda some of the post-cephalic limbs are modified for
reproductive purposes; in the Branchipodidae the last two pairs (the 12th
and 13th generally, the 20th and 21st in Polyartemia) are so modified in
both sexes. In the female these appendages fuse at an early period of
larval life, and surround the median opening of the generative duct (Fig.
2); in the male the two pairs also fuse, but traces of the limbs are left as
eversible processes round the paired openings of the vasa deferentia.
In the other families, one or more limbs of the female are adapted for
carrying or supporting the eggs. In the Apodidae the appendages of the
eleventh segment have the exopodite in the form of a rounded,
watchglass-shaped plate, fitting over a similarly shaped process of the
axis of the limb, so that a lens-shaped box is formed, into which the eggs
pass from the oviduct. In Limnadiidae the eggs are carried in masses
between the body and the carapace, and are kept in position by special
elongations of the exopodites of two or three legs, either those near the
middle of the thorax (Estheria, Limnadia), or at its posterior end
(Limnetis). In female Limnetis the last thoracic segments bear two
remarkable lateral plates, which apparently also help to support the eggs.
In the male Limnadiidae, the first (Limnetis) or the first two thoracic feet
(Limnadia, Estheria) are prehensile (Fig. 8, B).
Alimentary Canal.—The mouth of the Phyllopoda is overhung by the
large labrum, so that a kind of atrium is formed, outside the mouth itself,
in which mastication is performed; numerous unicellular glands, opening
on the oral face of the labrum, pour their secretion into the atrial
chamber, and may be called salivary, though the nature of their secretion
is not known. The mouth has commonly two swollen and setose lips,
running longitudinally forwards from the bases of the first maxillae, and
often wrapping round the blades of the mandibles. It leads into a vertical
oesophagus, which opens into a small globular stomach, lying entirely
within the head; the terminal part of the oesophagus is slightly
invaginated into the stomach, so that a valvular ring is formed at the
junction of the two. The stomach opens widely behind into a straight
intestine, which runs backwards to about the level of the telson, where it
joins a short rectum, leading to the terminal or ventral anus. The stomach
and intestine are lined by a columnar epithelium, and covered by a thin
network of circularly arranged muscle-fibres; the rectum has a flatter
epithelium, and radial muscles pass from it to the body-wall, so that it can
be dilated. The only special digestive glands are two branched glandular
tubes, situated entirely within the head, which open into the stomach by
large ducts, one on each side. In Chirocephalus the gastric glands are
fairly small and simple; in the Apodidae their branches are more complex
and form a considerable mass, filling all that portion of the head which is
not occupied by the nervous system and the muscles. Backwardly directed
gastric glands, like those of the higher Crustacea, are not found in
Branchiopods; both forms occur together in the genus Nebalia, but with
this exception the forwardly-directed glands are peculiar to
Branchiopods.
Heart.—In Branchipus and its allies, and in Artemia, the heart
extends from the first thoracic segment to the penultimate segment of the
body, and is provided with eighteen pairs of lateral openings, one pair in
every segment through which it passes except the last; it is widely open at
its hinder end, and is prolonged in front for a short distance as a cephalic
aorta, the rest of the blood-spaces being lacunar.
In most, at least, of the other Branchiopods, the heart is closed behind
and is shortened; in Apus and Lepidurus it only extends through the first
eleven post-cephalic segments, while in the Limnadiidae it is shorter still,
the heart of Limnetis passing through four segments only. In all cases
there is a pair of lateral openings in every segment traversed by the heart.
The blood of the Branchipodidae and Apodidae contains dissolved
haemoglobin, the quantity present being so small as to give but a faint
colour to the blood in Branchipus, while Artemia has rather more, and
the blood of Apus is very red. The only other Crustacea in which the blood
contains haemoglobin are the Copepods of the genus Lernanthropus,[19]
so that the appearance of this substance is as irregular and inexplicable in
Crustacea as in Chaetopods and Molluscs.
The nervous system of Branchipus may be described as an
illustration of the condition prevailing in the group. The brain consists of
two closely united ganglia, in each of which three main regions may be
distinguished; a ventral anterior lobe, a dorsal anterior lobe, and a
posterior lobe. The ventral anterior lobes give off nerves to the median
eye, to the dorsal organ, and to a pair of curious sense-organs,
comparable with the larval sense-knobs of many higher forms, situated
one on each side of the median eye; in late larvae Claus describes the
terminal apparatus of each frontal sense-organ as a single large
hypodermic cell; W. K. Spencer[20] has lately described several terminal
cells, containing peculiar chitinous bodies, in the adult. The homologous
sense-organs of Limnetis are apparently olfactory. The dorsal anterior
lobes give off the large nerves to the lateral eyes, while the posterior lobes
supply the first antennae. The oesophageal connectives have a coating of
ganglion-cells, and some of these form the ganglion of the second
antenna, the nerve to this appendage leaving the connective just behind
the brain. The post-oral nerve-cords are widely separate, each of them
dilating into a ganglion opposite every appendage, the two ganglia being
connected by two transverse commissures. The ganglia of the three
cephalic jaws, so often fused in the higher Crustacea, are here perfectly
distinct. Closely connected with each thoracic ganglion is a remarkable
unicellular gland, opening to the exterior near the middle ventral line; it
is conceivable that these cells may be properly compared with the larval
nephridia of a Chaetopod,[21] but no evidence in support of such a
comparison has yet been adduced.
Behind the genital segments, where there are no limbs, the nerve-cords
run backwards without dilating into segmental ganglia, except in the
anterior two abdominal segments where small ganglionic enlargements
occur. In Apodidae, on the other hand, those segments which carry more
than one pair of appendages have as many pairs of ganglia, united by
transverse commissures, as they have limbs.
A stomatogastric nervous system exists in Apus, where a nerve arises
on each side from the first post-oral commissure, and runs forward to join
its fellow of the opposite side on the anterior wall of the oesophagus.
From the loop so formed a larger median and a series of smaller lateral
nerves pass to the wall of the alimentary canal. A second nerve to the
oesophagus is given off from the mandibular ganglion of each side.
Reproductive Organs.—In Chirocephalus the ovaries (Fig. 2, Ov)
are hollow epithelial tubes, lying one on each side of the alimentary canal,
and extending from the sixth abdominal segment forwards to the level of
the genital opening; at this point the two ovaries are continuous with
ducts, which bend sharply downwards and open into the single uterus
contained within the projecting egg-pouch and opening to the exterior at
the apex of that organ. Short diverticula of the walls of the uterus receive
the ducts of groups of unicellular glands, the bodies of which contain a
peculiar opaque secretion, said to form the eggshells. In Apodidae the
ovaries are similar in structure, but they are much larger and branch in a
complex manner, while each ovary opens to the exterior independently of
the other in the eleventh post-cephalic segment; nothing like the median
uterus of the Branchipodidae being formed. The epithelium of the ovarian
tubes proliferates, and groups of cells are formed; one becoming an ovum,
the others being nutrient cells like those which will be more fully
described in the Cladocera.
In Chirocephalus the testes are tubes similar in shape and position to
the ovaries, each communicating in front with a short vas deferens, which
dilates into a vesicula seminalis on its way to the eversible penis; an
essentially similar arrangement is found in all Branchipodidae, but in
Apodidae and Limnadiidae there is no penis.
All the Branchiopoda are dioecious,[22] and many are parthenogenetic.
Among Branchipodidae Artemia is the only genus known to be
parthenogenetic, but parthenogenesis is common in all Apodidae, while
the males of several species of Limnadia are still unknown, although the
females are sometimes exceedingly common. In Artemia, generations in
which the males are about as numerous as the females seem to alternate
fairly quickly with others which contain only parthenogenetic females; in
Apus males are rarely abundant, and often absent for long periods; during
five consecutive years von Siebold failed to discover a male in a locality in
Bavaria, though he examined many thousands of individuals; near
Breslau he found on one occasion about 11 per cent of males (114 in 1026),
but in a subsequent year he found less than 1 per cent; the greatest
recorded percentage of males is that observed by Lubbock in 1863, when
he found 33 males among 72 individuals taken near Rouen.
The eggs of most genera can resist prolonged periods of desiccation,
and indeed it seems necessary for the development of many species that
the eggs should be first dried and afterwards placed in water. Many eggs
(e.g. of Chirocephalus diaphanus and Branchipus stagnalis) float when
placed in water after desiccation, the development taking place at the
surface of the water.
Habitat.—All the Phyllopoda, except Artemia, are confined to
stagnant shallow waters, especially to such ponds as are formed during
spring rains, and dry up during the summer. In waters of this kind the
species of Branchipus, Apus, etc., develop rapidly, and produce great
numbers of eggs, which are left in the dried mud at the bottom after
evaporation of the water, where they remain quiescent until a fresh rainy
season. The mud from the beds of such temporary pools often contains
large numbers of eggs, which may be carried by wind, on the legs of birds,
and by other means, to considerable distances. Many exotic species have
been made known to European naturalists by their power of hatching out
when mud brought home by travellers is placed in water. The water of
stagnant pools quickly dissolves a certain quantity of solid matter from
the soil, and often receives dissolved solids through surface drainage from
the neighbouring land; such salts may remain as the water evaporates, so
that the water which remains after evaporation has proceeded for some
time may be very sensibly denser than that in which the Branchiopods
were hatched; these creatures must therefore be able to endure a
considerable increase in the salinity of the surrounding waters during the
course of their lives. My friend Mr. W. W. Fisher points out that the
plants present in such a pond would often precipitate the carbonate of
lime, so that this might be removed as evaporation went on, but that
chlorides would probably remain in solution; from analyses which Mr.
Fisher has been kind enough to make for me, it is seen that this happened
in a small aquarium in my laboratory, in which Chirocephalus diaphanus
lived for four months. In April, mud from the dry bed of a pond, known to
contain eggs of Chirocephalus, was placed in this aquarium in Oxford,
and water was added from the tap. Oxford tap-water contains about 0·3
grm. salts per litre, the chlorine being equivalent to 0·023 grm. NaCl.
Water was added from time to time during May and June, but in July
evaporation was allowed to proceed unchecked. At the end of July there
was about half the original volume of water, the Chirocephalus being still
active; the residue contained 0·96 grm. dissolved solids per litre, with
chlorine equal to 0·19 grm. NaCl, so that the percentage of chlorides was
about eight times the initial percentage, but there were only three and a
fifth times the original amount of total solid matter in solution, the
carbonate of lime having precipitated as a visible film.
Some species of Branchipus (e.g. B. spinosus, M. Edw.) and of Estheria
(E. macgillivrayi, Baird, E. gubernator, Klutzinger) occur in salt pools,
but Artemia flourishes in waters beside whose salinity that endured by
any other Branchiopod is insignificant. In the South of Europe, Artemia
salina may be found in swarms, as it used to be found in Dorsetshire, in
the shallow brine-pans from which salt is commercially prepared; Rathke
quotes an analysis showing that a pool in the Crimea contained living
Artemia when the salts in solution were 271 grms. per litre, and the water
was said to have the colour and consistency of beer.
The behaviour of the animals in the water differs a little; in normal
feeding all the species swim with the back downwards, as has already
been said; the Branchipodidae rarely settle on the ground, or on foreign
objects, but the Apodidae occasionally wriggle along the bottom on their
ventral surface, and Estheria burrows in mud.
The greater number of species are found in pools in flat, low-lying
regions, and many appear to be especially abundant near the sea; Apus
cancriformis has, however, been found in Armenia at 10,000 feet above
sea level.
Wells and underground waters do not generally contain Phyllopods;
but a species of Branchipus and one of Limnetis, both blind, have been
described from the caves of Carniola.
One of the many puzzles presented by these creatures is the erratic way
in which they are scattered through the regions they inhabit; a single
small pond, a few yards or less in diameter, may be the only place within
many miles in which a given species can be found; in this pond it may,
however, appear regularly season after season for some time, and then
suddenly vanish.
Geographically, the Phyllopoda are cosmopolitan, representatives of
every family and of some genera (e.g. Streptocephalus, Lepidurus,
Estheria) being found in every one of the great zoological regions, though
a few aberrant genera are of limited range, thus Polyartemia is known
only from the northern Palaearctic and Nearctic regions,
Thamnocephalus only from the Central United States. The genus Artemia
is not at present known in Australia.[23] The only recorded British species
are Chirocephalus diaphanus, Artemia salina, and Apus cancriformis,[24]
but other continental islands, for example the West Indian group, are
better supplied. The distribution of the species is very imperfectly known,
but on the whole every main zoological region seems to have its own
peculiar species, which do not pass beyond its boundaries. Branchinecta
paludosa and Lepidurus glacialis are circumpolar, both occurring in
Norway, in Lapland, in Greenland, and in Arctic North America; but with
these exceptions the Palaearctic and Nearctic species seem to be distinct.
The European species Apus cancriformis occurs in Algiers, but the
relations between the species of Northern Africa as a whole and those of
Southern Europe on the one hand, or of Central and Southern Africa on
the other, have yet to be worked out.
The soft-bodied Branchipodidae are not known in the fossil condition;
[25]
an Apus, closely related to the modern A. cancriformis, has been
found in the Trias, but the most numerous remains have been left, as
might be expected, by the hard-shelled Limnadiidae; carapaces, closely
resembling those of the modern Estheria, are known in beds of all ages
from the Devonian period to recent times; these carapaces are in several
cases associated with fossils of an apparently marine type. None of the
fossil species differ in any important characters from those now living, so
that the Phyllopoda have existed in practically their present form for an
enormously long period; this fact, and the evidence that species of
existing genera were at one time marine, explain the wide distribution of
animals at present restricted to a remarkably limited range of
environmental conditions.
Summary of the Characters of the Genera.
Sub-Order Phyllopoda.—Branchiopoda with an elongated body,

provided with at least ten pairs of post-cephalic limbs, the heart
extending through four or more thoracic segments, and having at
least four pairs of ostia.
Fam. 1. Branchipodidae.[26]—Carapace rudimentary, eyes stalked;
the second antennae flat and unjointed in the female, jointed and
prehensile in the male; female generative opening single; telson not
laterally compressed, bearing two flattened lobes, or none. The heart
extending through the thorax and the greater part of the abdomen.
A. Eleven pairs of praegenital ambulatory limbs.
a. Abdomen of six well-formed segments and a telson; anal
lobes well formed, their margins setose.
Branchinecta, Verrill—Second antennae of ♂ without
lateral appendages; ovisac of ♀ elongated. B. paludosa,
O. F. Müll.—Circumpolar.
Branchiopodopsis, G. O. Sars[27]—Second antennae of ♂ as
in Branchinecta; ovisac of ♀ short. B. hodgsoni, G. O.
Sars—Cape of Good Hope.
Branchipus, Schaeffer—Second antennae of ♂ with simple
internal filamentous appendage. B. stagnalis, Linn.—
Central Europe.
Streptocephalus, Baird—Second antennae of ♂ 3–jointed,
the last joint bifid; an external filamentous appendage. S.
torvicornis, Wagn., Poland.
Chirocephalus, Prévost—Second antennae of ♂ 3–jointed,
with a jointed internal appendage, which bears secondary
processes, four cylindrical and one lamellar. C.
diaphanus, Prévost (Fig. 2, p. 20).—Britain, Central
Europe.
b. Abdominal segments five or fewer, and a telson. Anal lobes
small or 0, sparsely or not at all setose.
Artemia, Leach—Second antennae of ♂ without
filamentous appendage, 2–jointed, the second joint
lamellar. A. salina, Linn.—Brine pools of the Palaearctic
region.
c. Hinder abdominal segments united with telson to form a fin;
anal lobes absent.
Thamnocephalus, Packard—Head with a branched median
process of unknown nature. Only species T. platyurus,
Packard—Kansas, U.S.A.
B. Nineteen pairs of praegenital ambulatory limbs.
Polyartemia, Fischer—Second antennae of ♂ forcipate;
ovisac of ♀ very short. Only species P. forcipata, Fisch.
Fam. 2. Apodidae.[28]—Carapace well developed as a depressed
shield, covering at least half the body. Eyes sessile, covered; no male
clasping organs; anal lobes long, jointed cirri.
Apus, Scopoli—Telson not produced backwards over the
anus; endites of first thoracic limb very long. A.
cancriformis, Schaeffer—Britain, Europe, Algiers, Tunis.
A. australiensis, Central Australia.
Lepidurus, Leach—Telson produced backwards to form a
plate above the anus; endites of first thoracic limb short.
L. productus, Bosc.—Central Europe. L. viridis, Southern
Australia, New Zealand, L. patagonicus, Bergh,
Argentines.
Fam. 3. Limnadiidae.—Body compressed; carapace in the form
of a bivalve shell, the two halves capable of adduction by means of a
strong transverse muscle; second antennae biramous, alike in both
sexes; in the male, the first or the first and second thoracic limbs
prehensile; telson laterally compressed.
A. Only the first thoracic limbs prehensile in the male; the carapace
spheroidal, without lines of growth; head not included within the
carapace-chamber.
Limnetis, Lovén—Compound eyes fused; anal spines
absent; ambulatory limbs 10–12. L. brachyura, O. F.
Müll (Fig. 3, p. 21).—Norway, Central Europe.
B. The first and second thoracic limbs prehensile in the male;
carapace distinctly bivalve, enclosing the head, with concentric
lines of growth round a more or less prominent umbo.
Eulimnadia, Packard—Carapace narrowly ovate, with few
(4–5) lines of growth. E. mauritani, Guérin—Mauritius.
E. texana, Packard—Texas, Kansas.
Limnadia, Brongniart—Carapace broadly ovate, with
numerous lines of growth, without distinct umbones; L.
lenticularis, Linn.—Northern and Central Europe.
Estheria, Rüppell—Carapace with well-marked umbones
and numerous lines of growth, oval; E. tetraceros,
Kryneki—Central Europe.

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The Entomostraca are mostly small Crustacea in which the

The Branchiopods are of small or moderate size, with flattened and

The Phyllopoda include a series of genera which differ greatly in

Summary of the Characters of the Genera.

Sub-Order Phyllopoda.—Branchiopoda with an elongated body,

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