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 D I S C O V E R I N G T H E U niverse i

Neil F. Comins
University of Maine
William J. Kaufmann III
San Diego State University

Discovering the
Universe Te n t h Ed itio n

W.H. Freeman and Company

A Macmillian Higher Education Company
NASA/Handout/Getty Images

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 ii C h a p ter 1

Dedicated to my aunt Zelda Fields and to the

memory of my uncle David S. Fields.

Publisher: Katherine Parker

Acquisitions Editor: Alicia Brady
Development Editor: Brittany Murphy
Senior Media and Supplements Editor: Amy Thorne
Assistant Editor: Courtney Lyons
Marketing Manager: Taryn Burns
Marketing Assistant: Samantha Zimbler
Project Editor: Kerry O’Shaughnessy
Production Manager: Susan Wein
Cover and Text Designer: Victoria Tomaselli
Illustration Coordinator: Matt McAdams
Illustrations: Precision Graphics
Photo Editors: Sheena Goldstein, Nicholas Ciani
Photo Researcher: TSI Graphics
Composition: codeMantra
Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013957502

ISBN-13: 978-1-4641-4086-0
ISBN-10: 1-4641-4086-3
© 2014, 2012, 2008, 2005 by W. H. Freeman and Company
All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

First printing

W. H. Freeman and Company, 41 Madison Avenue, New York, NY   10010

Houndmills, Basingstoke RG21 6XS, England
www.whfreeman.com

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 contents overview

Preface xi Chapter 12 The Lives of Stars from Birth

Through Middle Age 369
Part I WHAT IF… Earth Orbited a 1.5-M⊙ Sun? 404

Understanding Astronomy 1 Chapter 13 The Deaths of Stars 405

WHAT IF… A Supernova Exploded Near Earth? 433
Chapter 1 Discovering the Night Sky 5
WHAT IF… Earth’s Axis Lay on the Ecliptic? 40 Chapter 14 Black Holes: Matters of
Gravity 435
Chapter 2 Gravitation and the Motion
of the Planets 41
Part Iv
Chapter 3 Light and Telescopes 69
WHAT IF… Humans Had Infrared-Sensitive Eyes? 104 Understanding the Universe 457

Chapter 4 Atomic Physics and Spectra 105 Chapter 15 The Milky Way Galaxy 461

Chapter 16 Galaxies 481

Part II WHAT IF… The Solar System Were Located
Closer to the Center of the Galaxy? 512
Understanding the Solar System 127
Chapter 17 Quasars and Other Active
Chapter 5 Formation of the Solar System Galaxies 513
and Other Planetary Systems 131
Chapter 18 Cosmology 529
Chapter 6 Earth and the Moon 157
Chapter 19 Astrobiology 557
WHAT IF… The Moon Didn’t Exist? 191
Appendices
Chapter 7 The Other Terrestrial Planets 193
A Powers-of-Ten Notation A-1
Chapter 8 The Outer Planets 231
B Guidelines for Solving Math Problems and Reading
WHAT IF… We Lived on a Metal-Poor Earth? 274 Graphs A-1
C Key Formulas  A-4
Chapter 9 Vagabonds of the Solar
System 275 D Temperature Scales A-5
E Data Tables A-7
Chapter 10 The Sun: Our Extraordinary
Ordinary Star 311 F Periodic Table of the Elements A-17
G Largest Optical Telescopes in the World A-18

Part III H Buying a Telescope A-20

Glossary G-1
Understanding the Stars 337
Answers to Selected Questions ANS-1
Chapter 11 Characterizing Stars 341 Index I-0

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 contents

Preface xi CHANGING OUR EARTH-CENTERED VIEW OF THE

Acknowledgments xvii UNIVERSE 45
2-2 The belief in a Sun-centered cosmology formed
slowly 45
PART I
Guided Discovery Earth-Centered Universe 46
Understanding Astronomy 1 2-3 Copernicus devised the first comprehensive heliocentric
cosmology 48
Chapter 1 Discovering the Night Sky 5 Guided Discovery Astronomy’s Foundation Builders 49
2-4 Tycho Brahe made astronomical observations that
SCALES OF THE UNIVERSE 7 disproved ancient ideas about the heavens 51
1-1 Astronomical distances are, well, astronomical 7
KEPLER’S AND NEWTON’S LAWS 52
PATTERNS OF STARS 9 2-5 Kepler’s laws describe orbital shapes, changing speeds,
1-2 Well-known constellations make locating more obscure and the lengths of planetary years 53
stars and constellations easy 10 An Astronomer’s Toolbox 2-1 Units of Astronomical
1-3 The celestial sphere aids in navigating the sky 11 Distance 55
Guided Discovery The Stars and Constellations 13 2-6 Galileo’s discoveries strongly supported a heliocentric
1-4 An “alt”ernative coordinate system 13 cosmology 56
1-5 Earth orbits the Sun in a plane called the ecliptic 14 2-7 Newton formulated three laws that describe
fundamental properties of physical reality 58
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 1-1 Observational
Measurements Using Angles 15 An Astronomer’s Toolbox 2-2 Energy and
Momentum 60
EARTHLY CYCLES 16 2-8 Newton’s description of gravity accounts for
1-6 Earth’s rotation creates the day-night cycle and its Kepler’s laws 60
revolution defines a year 16 An Astronomer’s Toolbox 2-3 Gravitational Force 62
1-7 The seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s rotation axis 2-9 Frontiers yet to be discovered 63
combined with Earth’s revolution around the Sun 19
Summary of Key Ideas 65
1-8 Clock times based on the Sun’s location created
scheduling nightmares 22
1-9 Calendars based on equal-length years also created Chapter 3 Light and Telescopes 69
scheduling problems 24
THE NATURE OF LIGHT 70
1-10 Precession is a slow, circular motion of Earth’s axis of
rotation 24 3-1 Newton discovered that white is not a fundamental color
and proposed that light is composed of particles 70
1-11 The phases of the Moon originally inspired the
concept of the month 26 3-2 Light travels at a finite but incredibly fast speed 73
3-3 Einstein showed that light sometimes behaves as
ECLIPSES 28 particles that carry energy 74
1-12 Eclipses do not occur during every new or full An Astronomer’s Toolbox 3-1 Photon Energies,
Moon phase 28 Wavelengths, and Frequencies 74
1-13 Three types of lunar eclipse occur 28 3-4 Visible light is only one type of electromagnetic
1-14 Three types of solar eclipse also occur 30 radiation 75
1-15 Frontiers yet to be discovered 33
OPTICS AND TELESCOPES 70
Summary of Key Ideas 33
3-5 Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to concentrate
WHAT IF… Earth’s Axis Lay on the Ecliptic? 40 incoming starlight 77
3-6 Secondary mirrors dim objects but do not create holes
Chapter 2 Gravitation and the Motion of in them 79
the Planets 41 3-7 Telescopes brighten, resolve, and magnify 80
3-8 Eyepieces, refracting telescopes, and binoculars use
SCIENCE: KEY TO COMPREHENDING THE COSMOS 42 lenses to focus incoming light 82
2-1 Science is both a body of knowledge and a process of 3-9 Shaping telescope mirrors and lenses is an evolving
learning about nature 43 science 86

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 vi C ontents

3-10 Storing and analyzing light from space is key to THE SOLAR SYSTEM CONTAINS HEAVY ELEMENTS,
understanding the cosmos 87 FORMED FROM AN EARLIER GENERATION OF STARS 132
3-11 Earth’s atmosphere hinders astronomical 5-1 Stars transform matter from lighter elements into
research 88
heavier ones 132
3-12 The Hubble Space Telescope provides stunning details
5-2 Gravity, rotation, collisions, and heat shaped the
about the universe 90
young solar system 134
3-13 Advanced technology is spawning a new generation
5-3 The giant planets formed in sequence 137
of superb ground-based telescopes 90
5-4 The inner planets formed primarily from collisions 138
NONOPTICAL ASTRONOMY 92
5-5 The changing orbits of the giant planets spread
3-14 A radio telescope uses a large concave dish to collect debris throughout the solar system 139
radio waves 92 5-6 The asteroid belt is leftover debris 141
3-15 Infrared and ultraviolet telescopes also use reflectors 5-7 The infalling debris from the giant planets led to the
to collect their electromagnetic radiation 94 Late Heavy Bombardment 141
3-16 X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes cannot use normal 5-8 The categories of solar system objects have evolved 142
reflectors to gather information 97
5-9 The Sun developed while the planets matured 143
3-17 Frontiers yet to be discovered 100
Summary of Key Ideas 100 COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY 144
WHAT IF… Humans Had Infrared-Sensitive Eyes? 104 5-10 Comparisons among the eight planets show distinct
similarities and significant differences 144
Chapter 4 Atomic Physics and Spectra 105 EXOPLANETS—PLANETS OUTSIDE OUR SOLAR
SYSTEM 147
BLACKBODY RADIATION 106
5-11 Planets and smaller debris that orbit other stars have
4-1 An object’s peak color shifts to shorter wavelengths
been discovered 147
as it is heated 106
5-12 Exoplanets orbit a breathtaking variety of stars 152
4-2 The intensities of different emitted colors reveal a star’s
temperature 108 5-13 Planets that are not orbiting stars have also been
observed 153
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 4-1 The Radiation Laws 109
5-14 Frontiers yet to be discovered 153
Guided Discovery The Color of the Sun 110
Summary of Key Ideas 154
IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS BY ANALYZING THEIR
UNIQUE SPECTRA 111 Chapter 6 Earth and the Moon 157
4-3 Each chemical element produces its own unique
set of spectral lines 112 EARTH: A DYNAMIC, VITAL WORLD 158
4-4 The various brightness levels of spectral lines 6-1 Earth’s atmosphere has evolved over billions of years 158
depend on conditions in the spectrum’s source 114 6-2 Plate tectonics produce major changes on Earth’s
surface 163
ATOMS AND SPECTRA 116
6-3 Earth’s interior consists of a rocky mantle and an
4-5 An atom consists of a small, dense nucleus
iron-rich core 165
surrounded by electrons 116
6-4 Earth’s magnetic field shields us from the solar wind 168
4-6 Spectra occur because electrons absorb and emit
photons with only certain wavelengths 117 THE MOON AND TIDES 170
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 4-2 Radioactivity and 6-5 The Moon’s surface is covered with craters, plains,
the Ages of Objects 118 and mountains 171
4-7 Spectral lines shift due to the relative motion 6-6 Visits to the Moon yielded invaluable information
between the source and the observer 121 about its history 174
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 4-3 The Doppler Shift 121 6-7 The Moon probably formed from debris cast into
4-8 Frontiers yet to be discovered 123 space when a huge planetesimal struck the young
Earth 179
Summary of Key Ideas 123
6-8 Tides have played several important roles in the
history of Earth and the Moon 181
PART II 6-9 The Moon is moving away from Earth 183

Understanding the Solar ­System 127

Guided Discovery Tides 184
6-10 Frontiers yet to be discovered 186

Chapter 5 Formation of the Solar System Summary of Key Ideas 186

and Other Planetary Systems 131 WHAT IF… The Moon Didn’t Exist? 191

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 C ontents vii

Chapter 7 The Other Terrestrial Planets 193 8-11 Titan has a thick atmosphere, clouds, and lakes
filled with liquids 255
MERCURY 195 8-12 Rhea has ice 258
7-1 Photographs from Mariner 10 and Messenger 8-13 Enceladus has water jets, an atmosphere, and a
spacecraft reveal Mercury’s lunarlike surface 195 magnetic field 258
7-2 Mercury has a higher percentage of iron than Earth 198
URANUS 259
7-3 Mercury’s rotation and revolution are coupled 199
8-14 Uranus sports a hazy atmosphere and clouds 259
7-4 Mercury’s atmosphere is the thinnest of all terrestrial
planets 201 8-15 A system of rings and satellites revolves around Uranus 262

VENUS 201 NEPTUNE 264

7-5 The surface of Venus is completely hidden beneath 8-16 Neptune was discovered because it had to be there 265
a permanent cloud cover 201 8-17 Neptune has rings and captured moons 266
Guided Discovery The Inner Solar System 203
COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY OF THE OUTER
7-6 The greenhouse effect heats Venus’s surface 204
PLANETS 267
7-7 Venus is covered with gently rolling hills, two
“continents,” and numerous volcanoes 205 8-18 Frontiers yet to be discovered 269
Summary of Key Ideas 269
MARS 208
7-8 Mars’s global features include plains, canyons, WHAT IF… We Lived on a Metal-Poor Earth? 274
craters, and volcanoes 209
7-9 Although no canals exist on Mars, it does have Chapter 9 Vagabonds of the Solar System 275
some curious natural features 212
7-10 Mars’s interior is less molten than the inside of Earth 213 DWARF PLANETS 276
7-11 Martian air is thin and often filled with dust 215 9-1 Pluto and its moon, Charon, are about the same size 276
7-12 Surface and underground features indicate that 9-2 Ceres is a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt, while
water once flowed on Mars 218 Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake are
7-13 Search for microscopic life on Mars continues 222 trans-Neptunian objects as well as dwarf planets 279
7-14 Mars’s two moons look more like potatoes than SMALL SOLAR SYSTEM BODIES 280
spheres 223

COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY OF THE INNER ASTEROIDS 280

PLANETS 224 9-3 Most asteroids orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter 280
7-15 Comparisons of planetary features provide new 9-4 Jupiter’s gravity creates gaps in the asteroid belt 283
insights 224 9-5 Asteroids also orbit outside the asteroid belt 285
7-16 Frontiers yet to be discovered 226
COMETS 286
Summary of Key Ideas 227
9-6 Comets come from far out in the solar system 287
9-7 Comet tails develop from gases and dust pushed
Chapter 8 The Outer Planets 231 outward by the Sun 290
JUPITER 233 9-8 Comets are fragile yet durable 293

8-1 Jupiter’s outer layer is a dynamic area of storms and 9-9 Comets do not last forever 293
turbulent gases 233 METEOROIDS, METEORS, AND METEORITES 297
8-2 Jupiter’s interior has four distinct regions 236
9-10 Small, rocky debris peppers the solar system 297
8-3 Impacts provide probes into Jupiter’s atmosphere 238
9-11 Meteorites are space debris that land intact 300
JUPITER’S MOONS AND RINGS 239 9-12 The Allende meteorite provides evidence of
8-4 Io’s surface is sculpted by volcanic activity 240 catastrophic explosions 303
8-5 Europa harbors liquid water below its surface 242 9-13 Asteroid impacts with Earth have caused mass
8-6 Ganymede is larger than Mercury 244 extinctions 304
8-7 Callisto bears the scars of a huge asteroid impact 245 9-14 Frontiers yet to be discovered 305
8-8 Other debris orbits Jupiter as smaller moons Summary of Key Ideas 306
and ringlets 246

SATURN 247 Chapter 10 The Sun: Our Extraordinary

8-9 Saturn’s atmosphere, surface, and interior are Ordinary Star 311
similar to those of Jupiter 247
THE SUN’S ATMOSPHERE 313
8-10 Saturn’s spectacular rings are composed of
fragments of ice and ice-coated rock 250 10-1 The photosphere is the visible layer of the Sun 313

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 viii C ontents

10-2 The chromosphere is characterized by spikes of gas An Astronomer’s Toolbox 11-4 Kepler’s Third Law
called spicules 314 and Stellar Masses 357
10-3 The outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, 11-10 Binary stars provide information about stellar masses 357
the corona, is exceptionally hot 315 11-11 Main-sequence stars have a relationship between
mass and luminosity 360
THE ACTIVE SUN 317
11-12 The orbital motion of binary stars affects the
10-4 Sunspots reveal the solar cycle and the Sun’s rotation 317 wavelengths of their spectral lines 361
10-5 The Sun’s magnetic fields create sunspots 319 11-13 Frontiers yet to be discovered 362
10-6 Solar magnetic fields also create other atmospheric Summary of Key Ideas 363
phenomena 323

THE SUN’S INTERIOR 326 Chapter 12 The Lives of Stars from Birth
10-7 Thermonuclear reactions in the core of the Sun Through Middle Age 369
produce its energy 326
PROTOSTARS AND PRE–MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS 370
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 10-1 Thermonuclear Fusion 327
10-8 The solar model describes how energy escapes 12-1 Gas and dust exist between the stars 370
from the Sun’s core 329 12-2 Supernovae, collisions of interstellar clouds, and
10-9 The Sun has gotten brighter over time 331 starlight trigger new star formation 374
10-10 The mystery of the missing neutrinos inspired Guided Discovery Observing the Nebulae 375
research into the fundamental nature of matter 331 12-3 When a protostar ceases to accumulate mass,
10-11 Frontiers yet to be discovered 333 it becomes a pre–main-sequence star 377
Summary of Key Ideas 334 12-4 The evolutionary track of a pre–main-sequence star
depends on its mass 378
Guided Discovery Extrasolar Planets and Brown Dwarfs 379
PART III 12-5 H II regions harbor young star clusters 381
12-6 Plotting a star cluster on an H-R diagram reveals its age 382
Understanding the Stars 337
MAIN-SEQUENCE AND GIANT STARS 384

Chapter 11 Characterizing Stars 341 12-7 Stars spend most of their lives on the main sequence 384

11-1 Distances to nearby stars are found using stellar EVOLUTION OF STARS WITH MASSES BETWEEN
parallax 342 0.08 M⊙ AND 0.4 M⊙ 386
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 11-1 Distances to 12-8 Red dwarfs convert essentially their entire mass into
Nearby Stars 344 helium 386
MAGNITUDE SCALES 345 EARLY AND MIDDLE EVOLUTION OF STARS WITH
11-2 Apparent magnitude measures the brightness of MORE THAN 0.4 M⊙ 387
stars as seen from Earth 345
12-9 When core hydrogen fusion slows down, a
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 11-2 Details of the main-sequence star with mass greater than
Magnitude Scales 345 0.4 M⊙ becomes a giant 387
11-3 Absolute magnitudes and luminosities do not 12-10 Helium fusion begins at the center of a giant 389
depend on distance 347 12-11 Life in the giant phase has its ups and downs 390
Guided Discovery Star Names 348
VARIABLE STARS 390
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 11-3 The Distance-
Magnitude Relationship 349 12-12 A Cepheid pulsates because it is alternately
expanding and contracting 391
THE TEMPERATURES OF STARS 349 12-13 Cepheids enable astronomers to estimate vast
11-4 A star’s color reveals its surface temperature 349 distances 392
11-5 A star’s spectrum also reveals its surface temperature 350 12-14 Globular clusters are bound groups of old stars 392
11-6 Stars are classified by their spectra 352 12-15 Mass transfer in close binary systems can produce
unusual double stars 396
TYPES OF STARS 353 12-16 Frontiers yet to be discovered 398
11-7 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram identifies distinct Summary of Key Ideas 399
groups of stars 353
WHAT IF… Earth Orbited a 1.5-M⊙ Sun? 404
11-8 Luminosity classes set the stage for understanding
stellar evolution 355
11-9 A star’s spectral type and luminosity class provide a
Chapter 13 The Deaths of Stars 405
second distance-measuring technique 356
LOW-MASS (0.4 M⊙–8 M⊙) STARS AND PLANETARY
STELLAR MASSES 356 NEBULAE 406

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 C ontents ix

13-1 Low-mass stars become supergiants before 14-7 Several binary star systems contain black holes 444
expanding into planetary nebulae 407 14-8 Other black holes range in mass up to billions of
13-2 The burned-out core of a low-mass star becomes solar masses 445
a white dwarf 410 Guided Discovery Identifying Stellar-Remnant
13-3 White dwarfs in close binary systems can create Black Holes 446
powerful explosions 410 14-9 Black holes and neutron stars in binary systems
13-4 Accreting white dwarfs in close binary systems often create jets of gas 449
can also explode as Type Ia supernovae 411
GAMMA-RAY BURSTS 449
HIGH-MASS (GREATER THAN 8 M⊙) STARS AND
14-10 Gamma-ray bursts are the most powerful
TYPE II SUPERNOVAE 412 explosions in the known universe 449
13-5 A series of fusion reactions in highmass stars leads to 14-11 Black holes evaporate 451
luminous supergiants 413 14-12 Frontiers yet to be discovered 452
13-6 High-mass stars blow apart in Type II supernova Summary of Key Ideas 453
explosions 414
13-7 Supernova remnants are observed in many places 416
13-8 Supernova 1987A offered a detailed look at a PART IV
massive star’s death 417
13-9 Cosmic rays are not rays at all 419 Understanding the Universe 457

NEUTRON STARS AND PULSARS 420

Chapter 15 The Milky Way Galaxy 461
13-10 The cores of many Type II supernovae become
neutron stars 420 DEFINING THE MILKY WAY 463
13-11 A rotating magnetic field explains the pulses from 15-1 Studies of Cepheid variable stars revealed that
a neutron star 421 the Milky Way is only one of many galaxies 463
13-12 Rotating neutron stars create other phenomena An Astronomer’s Toolbox 15-1 Cepheids and
besides normal pulsars 424 Supernovae as Indicators of Distance 465
13-13 Neutron stars have internal structure 424
THE STRUCTURE OF OUR GALAXY AND OUR
13-14 Some pulsars are in binary systems 425
PLACE IN IT 466
13-15 Colliding neutron stars may provide some of the
heavy elements in the universe 426 15-2 Cepheid variables help us locate our Galaxy’s center 466
13-16 Binary neutron stars create pulsating X-ray sources 426 15-3 Nonvisible observations help map the galactic disk 467
13-17 Neutron stars in binary systems can also emit 15-4 The galactic nucleus is an active, crowded place 471
powerful isolated bursts of X-rays 427 15-5 Our Galaxy’s disk is surrounded by a two-shell
13-18 Frontiers yet to be discovered 429 spherical halo of stars and other matter 473
Summary of Key Ideas 429 15-6 The Galaxy is rotating 474

WHAT IF… A Supernova Exploded Near Earth? 433 MYSTERIES AT THE GALACTIC FRINGES 476
15-7 Most of the matter in the Galaxy has not yet been
Chapter 14 Black Holes: Matters identified 476
15-8 Frontiers yet to be discovered 476
of ­Gravity 435
Summary of Key Ideas 477
THE RELATIVITY THEORIES 436
14-1 Special relativity changes our conception of space Chapter 16 Galaxies 481
and time 436
TYPES OF GALAXIES 482
14-2 General relativity explains how matter warps
spacetime, creating gravitational attraction 438 16-1 The winding of a spiral galaxy’s arms is correlated
14-3 Spacetime affects the behavior of light 439 to the size of its central bulge 482
14-4 General relativity predicts the fate of massive star 16-2 Explosions create flocculent spirals, and waves
cores—black holes 440 create grand-design spirals 484
16-3 Bars of stars run through the central bulges of
INSIDE A BLACK HOLE 440 barred spiral galaxies, and some disk galaxies, the
lenticulars, lack spiral arms 488
14-5 Matter in a black hole becomes much simpler than
elsewhere in the universe 441 16-4 Elliptical galaxies display a wide variety of sizes
and masses 488
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 14-1 The Sizes of
16-5 Galaxies without global structure are called irregular 490
Black Holes 441
16-6 Hubble presented spiral and elliptical galaxies in
14-6 Falling into a black hole is an infinite voyage 443
a tuning fork-shaped diagram 491
EVIDENCE FOR BLACK HOLES 444 16-7 Galaxies built up in size over time 491

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 x C ontents

CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS 492 A BRIEF HISTORY OF SPACETIME, MATTER, ENERGY,

16-8 Galaxies exist in clusters, which are clustered in AND EVERYTHING 535
larger clumps called superclusters 492 18-6 All physical forces in nature were initially unified 536
16-9 Clusters of galaxies may appear densely or sparsely 18-7 Equations explain the evolution of the universe, even
populated and regular or irregular in shape 494 before matter and energy, as we know them, existed 536
16-10 Galaxies in a cluster can collide and combine 495 18-8 Homogeneity and isotropy are results of inflation 538
16-11 Dark matter helps hold together individual galaxies 18-9 During the first second, most of the matter and
and clusters of galaxies 500 antimatter in the universe annihilated each other 539
SUPERCLUSTERS IN MOTION 502 18-10 The universe changed from being controlled by
radiation to being controlled by matter 540
16-12 The redshifts of superclusters indicate that the
universe is indeed expanding 502 18-11 Galaxies formed from huge clouds of primordial gas 542
Guided Discovery The Expanding Universe 504 18-12 Star formation activity determines a galaxy’s initial
structure 545
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 16-1 The Hubble Law 505
16-13 Astronomers are looking back to a time when THE FATE OF THE UNIVERSE 547
galaxies were first forming 505 18-13 The average density of matter is one factor that
Guided Discovery The Tully–Fisher Relation and Other determines the future of the universe 547
Distance-Measuring Techniques 506 18-14 The overall shape of spacetime affects the future
16-14 Frontiers yet to be discovered 506 of the universe 548
Summary of Key Ideas 507 18-15 Dark energy is causing the universe to accelerate
outward 549
WHAT IF… The Solar System Were Located Closer
Guided Discovery Superstring Theory and M-Theory 552
to the Center of the Galaxy? 512
18-16 Frontiers yet to be discovered 553
Summary of Key Ideas 553
Chapter 17 Quasars and Other Active
Galaxies 513
Chapter 19 Astrobiology 557
QUASARS 514 19-1 Astrobiology connects the cosmos and the
origins of life 558
17-1 Quasars look like stars but have huge redshifts 515
19-2 The existence of life depends on chemical and
17-2 A quasar emits a huge amount of energy from a
physical properties of matter 559
small volume 517
19-3 Evidence is mounting that life might exist elsewhere
OTHER ACTIVE GALAXIES 518 in our solar system 562
17-3 Active galaxies can be either spiral or elliptical 518 19-4 Searches for advanced civilizations try to detect
their radio signals 562
SUPERMASSIVE ENGINES 521
19-5 The Drake equation: How many civilizations are likely
17-4 Supermassive black holes exist at the centers of most to exist in the Milky Way? 565
galaxies 521 19-6 Humans have been sending signals into space for
17-5 Jets of protons and electrons ejected from around more than a century 566
black holes help explain active galaxies 523 19-7 Frontiers yet to be discovered 567
17-6 Gravity focuses light from quasars 526 Summary of Key Ideas 568
17-7 Frontiers yet to be discovered 526
Summary of Key Ideas 526
Appendices
A Powers-of-Ten Notation   A-1
Chapter 18 Cosmology 529 B Guidelines for Solving Math Problems and Reading
Graphs   A-1
THE BIG BANG 530
C Key Formulas   A-4
18-1 General relativity predicts an expanding
(or contracting) universe 530
D Temperature Scales   A-5
18-2 The expansion of the universe creates a Dopplerlike
E Data Tables   A-7
redshift 531 F Periodic Table of the Elements   A-17
18-3 The Hubble constant is related to the age of the G Largest Optical Telescopes in the World   A-18
universe 531 H Buying a Telescope   A-20
An Astronomer’s Toolbox 18-1 H0 and the Age
of the Universe 532 Glossary  G-1
18-4 Remnants of the Big Bang have been detected 532
Answers to Selected Questions  ANS-1
18-5 The universe has two symmetries—isotropy and
homogeneity 534 Index  I-0

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 Preface
To confine our attention to terrestrial matters • expanding student perspectives and confronting mis-
would be to limit the human spirit. conceptions by exploring plausible alternative situations
–Stephen Hawking (asking “What if…?” questions);
• pointing students toward cutting-edge research in

O ur knowledge about the universe is expanding at a

phenomenal rate. New discoveries are being made
in many astronomical realms: astronomers are prob-
“Frontiers yet to be discovered” sections;
• linking material presented in the book with enhanced
ing the extent of water on the Moon, developing new material offered electronically.
theories of how the solar system formed, finding plan-
ets orbiting numerous stars, and discovering stars and MANY FEATURES BRING THE
stellar remnants with unexpected properties, among UNIVERSE INTO CLEARER FOCUS
myriad other things.
Many of these scientific updates are included in this What If…? margin questions about important concepts
edition. I am also pleased to include a wide variety of stretch students’ thinking using hypothetical situations.
modern learning techniques and new features in the These questions help to correct misconceptions by
tenth edition of Discovering the Universe while still pro- ­explaining to students what strange effects and conse-
viding the wide range of factual topics that are a hall- quences would result if their initial misconceptions were
d I S C OV E r I N G T H E N I G H T S K Y 21
mark of this text. true.
In the realm of astronomy education, educators con-
tinue to develop equinox and
vernal methods to ishelp
one of the two days
students on which the
understand WHAT IF...
how to thinkSun like rises due east and sets due west (Figure 1-17b). The
scientists and grasp the core concepts, Earth’s changing distance from the Sun caused
vernal equinox is the “prime meridian” of the celestial
even when scientific
sphere. Three theories
months areafter
at odds
the vernalwithequinox,
students’ around the seasons (and how do we know it doesn’t)?
prior beliefs Juneand 21, misconceptions.
the Sun rises farthest In-class northinteractivities,
of east and passes Earth’s orbit around the Sun is elliptical (we will discuss
such as students highestresponding
in the sky (Figure to questions
1-17c). Thiswith is the “click-
summer sol- this oval shape in detail in Chapter 2). If the seasons were
stice (see Figure 1-16), the day of the year in the north- caused by the changing distance between E A REarth
T H and
A Nthe
D THE MOON 183
ers,” enrich the classroom experience. Online materials
ern hemisphere with the most daylight. Sun, all parts of Earth should have the same seasons at the
provide tutorials and practice questions that turn stu- same time. In fact, the northern and southern hemispheres
From June 21 through December 21, the Sun rises
dents from
Guided passive
Discovery:
farther south into
Tidesactive
focuses
than it learners.
didon thehow the Moon
preceding day. Itscre-
highest 6-9 theseasons
have Moon is moving
at exactly away
opposite times, so theyfrom
must beEarth
atesThe tenthpoint
the tides onedition
in theof
Earth. Discovering
After
sky explaining
is lower theocean
each succeeding Universe tides
day—thecon-
herecycle caused by something else.
In 1897, Sir George Darwin (1845–1912), son of the
tinues
on to we
Earth, present
ofwill concepts
explore
the previous 6how clearly
months Earth and
onceaccurately
reverses. created
The autumnal toequi-
tides
occurs around
evolutionist Charles Darwin, proposed that the Moon
students,
on the Moon nox
while that strengthening
changed theSeptember
the
Moon’s 22
pedagogical (Figurerotation
original 1-17d),
tools to with
is moving
the Sun heading southward across the celestial equator, sky), the away
southern from oceansEarth. To more
scatter understand
light andwhy, heat read
rate
maketothesynchronous
learning process rotation. even more worthwhile. The New
Guided theory
directly of planet
Discovery:
back into Tides formation
space seeChapter
and occurs
than when5GD6-2,
Figure now
the Sunpresents
iswhich
as seen from Earth.
5 Two-thirds
pedagogy of the tide height on Earth today results
includes: thehigher
showsNice over
that thethe
(pronounced
highland-rich
tideniece) northern
nearest thehemisphere
theory of solar
Moon during for-
system
is actually 10°
from the gravitational
• presenting The
the Seasons tug-of-war
observationsThe higher andbetween
the Earthduring
Sun rises
underlying and the
physical the day, the of
ahead
mation, other
thehalf
walking Moon of the year.
in its
students Hadaround
orbit
through theaextra energy
Earth.
fully sentoffset
This
up-to-date pic-
Moon as the two
the morebodies
daylightorbithours
concepts needed to connect astronomical observationstheir
therebarycenter.
are. During The
the Sun
days
to with
back into space when we are closer to the Sun been
occursof because
tureabsorbed
howbythe friction
interactions between the ocean
between the Sun
our planet, Earth would indeed heat more
and and
the ocean
plan-
generates mostlonger of the
periods remaining
of daylight, thirdmoreoflightthe tides,
and heatwith
from the
floor causes
theories thatSun
Jupiter and the
explainstrikethem
other
coherentlyFurthermore,
that hemisphere.
planets
and meaningfully;
contributing a tiny fraction. when the Sun ets during
evolved. this time than when the Sun is over the northern tidal
the
Its rapidly
effects spinning
are discussed Earthin to drag
Chapters the
6–9.
istextual
higher inand the graphical
sky, its energy is more concentrated bulge ahead of the line between the center of Earth and
hemisphere.
•6 using both
As explained in Guided Discovery: Tides, two information high on
to pres- Margin questions about important concepts are pre-
the center of the Moon. The gravitational force from
ent concepts Earth’s
for surface who
students (see the learnfootprint
in that theways;
different “cylinder of
tides always light”
occurfrom on opposite sidesinof Earth (see Figure sented in most sections of the book.
the Sun makes Figure 1-17a–d). Thus, dur- the water in the high ocean tide near-
GD6-1). When
• addressing ing the
student
theseSun, the Moon,
misconceptions
days more energy andis inEarth areonaligned,
a respectful
deposited eachbutsquare These questions encourage students
est the Moon
Insight Into acts back on the Moon,
Science Margin Question 6-8
the Sun and
rigorous the
meter
manner, Moon thecreate
ofhelping surface, pairs
thereby
readers oftohigh
warming ocean
understand the tides
surface
whyinmore to frequently test themselves and Why haven’t the ocean tides
pulling it ahead in its orbit, giving it
the than when
samescientific
modern directions, and
views theareSuncorrect;
the is lower incombined
resulting the sky. The temperature
tides are correct theirthe
Expect beliefs before errors
Unexpected ac- of on
The process science
energy and thereby forcing it to spi- Earth put our planet into
and, hence, the seasons are
the highest high tides (and lowest low tides) of the lunar determined by the duration requiresFor
cumulate. that example,
we questionafter the obvious,
learn- that is, what
• using analogiesof daylight from at anyeveryday
place andlife theto make
height of the cosmic
Sun in the ral outward. This effect is similar to synchronous rotation with
cycle. Thesesky spring tides (so-called not because they we think we know. Many phenomena in the universe
ing
whatabout inertia, students you are tiedasked respect
phenomena more there. (Bear in mind that winds and clouds greatly
concrete; would
defy happen
commonsense ifexplanations. a The
ballfact that the to the Moon?
only occur in thethespring—they
affect weather throughout occurtheinyear—we all seasons— ignore these how, while
on a changing driving
string, let it hang
distance in
froma car,
down,
Earth they
and
to thecan
then
Sun has a mini-
• providing
but visually
because effects
the term here.)rich timelines
derives from that connect astro-
the German word show malthat their
effect on thebodies
seasons have
is aninertia.
excellent
started spinning yourself around. Yourexample.
hand would act
nomical discoveries
springen, meaning with
to
3 To summarize, otherthe
“spring events
up”) throughout
Sun occur
is lowest in history;
at every the new
northern (They could put on the brakes andenergy
feel themselves being
through the string, giving the ball and starting it
and full Moon (see Figure
winter GD6-2a).
• providing the dates of the lives of all the people intro- of
sky on the solstice. This Note
marks that
the it does
beginning restrained by the seatbelts.) Answers
to spin and move farther and farther away from your to approximately
winter inthe
not
ducedmatter
in the text to the
whether help northern
Sun and Moon
students hemisphere.
relate As thethe Sun
arediscoveries
on same moves
to TheContrary
one-third
body. Sun’s
of thePath Across
margin
to intuition, the however,
questionsSky During
appear the
giving at north-
the
the endMoon of
or opposite northward,
sides of the amount
Earth when ofgenerating
daylight and theheat deposited
spring ern hemisphere’s summer months, when the northern
the historicalincreases
times indaily. which Thethey vernal occurred;
equinox marks a midpoint this text.
energy to spiral outward does not mean that it is con-
tides, because the Sun and the Moon both create high hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun (see Figure 1-15),
in the amount of light and heat from the Sun onto the tinually
the Sun moving
rises in faster. In fact,
the northeast andthe farther
sets it moves away
in the northwest.
tides on oppositenorthern sides of Earth.and is the beginning of spring.
hemisphere fromTheEarth, the slower
Sun provides more it orbits
than the barycenter.
12 hours of daylight in the
At first quarter
When theand Sunthird
reaches quarter,
the summer the Sun andit the
solstice, is high- To test the
northern concept
hemisphere andthat thehigh
passes Moonin theis sky.
moving
At theaway
Moon form est a right
in theangle
northernas seensky and from Earth.
is above theThe gravi-
horizon for the
fromsummer
Earth, solstice,
Apollo the Sun
11, is14, as far
andnorth15 asastronauts
it gets, giving placed
tational forces mostthey hours of any
exert day of thewith
compete year.each
This isother,
the beginning
so
of summer. Returning southward, the setsthe
of greatest
reflectors number of daylight hours to the northern
on the Moon (see Figure 6-26), similar
the tidal distortion is the least pronounced. TheSun crosses the
especial- hemisphere (Figure 1-17c).
to the During
orangethe and red ones found onwinter cars. These
celestial equator once again on the autumnal equinox,
ly small tidaltheshifts on these days are called neap tides northern hemisphere’s months,reflec-
Comins_10e_FM_i-xxii_hr2.indd 11 beginning of fall. torswhen
are the
specially
northern hemisphere is tilted away from the them
designed so that light striking 2/12/14 5:46 PM
 xii P R E FA C E

Margin photos provide a connection between the con-
cepts being presented and their applications in everyday
life.
Margin charts show the location in the sky of important
astronomical objects cited in the text. Sufficient detail in
the margin charts allows students to locate the objects
with either the unaided eye or a small telescope, as ap-
THE LIVES OF
propriate. In this example, an image of the Pleiades star
cluster is shown with a star chart of the constellation
Aldebaran, in which it lies, among other constellations.
Taygeta
Dynamic art Summary figures appear throughout the
book to show either the interactions between important
concepts or the evolution of important objects. For ex-
ample, the location of the Sun in the sky, which varies
over the seasons, as does the corresponding intensity of
the light and the appropriate ground cover, is shown in a
sequence of drawings combined into one figure. The Sun: Our exTraOrd
S TA R S F R O M B I R T H T H R O U G H M I D D L E A G E 373
Revised coverage of planet classification The categories
of planets, dwarf planets, and small solar system objects
are explained and reconciled with the existing classes
of objects, including planets, moons, asteroids, meteor-
oids, and comets. Also explained is how Pluto fits more
Electra comfortably
10
2 with the dwarf planets than with the eight
planets.
Deeper focus on fundamental student understanding

Australian Astronomical Observatory/David Malin Images

Discovering the Universe is well known for the clarity
of its exposition, but that doesn’t mean we can’t do bet-

Luminosity (L)
Merope 10
ter. In this edition, a variety of concepts have been fine-
Maia tuned to help students better understand them. Some
of these are misconception-rich subjects, while others
are topics
1
that require exquisite attention to words with
Alcyone
multiple meanings.
Main sequence

PROVEN FEATURES SUPPORT

Atlas
LEARNING
0.1

Pleione What Do 10,200You Think? This8500 and What

ultraviolet 6000 of Did
image the 4000
Sun,YoutakenThink?
in 2010 byques-
the Solar Dynamics
tions inObservatory,
each chapter ask
shows aSurface students
prominence (upperto
temperature (K)consider
left) their pres-
in which magnetic fields carry gases above
b the Sun’s surface in a loop that can extend upward hundreds of thousands of kilometers.
334 ChapTer 10 b
ent beliefs and actively compare them with the correct
(naSa/GSFC/aia)
20 Chapter 1
a science presented in the book. Numbered icons mark the
Sun’s atmosphere heats so dramatically in the transitionplaces in solar
• The the model
text iswhere eachdescription
a theoretical conceptofisthediscussed.
Sun’s En-
A sample column of heat
and light from the Sun
zone; why solar luminosity varies with time; just how thecouraging
interior students
derived from to think
calculations about
based what
on the they
laws of believe is
Sun’s changing output affects the temperatures
December 22 March 20 on Earth;true physics.
and The work
then solar modelthroughrevealsthe
thatcorrect
hydrogen
Barnard fusion
science
86 step-by-
The Sun: Our Extraordinary
FIGURE 12-4 A Reflection Nebula and Dark NebulaSunset (a) This open (dark nebula)a
Sunset
the details of how flares and coronal mass ejections oc- occurs in a core that extends from the center to about
5:30 PM
cluster, called
W
the Pleiades, cur;can
andeasily
why thebe Sun
seenrotates
withWthe7:05naked
PM eyeFurthermore,
differentially. in step quarter
has proved to be
of the Sun’s an effective
visible radius. teaching technique, es-
the constellation Taurus (the Bull). Pleiades lies about 440tolight-years
be determined, aspecially when time
the masses of neutrinos have yet • Throughout most constraints prevent
of the Sun’s interior, energyinstructors
moves from

Ordinary Star
(134 pc) from Earth. The stars doesare
thenot sheddingthat
mechanism mass, unlike
kept the starsoceans
the Earth’s in liquidworking
Figures 12-15a and 12-23. The the
blue glow surrounding the stars of the
outwardwith students
from the core individually or
by radiative diffusion. in small
In thegroups as
when Ssolar system was much younger.
S N
Pleiades is a reflection nebula created as some of the stars’ radiation
N
they Sun’s outer
try to layers, energy
reconcile is transported
incorrect beliefsto with
the Sun’s sur- science.
proper
face by convection.
scatters off preexisting dust grains in their vicinity. (b) Each dot plotted on
SUMMArY
this H-R diagram represents a star in the Pleiades whose luminosity and
OF KEY IDEAS • TheW Hamount
AT D O of energy
YO U Tthe H ISun
N K emits
? has increased by
surface
Sunrise E
temperature have The
been Sun’s Atmosphere
determined. Note that E
most
Sunrise
of
6:55 AM the cool, about 30% since it first formed.
8:15 AM
a low-mass stars have arrived • at
The thethin
main sequence,
b shell indicating
of the Sun’s gases thatwe seehydro-are from its • Neutrinos
1 Whatwere originally believed
percentage to be massless.
of the solar system’sThemass 4 Does the Sun rotate? If so
gen fusion has begun in their cores. Thethe
photosphere, cluster
lowesthas level
a diameter
of its of about
atmosphere. The electron neutrinos generated and emitted by the Sun
is in theNGC Sun? 6520
5 light-years, is about June 100 million
gases in this years
layerold,shineand contains
nearly about
as a blackbody. 500
22 The pho- were originally detected at a lower rate than is predicted 5 What makes the Sun shin
21 September
(star cluster)
stars. (c) The dark nebula Sunset Barnard 86
tosphere’s is located
base is at the in topSagittarius.
of Sunset
thePM It is vis-zone.
convective by our model the
2 Does of thermonuclear
Sun have a fusion. solid andThe discrepancy
liquid interior
8
8:30 PM
6:50
occurred because electron neutrinos have mass, which 6 Are matter and energy co
ible in thisW photograph simply because itofblocks
• Convection gas from out below
light
W from
the the stars
photosphere pro- like Earth?
beyond it. The bluish stars duces to the features
left of the dark nebula are members of a causes many of them to change into other forms of neu-
called granules. trinos
star cluster called NGC 6520. (a and c: Anglo-Australian Observatory/David 3 before
What theyis thereach Earth.ofThese
surface the Sunalternative
like? forms
• Above the photosphere is a layer of hotter, but less are now being detected.
S Malin Images) N S N c
dense, gas called the chromosphere. Jets of gas, called Answers to these questions appear in the text beside the corresponding numbers in the
spicules, rise up into the chromosphere along the bound- W margins
H AT D and
I DatYOthe UendT HofI N
theK chapter.
?
In mapping theSunrise locations aries ofof CO
supergranules.
emission, astronomers from 15 to 600 light-years. The density inside each of
E E Sunrise
5:25 AM • The outermost layer of gases 6:45
came to realize that interstellar gas and dust are often in the
con-AM solar these atmosphere,
clouds ranges1 from
What10 2
to 105 hydrogen
percentage of the solarmolecules
system’s mass is in
c centrated in giant molecular called clouds.
the dcorona, extends
In some outward
cases, theseto become per the
cubicsolar the Sun? The Sun
centimeter—thousands ofcontains about 99.85%
times greater than theof the solar
wind at great
heat aredistances from thein Sun. The hemisphere.
gases of the co- system’s mass.
clouds appear as dark nebulae
FIGURE 1-17 The Sun’s Daily Path and the Energy It Deposits
silhouetted against
most intense of
a
any day
glow-
the northern
average density of the gas and dust dispersed throughout
Here Northern Hemisphere: (a) On the winter solstice—the rona are(d)very hot,
On the but they
autumnal equinox,have extremely
the same low
astronomical densities.
condi-
15
ing background
first day of winter—the light,
Sun rises farthest south such
of east, is low-as Orion’s famous
tions exist as Horsehead
on the vernal interstellar space, but
equinox. Southern Hemisphere: somethe
2 Does 10Sun times
have less
a soliddense
andthan
liquidthe
interior like
est in the noontime sky, stays up the shortest time, and its light If you are reading this in the southern hemisphere, make the
Nebula
and heat are least (Figure
intense (most spread out)12-5).
of any dayInThe
ofother cases,
the Active Sun
following the clouds
changes: appear
(a) Change December as22 to Juneair we breathe. Having
21 and Earth?located
No. The interstellar
entire Sun matter, we will
is composed of hot gases.
year in the northern hemisphere. (b) On the vernal equinox— visualize the Sun’s path starting and ending the same distance
dark nebulae that obscure the background stars (Figure
the first day of spring—the Sun rises precisely in the east • and
Some surface
north of eastfeatures
and north ofonwestthe now consider why some of this gas and dust becomes
as it Sun vary
is south of eastperiodically
and south in 3 What is the surface of the Sun like? The Sun has
12-4b). Some 6000 giant molecular clouds are estimated
an 11-year
sets precisely in the west. Its light and heat have been growing
more intense, as shown by the brighter oval of light than in (a).
of westcycle.
as shownThe
here; magnetic
(b) change March Jeans unstable, and therefore collapses to form new stars
fields
20 to that cause
September
(c) change June 21 to December 21 and visualize the Sun’s
Comins_10e_c10-311-336hr.indd 311
23; these
no solid surface. Indeed, it has no solids or liquids
(c) On the summer solstice—the first day of summer—the changes
to exist in our Milky Way Galaxy, and have masses that
Sun actually
path vary
starting and over
ending the asame
22-year
distance cycle.
(and planets). We explore this activity by expanding on
south of east and anywhere. The level we see, the photosphere, is com-
rises farthest north of east of any day in 5the year, is highest 6in south of west as shown north of east and north of west here;
range from 10 to 2 × 10 M and diameters that range
•
the noontime sky, stays up the longest time, and its light and Sunspots are relatively cool
⊙(d) change September 22 to March 20. the material in Section 5-2.
regions produced by lo- posed of hot, churning gases.
cal concentrations of the Sun’s magnetic field protruding 4 Does the Sun rotate? If so, how fast? The Sun’s
through the photosphere. The average number of sun-
surface rotates differentially, varying between once
spots
for Figure 1-17 carries the appropriate adjustments for and their
Figure average
1-16). It is alsolatitude varytheinSun
the day when anrises
11-year
to the cycle.
the southern hemisphere. For the following paragraphs lowest height at noon (Figure 1-17a), and it signals the every 35 days near its poles and once every 25 days
in the southern hemisphere, add • A6 prominence
day of the yearis ingas lifted into
the northern the Sun’s
hemisphere with the corona
few- by at its equator.
Margin Question 1-3 months to each date, and changemagnetic estfields.
numberAofsolar
explain why Figure 1-14 must
win- daylight flare is a brief, but violent, erup-
hours.
ter to summer, spring to fall, north to As the Sun moves along the ecliptic after the winter 5 What makes the Sun shine? Thermonuclear fusion
have been taken facing west. tion
south.) The day that the Sun rises far- of hot, ionized
solstice, gasesisfrom
it rises earlier, a sunspot
more northerly on thegroup.
eastern Coro-
Comins_10e_c12-369-404hr.indd
Hint: examine Figure 1-17. 373
thest south of nal masshorizon,
east is around December ejectionsand itsend
passesout large
higher in thequantities
sky at midday ofthan
gas from in the Sun’s core is the source of the Sun’s energy. 1/29/14 10:26 AM
Comins_10e_FM_i-xxii_hr2.indd 12 2/12/14 5:46 PM
22 each year (Figure 1-17a) and theisSun.itCoronal
did on preceding days. Three and
mass ejections months later, that
flares aroundhead in
 p refa ce xiii

io
mat n
Chapter opening narratives introduce and launch the • Animation icons link the text to animated fig-

Ani

chapter’s topics and provide students with a context for
understanding the material.
Learning objectives underscore the key chapter concepts.
Section headings are brief sentences that summarize
section content and serve as a quick study guide to the
chapter when reread.
Icons link the text to Web material
Y N
RR IG • Starry Night™ icons link the text to a specific
STA
1.1
ures available on the textbook’s Web site.
Guided Discovery boxes offer hands-on experience with
astronomy. Several use the Starry Night™ software.
An Astronomer’s Toolbox introduces some of the alge-
braic equations used in astronomy. Most of the material
in the book is descriptive, so essential equations are set
off in numbered boxes to maintain the flow of the mate-
rial. The toolboxes also contain worked CHAexamples,
RACTERIzIN ad-
G S TA R S 345
ditional explanations, and practice doing calculations;

HT

interactivity in the Starry Night™ observing

to 500 ly (150 pc) away. The success ofanswers
Hipparcos are
has given at the end
not expected. of the regardless
Classification book. All the equa-
of distance is still
programs. tions are
led to the 2013 launch of Gaia by the European summarized
Space useful toin Appendix
help us navigate C.around the night sky, and so
• Video icons link theAgency. This satellite will use stellar parallax measure- we will study it now. In Section 11-3 we will add the
o1
ide 9. text to relevant video
ments to determine the distances to the nearest 1 bil- effects of different distances on how bright stars appear
1
V

clips available on the textbook’s

lion stars. Web site. from Earth.
Despite the information
T H E L I V E gained
S O F SfromTA R Sstellar
F R Oparallax,
M B I RT H T H R O U G H M I D D L E AG E 3 7 9
astronomers need to know the distances to more remote 11-2 Apparent magnitude measures the
stars for which parallaxT H E Lcannot
IVES O F be
yet S TA RS FROM
measured. B I RT H T H R O U G H M I D D L E AG E 3 7 9
Several brightness of stars as seen from earth
methods of determining ever-greater distances will be
introduced later in this chapter and in Chapters 12, 13, The brightnesses of stars measured without regard
GuIDED DISCOvERy and 17. to their distances from Earth are called apparent
Having established that different stars are at different magnitudes, denoted by lowercase m. The brightest
Extrasolar Planets and Brown Dwarfs
distances from Earth, we now consider the brightness- stars were originally said to be of first magnitude, and
es that stars appear to have as seen from our planet. their apparent magnitudes were designated m = +1.
The lowest mass that an object can have and still main- cade later, an extrasolar planet, 2M1207b, Those was starsobserved
that appeared to be about half as bright as
Combining the distances and the varied brightnesses we
tain the fusion of normal hydrogen into helium, as oc- orbiting brown dwarf 2M1207 (Figure 5-15). Hundreds
first-magnitude stars were said to be second-magnitude
observe will enable us to calculate how much light stars
curs in the Sun (see An Astronomer’s Toolbox 10-1: more brown dwarfs have been found, stars along with more
(designated m = +2), and so forth, down to sixth-
actually emit, and thereby to explore their evolution.
Thermonuclear Fusion), is 0.08 M⊙, or about 75 times than a dozen sub-brown dwarfs. magnitude Many of these stars, are
the dimmest ones visible to the unaided
the mass of Jupiter. Astronomers have discovered hun- found in active star-forming regions, such as the Orion
eye. (Greek astronomers did not try to classify the Sun’s
dreds of objects in our Galaxy withMAGNITUDe
less than this mass. SCALeS Nebula (see Figure 12-17) and the Rho Ophiuchi
dazzling cloudin this scheme.) Because stars do not
brightness
Like Jupiter, they are primarily composed of hydrogen from(see
Greek astronomers, the accompanying
Hipparchus in the figure
secondbelow). Astronomers
appear have levels of brightness, this system has
with discrete
and helium, with traces of other elements.
century Manyb.c.eof to
themPtolemyalso foundc.e.)
(90–168 moreinthan
the 925second extrasolar planets. In
noninteger 2002, as well, such as +3.5 or +4.8.
magnitudes
are found in orbit around stars, while somec.e.,
century areundertook
found theastronomers
classification observed
of stars clouds
strictly and storms More on quantitative
a brown methods of classifying stars
as free-floating masses that apparently formed without
by evaluating how brightdwarf similartoto,bebut
they appear probably
relative to much werelarger than, in
developed thethe mid-nineteenth century (see An
ever orbiting a star. An intriguing question
each other. hasThis
arisen:
comparison stormsmade observed
sense on the giant
because back planetsAstronomer’s
in our solar system. Toolbox 11-2: Details of the Magni-
What should these various objects be called?
then astronomers assumed the Brown dwarfs
stars were all atofthelarger
same mass tude haveScales).
the interest-
While maintaining the basic idea that the
Although normal hydrogen fusion does from
distance not occur ing feature
us, and, therefore, that when
differences they fuse deuterium
in bright- apparent or lithium, of brighter objects are smaller num-
magnitudes
in them, bodies with between 13 and 75due
ness timesto Jupiter’s
different stellarthe distances
helium they from create
Earthmoveswere upward, bers outthanofthe theapparent
core magnitudes of dimmer ones, the
mass do fuse deuterium (a rare form of hydrogen) into where it is formed. This helium is replaced with fresh
helium and those with between 60 and 75 times Jupiter’s deuterium or lithium fuel to fuse. The upward motion
mass also fuse lithium (the element with three protons) of the helium and downward motion of deuterium and
into helium. Both of these types of fusion occur very lithium-rich hydrogen are due to convection, and, as a
briefly (in cosmic terms) because of the limited supplies result of this motion, eventually all the deuterium and
of deuterium and lithium in any known object in space. lithium are consumed. We say that these brown dwarfs
All objects between 13 and 75 timesAn AsTronomEr’s
Jupiter’s mass are are fullyToolbox
convective (for 11-2 further discussion of fully con-
called brown dwarfs. Objects with less than 13 times Ju- vective stars, see Section 12-8). This convective behavior
piter’s mass that are orbiting stars are extrasolar planets is different than we find in the Sun (see Chapter 10),
Details of the Magnitude Scales
or exoplanets (see Chapter 5), while free-floating bodies which has a separate core, convective zone, and radi-
with less than 13 times Jupiter’s massThe aremagnitude
often called scales were
ative created
zone that before
do not accurate
share atoms. must multiply
Flares have5been times to get the range of brightness of 100
sub-brown dwarfs. Bear in mind that measurements of the relative
these definitions brightnesses
observed of starsdwarfs.
from brown could By analogyis 1001/5to≈ the2.512,Sun’s or, put another way, 2.512 × 2.512 ×
are still undergoing discussion andberevision
made, and they
in the as-have since
flaresbeen
causedrefined. Specifically,
by magnetic 2.512 ×
fields emerging 2.512
from its × 2.512 ≈ 100. This mathematical state-
sur-
tronomy community. careful measurements reveal that the original
face, astronomers believefirst-
that somement brown meansdwarfsthat ro-
each successively brighter magnitude is
magnitude
Because they emit relatively little stars were about
energy compared 100 have
tate and timesmagnetic
brighterfields.
than approximately 2.512 times brighter than the preceding
to stars, extrasolar planets and brownthe original
dwarfs are sixth-magnitude
dim stars. on
Based Therefore,
the numbers in 1856 magnitude.
and locations of the known
astronomer
and therefore very challenging to observe. Those inSirorbit
Norman brown Pogson dwarfs
(1829–1891) set the
and sub-brown dwarfs, astronomers
Example: An m = +3 star is approximately 2.512 times
are detected by their gravitational orbrightness factor on
eclipsing effects of exactly 100 tothat
estimate define
therethemayrange be ofas manybrighter
of thesethan bodies an inm = +4 star. Equivalently, it takes
brightness between
the stars they orbit. The first brown dwarf was discov- modern first- and sixth-magnitude
our Milky Way Galaxy as there are 2.512 stars. Even in these
stars. In other words, it takes 100 stars of apparent fourth-magnitude stars to provide as much light
ered in 1994. Named Gliese 229B, it is located in orbit numbers, brown dwarfs do not contribute a substantial
as we receive from a single third-magnitude star.
around a star, Gliese 229A (see Figuremagnitude
12-12),m in= +6the to provide
amount asof
much
masslight as we re- force
or gravitational in the Galaxy be-
ceive
constellation Lepus, about 18 ly (6 pc) fromfrom a single
Earth. A de-star of cause
apparenttheymagnitude
have such m = +1.
small individual these questions after reading section 11-2: How
Trymasses.
To find out how much brighter each magnitude is much brighter is an m = 0 star than an m = +4 star?
from the next dimmer one, we note that there are five How much brighter is an m = –2 star than an m = +5
A Stellar Nursery Full of Brown
integer magnitudes between first and sixth magnitude. star? If one
Dwarfs starcontaining
Besides is 7.93 timesmorebrighter
than than another and the
Going from m = +6 to m = +5 increases (multiplies) brighter
100 young starstars,
has antheabsolute magnitude of m = +3, what
Rho Ophiuchi
the brightness we see by the same factor as going from is the located
cloud, absolute 540magnitude
ly away in of
thethe
con-dimmer star? (Hint for
m = +5 to m = +4, and so on. Going from m = +6 to last question:
stellation Recall contains
Ophiuchus, that magnitudes
at least need not be integers.)
m = +1 requires multiplying the same brightness factor 30 brown dwarfs. By studying these
from one magnitude to the next 5 times. The number we (Answers
objects, appear atexpect
astronomers the endtooflearn
the book.)
more about early stellar evolution. This
infrared image is color coded, with red
indicating 7.7-μm radiation and blue
indicating 14.5-μm radiation. (NASA/
JPL-Caltech/Harvard-Smithsonian CfA)
Comins_10e_c11_337-368hr.indd 345 1/29/14 10:20 AM

Comins_10e_FM_i-xxii_hr2.indd 13
Comins_10e_c12-369-404hr.indd 379 1/29/14 10:26 AM 2/12/14 5:46 PM
 Perseus arm

xiv p refa ce
T H E M I L K Y W AY G A L A X Y 469

Insight Into Science boxes are brief asides that relate • Discussion Questions offer interesting topics to spark
You
topics to the nature of scientific inquiry
are here. and encourage lively, insightful debate.
Sc
u
T H E M I L K Y W AY G A L A X Y 467
critical thinking. • Web Questions t
take students to the Web for further
Sagittarius arm

um
a
study.

-Ce
Galactic Bar
Figure 15-9 InsightA Map of theScience
Galaxy (a) This map, based on parts of the Galaxy were first made
Into

ntaur
Margin Question 15-2
radio telescope surveys of 21-cm Solar system shows the distribution
radiation, NEW:
using• radio Got It? Questions
telescopes. Radio waves ask students aboutoneither big

Norma Arm
What situation(s) Earth are

us Arm
of hydrogen gasAinLittle
a face-on view of theIncomplete
Knowledge penetrate
Galaxy. This information
view just picture concepts relatedsotowethe chapter
oftenEarth’s atmosphere, analogousor questions
to the obscurationas-
hints at spiral structure.
leads to The galacticinterpretation
incorrect nucleus is marked
of can observe them anywhere that we
with and,
data a there-
dot surrounded by a circle. Details inPerseus armblank, wedge-
the large,
sociated with common misconceptions caused byabout that
interstellar gasmate-
and
fore, to incorrect conclusions. can build a radio telescope. (Recall
Herschel’s lack of dust?
shaped region toward the upper left of the map are unknown,
knowledge about the matter in interstellar space pre-that rial (or Sboth!).
infrared aobservations
gittarius Arm must be
because gas in this part of the sky is moving perpendicular to

Ou
vented him from correctly interpreting the distribu- made• atObserving
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our line of sight and thus does not exhibit a detectable Doppler eu Solar System

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and that X-ray s A and gamma-ray observations are almost
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drawing, visible-light always made from space.)

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that our solar system conclusion
lies between about
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major position
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within What If…
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the radio emissionchapters
directly conclude with a “What
from interstel-
Milky Way Galaxy. (b)the
ThisGalaxy.
drawing labels the spiral arms in
the Milky Way. (a: Image courtesy: Leo Blitz, Ph.D; inset: NG Maps/
lar hydrogen—by
If…” essay that far the most abundant
encourages element
critical in the by speculat-
thinking
National Geographic Creative; b: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ESO/R. Hurt) b
universe—is
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themapping
universethecouldGalaxy.have profound
Unfortunately, the major transitions of electrons in the
You Wavelength tabs with photographic images
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show wheth- effects on Earth.
hydrogen atom (see Figure 4-11) produce photons at ul-
are here. arms in er Chapter
an from
image 16,was whenmade we Swith
present more
radio
lightcutemanating
evidence
waves (R), of stars and gas crosses the center of the Galaxy, also
infrared
of our ra- traviolet
in FigureAn Astronomer’s Almanac,
and dustaindynamic timeline that re-
view visible from the center and visible wavelengths that do not penetrate
about diation
the cause(I), of spiral structure fromultraviolet
observations of (U),shown 15-9b. The stars, gas, the
Galaxy.visible light (V),
Visual photons from there are mostly light X-rays
absorbed the interstellar medium. How, then, can radio telescopes
um

other galaxies. Recent observations Galactic Bar by the Spitzer Space bar move down latesone side discoveries
of it and thenin astronomy
reverse direction to other historical events,
-Ce

(a) This map, based on (X), or or gamma

scattered rays before (G).they reach us. Therefore, Herschel
Telescope confirm previous observations that a bar
directly detect all of this hydrogen? The answer lies in
and move back alongopensthe each otherofside.
the four Parts of the text. These almanacs
ntaur

on, shows the distribution was seeing only nearby stars, and he measured appar- atomic physics.
In addition to masscontext
provide strong for the information presented.
Norma Arm

ent magnitudes that were dimmer than they would have and charge,
us Arm

he Galaxy. This view just

ucleus is marked with a been had
Neutral hydrogen (H I) is there been no interstellar dust. Without ad- particles such as protons and elec-
H II regions (red)
the large, blank, wedge- concentrated justing for its
in the spiral armseffects, he concluded that the stars were trons possess a tiny amount in ofthe
an-spiral arms
Multimedia
Atlas Image courtesy of 2MASS/UMass/

the map are unknown, farther awaySathan gittarithey

us Arm
really are. He also had no idea gular momentum, commonly called
moving perpendicular to of the trueer size of the Galaxy and could not see the vast spin. According to the laws of quan-
Ou

tum FOR STUDENTS

P

s Solar System
bit a detectable Doppler number ofeustars
ter

s A located in the general direction of the mechanics, the electron and

r m
Ar

visible-light data, shows galactic center that are hidden by the dust. proton in a hydrogen atom can spin
m

two major arms of the Because interstellar dust is concentrated in the plane only Electronic
in either parallel Versions or opposite
IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF

abels the spiral arms in of our Galaxy’s disk, the absorption of starlight is Discovering the Universe is offered in two electronic
itz, Ph.D; inset: NG Maps/
strongest in those parts of the sky covered by the Milky versions. One is an Interactive e-Book, available as part
L-Caltech/ESO/R. Hurt) b
Way. Above or below the plane of the Galaxy, our view of LaunchPad, described below. The other is a PDF-
is relatively unobscured. Knowledge of our true position
resent more evidence of stars andingasthecrosses the center of the Galaxy,
Galaxy eventually came from observations of also based e-Book from CourseSmart, available through
from observations of shown in Figure 15-9b. The stars, gas, and dust in
globular clusters (see Section 12-14). Shapley used the the www.coursesmart.com.
Hot, luminous young stars (blue) These options are provided to
s by the Spitzer Space bar move down one side of it and then for
reverse direction in the spiral arms
period–luminosity relation Cepheid variable stars to offer students and instructors flexibility in their use of
ervations that a bar and moveradio
a 21-cm back along
view the
of M83theother side. to the then-known 93 globular Visible-light
bcourse view of M83
determine distances materials.
clusters in the sky. (More than 150 are known today.)
Figure 15-10 Two Views of a barred Spiral Galaxy The
From their directions and distances, he mapped out the CourseSmart
(b) Note that the spiral arms are more e-Book
clearly demarcated by
galaxy M83 is in the southern constellation H IIofregions
Centaurus,
(red) visible stars and H II regions than by 21-cm radio emission. (a:
distribution of these clusters
about 12 million ly from Earth. (a) A radioinview in three-dimensional
the spiral arms
at 21-cm space.
Atlas Image courtesyDiscovering the Universe CourseSmart
of 2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF; b: e-Book offers the
wavelength shows By 1917, Shapleyfrom
the emission hadneutral
discovered
hydrogen thatgas.
the globular
Robert Gendler and complete
Stephane Guisard) text in an easy-to-use, flexible format. Students
Robert Gendler and Stephane Guisard

clusters are located in a spherical distribution centered can choose to view the CourseSmart e-Book online or to
not on Earth but on a point in the Milky Way toward
the constellation Sagittarius. Figure 15-6 shows two
download it to their computer or a mobile device, such
globular clusters in a relatively clear part of the sky in as iPad, iPhone, or Android device. To help students
that direction. Shapley then made a bold conjecture:
Comins_10e_c15_457-480hr2.indd 469 study and mirror the experience of a printed 2/12/14 textbook,
12:07 PM
The globular clusters orbit the center of the Milky Way, CourseSmart e-Books feature notetaking, highlighting,
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Hot, luminous young stars (blue)
in the spiral arms Discovering the Universe supports instructors with a
15-3 nonvisible observations help map the variety of online learning preferences. Its rich array of
b Visible-light
galactic disk view of M83
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Figure 15-6 A View andToward
platforms provides
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More thanaccording to
red Spiral Galaxy The To spiral
(b) Note that the see into thearedust-filled
arms plane
more clearly of the Milky
demarcated by Way, as- eachstars
a million instructor’s
in the disk ofteaching
our Galaxymethod. Students
fill this view, which can also ac-
stellation of Centaurus, Review
visible stars and Hand
tronomers practice
usethan
II regions material
radio
by wave,
21-cm infrared, X-ray,(a:and gamma-
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a relatively clear through the4° Companion
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south of the galactic
A radio view at 21-cm ray telescopes
Atlas Image courtesy (see Figure 3-37). These wavelengths
of 2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF; b: are
neutral hydrogen gas. • Summary
Robert Gendler of
and Stephane
scattered KeylessIdeas
Guisard)
much is interstellar
by the keylo-con- nucleus
a bulletedgaslistandofdust in Sagittarius. Beyond the disk stars you can see two
LaunchPad:
prominent Because
globular clusters. Technology
Although Should
most regions Never
of the sky
cepts.cated throughout the Galaxy’s disk than are visible or Get
toward in the Way
Sagittarius are thick with dust, very little obscuring
ultraviolet wavelengths. Observations of the distant matter appears in this tiny section of the sky. (NOAO/AURA/NSF)
• What Did You Think? questions at the end of each At W. H. Freeman, we are committed to providing online
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply grateful to the astronomers and teachers
who reviewed the manuscript of this edition. This is a
stronger and better book because of their conscientious
efforts:
Miah M. Adel, University of Arkansas, Pine Bluff
Steven Ball, LeTourneau University
Kirsten R. Bernabee, Idaho State University
Bruce W. Bridenbecker, Copper Mountain College
Eric Centauri, University of Tulsa
Larry A. Ciupik, Indiana University Northwest
Michael K. Durand, California State University,
Dominguez Hills
Gregory J. Falabella, Wagner College
Tim Farris, Volunteer State Community College
Rica Sirbaugh French, MiraCosta College
Wayne K. Guinn, Lon Morris College
Richard Ignace, East Tennessee State University
Alex Ignatiev, University of Houston
Mahmoud Khalili, Northeastern Illinois University
Kevin Krisciunas, Texas A&M University
Peter Lanagan, College of Southern Nevada
Shawn T. Langan, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
James Lauroesch, University of Louisville
Lauren Likkel, University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire
Jane H. MacGibbon, University of North Florida
Melissa A. Morris, Arizona State University
Douglas Nagy, Ursinus College
Christopher Palma, Pennsylvania State University
Billy L. Quarles, University of Texas, Arlington
Susan R. Rolke, Franklin Pierce University
Richard Ross, Rock Valley College
Mehmet Alper Sahiner, Seton Hall University
Kelli Corrado Spangler, Montgomery County
­Community College
Philip T. Spickler, Bridgewater College
Aaron R. Warren, Purdue University North Central
Lee C. Widmer, Xavier University
I would also like to thank the many people whose advice
on previous editions has had an ongoing influence:
John Anderson, University of North Florida
Kurt S. J. Anderson, New Mexico State University
Gordan Baird, University of Arizona
Nadine G. Barlow, Northern Arizona University
Henry E. Bass, University of Mississippi
J. David Batchelor, Community College of Southern
Nevada
Jill Bechtold, University of Arizona
Peter A. Becker, George Mason University
Ralph L. Benbow, Northern Illinois University
John Bieging, University of Arizona
2/12/14 5:46 PM
 xviii p refa ce
Greg Black, University of Virginia
John C. (Jack) Brandt, University of New Mexico
James S. Brooks, Florida State University
John W. Burns, Mt. San Antonio College
Gene Byrd, University of Alabama
Eugene R. Capriotti, Michigan State University
Eric D. Carlson, Wake Forest University
Jennifer L. Cash, South Carolina State University
Michael W. Castelaz, Pisgah Astronomical
Research Institute
Gerald Cecil, University of North Carolina
David S. Chandler, Porterville College
David Chernoff, Cornell University
Erik N. Christensen, South Florida Community College
Tom Christensen, University of Colorado,
Colorado Springs
Chris Clemens, University of North Carolina
Christine Clement, University of Toronto
Halden Cohn, Indiana University
John Cowan, University of Oklahoma
Antoinette Cowie, University of Hawaii
Charles Curry, University of Waterloo
James J. D’Amario, Harford Community College
Purnas Das, Purdue University
Peter Dawson, Trent University
John M. Dickey, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities
John D. Eggert, Daytona Beach Community College
Stephen S. Eikenberry, University of Florida
Bernd Enders, College of Marin
Andrew Favia, University of Maine
Rica French, Mira Costa College
Robert Frostick, West Virginia State College
Martin Gaskell, University of Nebraska
Richard E. Griffiths, Carnegie Mellon University
Bruce Gronich, University of Texas, El Paso
Siegbert Hagmann, Kansas State University
Thomasanna C. Hail, University of Mississippi
Javier Hasbun, University of West Georgia
David Hedin, Northern Illinois University
Chuck Higgins, Pennsylvania State University
Scott S. Hildreth, Chabot College
Thomas Hockey, University of Northern Iowa
Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale Community College
J. Christopher Hunt, Prince George’s
Community College
James L. Hunt, University of Guelph
Nathan Israeloff, Northeastern College
Francine Jackson, Framingham State College
Fred Jacquin, Onondaga Community College
Kenneth Janes, Boston University
Katie Jore, University of Wisconsin–Steven’s Point
William C. Keel, University of Alabama
Comins_10e_FM_i-xxii_hr2.indd 18
William Keller, St. Petersburg Junior College
Marvin D. Kemple, Indiana University–Purdue
University Indianapolis
Pushpa Khare, University of Illinois at Chicago
F. W. Kleinhaus, Indiana University–Purdue University
Indianapolis
Agnes Kim, Georgia College & State University
Rob Klinger, Parkland College
H. S. La, Clayton State University
Patick M. Len, Cuesta College
John Patrick Lestrade, Mississippi State University
C. L. Littler, University of North Texas
M. A. K. Lohdi, Texas Tech University
Michael C. LoPresto, Henry Ford Community College
Phyllis Lugger, Indiana University
R. M. MacQueen, Rhodes College
Robert Manning, Davidson College
Paul Mason, University of Texas, El Paso
P. L. Matheson, Salt Lake Community College
Steve May, Walla Walla Community College
Rahul Mehta, University of Central Arkansas
Ken Menningen, University of Wisconsin–Steven’s Point
J. Scott Miller, University of Louisville
Scott Miller, Pennsylvania State University
L. D. Mitchell, Cambria County Area
Community College
J. Ward Moody, Brigham Young University
Siobahn M. Morgan, University of Northern Iowa
Steven Mutz, Scottsdale Community College
Charles Nelson, Drake University
Gerald H. Newsom, Ohio State University
Bob O’Connell, College of the Redwoods
William C. Oelfke, Valencia Community College
Richard P. Olenick, University of Dallas
John P. Oliver, University of Florida
Ron Olowin, St. Mary’s College of California
Melvyn Jay Oremland, Pace University
Jerome A. Orosz, San Diego State University
David Patton, Trent University
Jon Pedicino, College of the Redwoods
Sidney Perkowitz, Emory University
Lawrence Pinsky, University of Houston
Eric Preston, Indiana State University
David D. Reid, Wayne State University
Adam W. Rengstorf, Indiana University
James A. Roberts, University of North Texas
Henry Robinson, Montgomery College
Dwight P. Russell, University of Texas, El Paso
Barbara Ryden, Ohio State University
Itai Seggev, University of Mississippi
Larry Sessions, Metropolitan State University
C. Ian Short, Florida Atlantic University
2/12/14 5:46 PM

John D. Silva, University of Massachusetts
at Dartmouth
Michael L. Sitko, University of Cincinnati
Earl F. Skelton, University of California at Berkeley
George F. Smoot, University of California at Berkeley
Alex G. Smith, University of Florida
Jack Sulentic, University of Alabama
David Sturm, University of Maine, Orono
Paula Szkody, University of Washington
Michael T. Vaughan, Northeastern University
Andreas Veh, Kenai Peninsula College
John Wallin, George Mason University
William F. Welsh, San Diego State University
R. M. Williamon, Emory University
Gerard Williger, University of Louisville
J. Wayne Wooten, Pensacola Junior College
Edward L. (Ned) Wright, University of California at
Los Angeles
Jeff S. Wright, Elon College
Nicolle E. B. Zellner, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Comins_10e_FM_i-xxii_hr2.indd 19
p refa ce xix
I would like to add my special thanks to the wonderfully
supportive staff at W. H. Freeman and Company who
make the revision process so enjoyable. Among oth-
ers, these people include Jessica Fiorillo, Alicia Brady,
­Brittany Murphy, Kerry O’Shaughnessy, Courtney ­Lyons,
Amy Thorne, Victoria Tomaselli, Sheena Goldstein,
Matt McAdams, and Susan Wein. Thanks also go to my
copyeditor and indexer, Louise Ketz, and proofreader,
Patti Brecht. Thank you to T. Alan Clark, Marcel
W. Bergman, and William J. F. Wilson for their work on
the Starry Night™ material. Warm thanks also to ­David
Sturm, University of Maine, Orono, for his help in col-
lecting current data on objects in the solar system; to
my graduate student, Andrej Favia, for his expert work
on identifying, categorizing, and addressing misconcep-
tions about astronomy; to my UM astronomy colleague
David Batuski; and to my wife, Sue, for her patience and
support while preparing this book.
Neil F. Comins
neil.comins@umit.maine.edu
2/12/14 5:46 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 about the authors
Thomas Morelli Photography
Professor Neil F. Comins is on the faculty of the
University of Maine. Born in 1951 in New York City, he
grew up in New York and New England. He earned a
bachelor’s degree in engineering physics at Cornell Uni-
versity, a master’s degree in physics at the University of
Maryland, and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from University
College, Cardiff, Wales, under the guidance of Bernard
F. Schutz. Dr. Comins’s work for his doctorate, on gener-
al relativity, was cited in Subramanyan Chandrasekhar’s
Nobel laureate speech. He has done theoretical and
experimental research in general relativity, optical and
radio observational astronomy, computer simulations
of galaxy evolution, and science education. The fourth
edition of Discovering the Universe was the first book
in this series that Dr. Comins wrote, having taken over
following the death of Bill Kaufmann in 1994. He is
also the author of four trade books, What If the Moon
Didn’t Exist?, Heavenly Errors, The Hazards of Space
Comins_10e_FM_i-xxii_hr2.indd 21
Travel, and What If the Earth Had Two Moons? What
If the Moon Didn’t Exist? has been made into plane-
tarium shows, been excerpted for television and radio,
translated into several languages, and was the theme
for the Mitsubishi Pavilion at the World Expo 2005 in
Aichi, Japan. Heavenly Errors explores misconceptions
people have about astronomy, why such misconceptions
are so common, and how to correct them. Dr. Comins
has appeared on numerous television and radio shows
and gives many public talks. Although he has jumped
out of airplanes while in the military, today his activities
are a little more sedate: He is a licensed pilot and avid
sailor, having once competed against Prince Philip, Duke
of Edinburgh.
William J. Kaufmann III was the author of the first
three editions of Discovering the Universe. Born in New
York City on December 27, 1942, he often visited the
magnificent Hayden Planetarium as he was growing up.
Dr. Kaufmann earned his bachelor’s degree magna cum
laude in physics from Adelphi University in 1963, a mas-
ter’s degree in physics from Rutgers in 1965, and a Ph.D.
in astrophysics from Indiana University in 1968. At 27
he became the youngest director of any major observa-
tory in the United States when he took the helm of the
Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. During his career
he also held positions at San Diego State University,
UCLA, Caltech, and the University of Illinois. Through-
out his professional life as a scientist and educator,
Dr. Kaufmann worked to bridge the gap between the
scientific community and the general public to help the
public share in the advances of astronomy. A prolific au-
thor, his many books include Black Holes and Warped
Spacetime, Relativity and Cosmology, The Cosmic Fron-
tiers of General Relativity, Exploration of the Solar Sys-
tem, Planets and Moons, Stars and Nebulas, Galaxies
and Quasars, and Supercomputing and the Transforma-
tion of Science. Dr. Kaufmann died in 1994.
2/12/14 5:46 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Part I

Understanding
­Astronomy

Telescopes enhance our views of the cosmos. (NASA/MSFC/Emmett Given)

Comins_10e_c01_001-040hr2.indd 1 2/10/14 12:20 PM

 AN ASTRONOMER’S ALMANAC
1512-1543 Nicolas
Copernicus proposes
heliocentric cosmology in
his Commentariolus and
De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium.

1715 Edmond Halley

2136 B.C.E. Chinese calculates shadow path
astronomers record of a solar eclipse over
solar eclipse. (Atlas Photo ca. 270 B.C.E. Earth’s surface. (NASA/
Bank/Science Source) Aristarchus of SSPL/Getty Images)
Samos proposes 1589-1609 Galileo
heliocentric Galilei proposes that all
cosmology. objects fall with the same 1766 Henry
Gre acceleration, independent Cavendish
ek G of their masses; builds his discovers
ol d first telescope, a refractor. hydrogen.
en
Ag
e

586 B.C.E.
Thales of Miletus
European Renaissance
predicts solar
eclipse.

1609-1610
Johannes Kepler
publishes his three
350 B.C.E. Aristotle laws of planetary
1800-1803 William
Herschel discovers
proposes spherical motion.
infrared radiation from
Earth, geocentric 1576-1601 the Sun. Thomas Young
cosmology. Tycho Brahe makes demonstrates wave
precise observations nature of light. John Dalton
of stars and planets. proposes that matter is
composed of atoms of
different masses.

Sun
Moon

Earth

ca. A.D. 125 Claudius

Ptolemy refines and details
geocentric cosmology in his
Almagest.
1665-1704 Isaac
Newton deduces
gravitational force from the
orbit of the Moon; builds first
reflecting telescope; proves
that the planets obey
Kepler’s laws because they
move under the influence of
the gravitational force; and
publishes compendium on
light, Opticks. (Science and
Society/SuperStock)

Comins_10e_c01_001-040hr2.indd 2 2/10/14 12:20 PM


1871-1873 Dimitri Mendeleyev
develops periodic table of the
elements. Henry Draper develops
spectroscopy. James Clerk
Maxwell asserts that light is an
electromagnetic phenomenon.
1847 Maria Mitchell
observed a comet,
now called “Miss
Mitchell’s Comet,”
through a telescope.
Ind
u st r
ial
Re
1840-1849 J. W. Draper
invents astronomical
photography; takes first
photographs of the Moon.
Christian Doppler
proposes that wavelength
is affected by motion. Lord
Rosse completes 60-in.
reflecting telescope at Birr
Castle in Ireland. Armand
Fizeau and Jean-Bernard
Foucault measure speed
of light accurately. (Larry
Keller, Lititz Pa./Flickr/Getty)
Comins_10e_c01_001-040hr2.indd 3
DISCOVERING ASTRONOMY
Visible light
Intensity
12,000 K
6000 K
3000 K
1942-1949 J. S. Hey
detects radio waves from
0 500 1000 2000 3000
Wavelength (nm)
the Sun. First astronomical
telescope launched into
1900 Max Planck explains space. Herbert Friedman
blackbody radiation. Paul detects X-rays from the Sun.
Villard discovers gamma rays. 200-in. optical reflecting
telescope begins operation
on Mt. Palomar, California.
1885-1888 Johann (Reuters/Corbis)
Balmer expresses
spectral lines of
hydrogen mathematically.
Heinrich Hertz detects 1930-1934 Karl
Jansky builds first
radio waves.
radio telescope.
1990-1996 Hubble Space
James Chadwick
discovers the Telescope launched. Keck 10-m
vol neutron. Bernhard optical/infrared telescopes begin
u t io Schmidt builds his operation at Mauna Kea, Hawaii.
n Schmidt optical
reflecting telescope.
SOHO solar observatory
launched. (Chris Butler/Science
Source)
1975 First charge-
coupled device
(CCD) astronomical
observations.
2004-present
Two rovers travel
on Mars,
detectors search
for gravitational
radiation.
Inf
orm
atio
n Ag
e
1895-1897 Wilhelm
Roentgen discovers X-rays.
Joseph Thomson detects 1963-1967 Largest
the electron. Yerkes 40-in. single-dish radio telescope,
optical refracting 300 m across, begins
telescope completed. operation at Arecibo, Puerto
(Yerkes Observatory/National Rico. First Very Long
Geographic Society/Corbis) Baseline Interferometer
1999 Chandra
(VLBI) images.
X-ray Telescope
launched.
1980 Very Large
Array (VLA) radio 2013 Voyager I
observatory is first spacecraft
completed, Socorro, to leave the solar
New Mexico. system.
1913 Niels Bohr proposes
quantum theory of the atom.
Background image courtesy of
(Roman Sigaev/Shutterstock)
Imageman/Shutterstock
2/10/14 12:20 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 C hap t e r

1
Stars appear to rotate around Polaris, the North Star (top), in this time exposure,
taken January 26, 2006. Below Polaris is the 4-m telescope dome at Kitt Peak National
Observatory near Tucson, Arizona. The image is composed of 114 thirty-second exposures of
the night sky combined to make the equivalent of a nearly 1-hour exposure in which Earth’s
rotation causes the stars to appear to move across the night sky. The orange glow on the
horizon is from the city of Phoenix, 160 km (100 mi) away. (Stan Honda/AFP/Getty Images)

Discovering the Night Sky

W H AT D O YO U T H I N K ?

1 Is the North Star—Polaris—the brightest star 5 How many zodiac constellations are there?
in the night sky?
6 Does the Moon have a dark side that we
2 What do astronomers define as never see from Earth?
constellations?
7 Is the Moon ever visible during the daytime?
3 What causes the seasons?
8 What causes lunar and solar eclipses?
4 When is Earth closest to the Sun?
Answers to these questions appear in the text beside the corresponding numbers in the
margins and at the end of the chapter.

Comins_10e_c01_001-040hr2.indd 5 2/10/14 12:20 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Syvyydestä
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Syvyydestä
Sanoja murheellisille

Author: Charles Kingsley

Translator: Pekka Aho

Release date: December 23, 2023 [eBook #72487]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Porvoo: WSOY, 1904

Credits: Juhani Kärkkäinen and Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK

SYVYYDESTÄ ***
SYVYYDESTÄ

Sanoja murheellisille

Kirj.

CHARLES KINGSLEY

Kirjoituksista otteita suomeksi

P. Brofeldt

Sensuurin hyväksymä marrask. 28 p:nä 1904.

Porvoossa, Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö, 1904.

»Syvyydestä minä huudan Sinua, Herra.»

Tämä pieni kirja

omistetaan
 kaikille murheellisille sieluille
ja
hänen muistolleen, joka on
syvyydestä mennyt ikuiseen
lepoon.

F.E.K.

SISÄLLYS:

I. Kärsimysten ja surujen syvyydestä.

II. Synnin syvyydestä.
III. Pelon ja tuskan syvyydestä.
IV. Yksinäisyyden, onnistumattomuuden ja pettymysten syvyydestä.
V. Pimeyden ja helvetin syvyydestä.
VI. Kuoleman syvyydestä.
VII. Rukous syvyydestä.
VIII. Rukouksia ja tunnustuksia.
I.

KÄRSIMYSTEN JA SURUJEN SYVYYDESTÄ.

»Oi Jumala, auta minua! Sillä vedet käyvät hamaan minun

sieluuni asti. Minä vajoon syvälle mutaan, jossa ei pohjaa ole; minä
olen tullut syviin vesiin ja virta upottaa minut.» Ps. 69:2,3.

»Minä käyn kumarruksissa ja koukussa; koko päivän minä käyn

surupuvussa.» Ps. 38:7.

»Minun sydämeni murheet ovat moninaiset; vie siis minua ulos

minun
tuskistani.» Ps. 25:17.

»Herra on kuullut minun itkuni äänen; Herra kuulee minun

rukoukseni »
Ps. 6:9,10.

»Minulla oli paljon surua sydämessäni; mutta sinun lohdutuksesi

ilahutti minun sieluni.» Ps. 94:19.

— ‒ Jokainen sydän tuntee oman katkeruutensa; kullakin sielulla

on oma surunsa; kullakin ihmiselämällä on myrskyiset ja meluiset
päivänsä, jolloin jokin äkkiä noussut kovan onnen tuuli näyttää
puhaltavan pois kaikki sen ilot, sen silmän ruoka on pois otettu, ja
kaikki sen toiveet ja suunnitelmat, kaikki mitä se ajatteli tehdä tai
nauttia, peittyvät niin hämärään pilveen, että on mahdoton nähdä
mitään tietä edessään; ihminen ei tiedä mihin sen on mentävä tai
mihin sen on paettava apua saadakseen. Luottamus Jumalaan
näyttää sillä hetkellä olevan poissa, ihmisellä ei tunnu olevan mitään
voimaa, ei mitään toimintakykyä, eikä hän kykene tekemään mitään
päätöstä toimiakseen jotain, uskoakseen jotain, välittääkseen jostain;
itse maa näyttää horjuvan jalkain alla ja syvyyden lähteet syöksyvät
esille.

Kun semmoinen päivä tulee, ajatelkoon ihminen silloin Jumalan

liittoa ja rohkaiskoon mieltään. Onko auringon loiste taivaalta
kadonnut, siksi että myrsky tuo mukanaan rakeita ja paleltavia
tuulia? Onko Jumalan rakkaus muuttunut, siksi että emme voi tuntea
sitä huolestuttavassa tilassamme? Onko auringon valo taivaalta
kadonnut, siksi että maailma on pimeässä pilvessä ja sakeassa
sumussa? Onko Jumala unohtanut antaa valoa kärsivälle sielulle,
koska emme voi nähdä, missä meidän tiemme kulkee muutamina
lyhyinä päivinä, jotka meille ovat täytetyt tuskallisella
hämmennyksellä?

Ei. Jumalan sanoma jokaiselle surulliselle ja murheelliselle

sydämelle maan päällä on se, että Jumala on valkeus eikä Hänessä
ole yhtään pimeyttä; että Jumala on rakkaus eikä Hänessä ole
ollenkaan julmuutta; että Jumala on yksi eikä Hän ole ollenkaan
muuttuvainen. Sentähden voimme rohkeasti rukoilla Häntä, rukoilla
vapautusta, kun suru ja surkeus valtaa meidät; kun meidän oma tai
meidän omaisemme kuolinhetki lähestyy; kun tuomiopäivä tulee,
josta on kirjoitettu: »Jumala tekee vanhurskaaksi. Kuka tuomitsee?
Kristus on kuollut, niin, paljoa enempi, Hän on myös ylösnoussut ja
rukoilee meidän puolesta.» Rom. 8: 33,34. Jumalan rajattomaan
rakkauteen, jonka Hän ilmoitti meille Jesuksen Kristuksen elämässä,
Hänen täydelliseen ja kokonaiseen tahtoonsa vapahtaa meitä, jonka
Jumala ilmoitti Jesuksen Kristuksen kuolemasta, kun Isä ei
säästänyt omaa Poikaansa, vaan vapaaehtoisesti antoi Hänen
kuolemaan meidän edestämme, tähän rajattomaan rakkauteen
voimme me uskoa ja sille jättää itsemme, kohtalomme, perheemme,
ruumiimme, sielumme sekä niitten ruumiit ja sielut, joita me
rakastamme.

National Sermons.

Ennemmin tai myöhemmin tulee Kristus kaikkien luo kastamaan

heitä tulella. Mutta elä luule että tuo tulikaste tulee ihmiselle kerta
kaikkiaan, kauhean surun muodossa tai kauhistuttavana
todistuksena hänen omasta synnistään ja mitättömyydestään. Ei,
useilla ihmisillä — ja kenties parhaimmilla ihmisillä — jatkuu tätä
tulta kuukausi kuukaudelta, vuosi vuodelta. Salaisten koetusten
kautta, kiusausten, joita ei kukaan ymmärrä paitse Jumala ja he itse,
puhdistaa Herra heitä heidän salaisista vioistaan ja opettaa heitä
salaisuudessa ymmärtämään viisautta; sen kautta poltetaan heistä
pois oman tahdon akanat, itsepetos ja turhamaisuus, jotta
vanhurskauttamisen puhdas kulta jäisi jälelle. Kuinka monella
lempeällä ja pyhällä sielulla, jotka näyttävät iloisilta ihmissilmistä,
onkaan heidän salaiset surunsa. He kantavat näkymätöntä ristiään
päivät läpeensä ja paneutuvat sen päälle maata yöksi; ehkä saavat
he kantaa sitä vuosi vuodelta hautaan asti, aina Kristuksen
valtaistuimen juurelle laskeakseen sen siellä alas; ei kukaan paitse
Kristus ja he itse saa koskaan tietää, mitä se oli, mikä se salainen
kiusaus oli, minkä Jumala pani sen sielun päälle, joka meidän silmillä
nähden näytti olevan liika hyvä tähän maailmaan. Näin Herra
vartioitsee kansaansa ja koettelee sitä tulessa, samoin kuin sulattaja
istuu uunin ääressä ja tarkastaa sulavaa hopeaa, kunnes hän tietää
sen olevan puhdistetun kaikesta kuonasta, kun hän näkee oman
kuvansa kuvastuvan siinä.

Town and Country Sermons.

Kärsimysten kautta tuli Kristus täydelliseksi; ja mikä oli paras tie

Jesukselle Kristukselle, on varmaan myöskin hyvä tie meille, joskin
se on jyrkkä ja orjantappurainen. Asettukaamme hiljaisuuteen
Jumalan käden alaiseksi; sillä joskin Hänen kätensä lepää raskaana
meidän päällämme, on se myöskin voimakas ja turvallista on levätä
sen varassa, eikä kukaan voi repäistä meitä Hänen kädestään, sillä
Hänessä me elämme ja liikumme ja olemme. Hän odottaa meitä
vuosi vuodelta väsymättömällä kärsivällisyydellä ja antaa meidänkin
sentähden välistä odottaa Häntä. Hänessä on täydellinen pelastus ja
sentähden riittävä pelastus meille samoin kuin niille, joita
rakastamme. Ja vaikkakin me Davidin kanssa menisimme alas
tuonelaan, niin löydämme Jumalan siellä niinkuin David (Ps. 139:8;
Ps. 16:10) ja tulemme kokemaan, ettei Hän hylkää sieluamme
tuonelassa eikä salli pyhäinsä joutuvan häviöön. Usko sinä vaan
Jumalaan. Ei mitään sinussa siitä, mitä Hän on luonut, ole joutuva
häviöön; sillä se on yksi Jumalan ajatuksista, eikä mitään Hänen
ajatuksistaan voi hukkaan joutua. Ei mitään kitketä sinusta pois
muuta kuin sinun sairautesi; ei mitään polteta pois sinusta paitse
kuona; se sinussa, josta Jumala alussa sanoi: »Tehkäämme ihminen
omaksi kuvaksemme!» se on pelastettava ja elävä ijankaikkisesti.
Niin, luota Jumalaan ja huuda Hänelle syvyydestä: »Joskin Sinä lyöt
minua, rakastan minä Sinua; sillä Sinä rakastit minua Jesuksessa
Kristuksessa, ennenkuin maailman perustus laskettiin.»
 Sermons — Good News of God.

Oi te murheelliset ja kärsivät sydämet! Huolestuneet ja väsyneet

sielut! Katsokaa Kristuksen ristiin! Siinä riippui teidän Kuninkaanne!
Murheellisten sielujen Kuningas, ja vielä enempi, surujen Kuningas.
Ah, tuskaa ja surua, sortoa ja rasitusta, kuolemaa ja tuonelaa —
kaikkia on Hän kasvoihin katsonut, jokaista näistä, ja kokenut niitten
voimaa ja opettanut niitä tuntemaan Hänen voimaansa, ja Hän on
voittanut ne kuninkaallisesti. Ja sen jälkeen kuin Hän on riippunut
kiduttavalla ristillä, on suru tullut jumalalliseksi, Jumalan kaltaiseksi,
samoin kuin ilokin on. Kaikki mitä ihmisen turmeltunut luonto pelkää
ja halveksii, sen asetti kunniasijalle ristillä Jumala, joka otti sen
päälleen ja siunasi ja pyhitti sen ikuisesti. Ja nyt ovat köyhät autuaat,
jos ovat sydämessään yhtä köyhiä kuin kukkarossaan; sillä Jesus oli
köyhä, ja hengessä köyhäin on taivaan valtakunta. Autuaat ovat
nälkäiset, jos he isoovat vanhurskautta niinkuin ruokaa; sillä Jesus
isosi, ja isoovaiset ravitaan. Autuaat ovat murheelliset, jos he eivät
sure ainoasti omia surujaan, vaan syntejään; sillä Jesus murehti
meidän syntejämme, ja ristillä tuli Hän, joka ei synnistä mitään
tiennyt, synniksi meidän tähtemme, ja siksi murheelliset saavat
lohdutuksen. Autuaat ovat ne, jotka häpeävät itseään ja vihaavat
itseään ja nöyryyttävät itsensä Jumalan edessä; sillä ristillä nöyryytti
Jesus itsensä, ja sentähden heidät ylennetään. Autuaat ovat hyljätyt
ja halveksitut; eivätkö kaikki ihmiset hyljänneet Jesusta hädän
hetkellä? Ja miks'ei he silloin myöskin hylkäisi sinua, sinä yksinäinen
raukka? Onko opetuslapsi suurempi Mestariaan? Ei, vaan joka
tahtoo täydellinen olla, olkoon niinkuin hänen Mestarinsa.

National Sermons.
 Elkäämme vanhaan totuttuun tapaan nimittäkö epäuskoa
tyytyväisyydeksi; elkäämme asettako lausetta »tapahtukoon Sinun
tahtosi» rukoustemme loppuun, siksi ett'emme usko rukouksen
kuulemista. Vaan antakaamme Jumalan tahdon olla myös meidän
tahtomme ja sitte sanokaamme: »Tapahtukoon Sinun tahtosi!» On
olemassa väärää yhtä hyvin kuin totista ja pyhää tyytyväisyyttä. Kun
murhe on tullut tai on tulossa tai nähtävästi on välttämätön toisten
parhaaksi, sanokaamme silloin Mestarimme kanssa Hänen
kuolintaistelussaan: »Ei niinkuin me tahdomme, vaan niinkuin Sinä!»
Mutta rukoilkaamme rohkeasti, kunnes olemme saavuttaneet sen
asteen.

Letters and Memories of Charles Kingsley.

Kristillisyys sekä kohottaa että syventää niin hyvin inhimillisiä kuin

jumalallisia tunteita. Minä olen onnellinen; sillä kuta vähemmän on
toivoa, sitä enempi on minun uskottava. Jumala tietää, mikä on
parasta meille. Minä olen varma siitä, että me emme sitä tiedä. Minä
alan huomata, että pysyväinen antautuminen Jumalan tahtoon on
salainen syy pysyväiseen voimaan. »Joka päivä kuoleminen on
niinkuin Böhme sanoo, tie jokapäiväseen elämään.»

Letters and Memories.

Kaikissa elämän koettelemuksissa on aina joku apu, jos vain

ihminen etsii sitä oikeasta paikasta; ja joskaan se ei tule avuksi, niin
tulee se kuitenkin korvaukseksi. Minä puhun mitä olen kokenut.
Omasta lohdutuksestani en puhu, vaan siitä tiestä, millä sen
saavutin. Sen minä sain yksinkertasesti en taistelemalla, vaan
tekemällä voimallisesti työtä siinä, mihin Jumala oli minut asettanut,
sekä täysin ja lujasti uskomalla, että Hänen lupauksillaan oli tosi
tarkoitus eikä vain kuvannollinen merkitys, ja että Psalmit 10, 27, 34,
37, 107, 112, 123, 126, 146 ovat yhtä totiset meille käytännöllisessä
elämässämme, kuin ne olivat vanhan ajan juutalaisille, ja että
meidän aikamme epäusko estää ihmisiä yksinkertaisella, lapsellisella
uskolla ottamasta vastaan Jumalan lupaukset sanallisessa
merkityksessä.

Letters and Memories.

Elä pelkää pilviä, myrskyä ja sadetta; katso sateenkaarta pilvissä

jopa itsessään sateessakin. Se on merkkinä siitä, että aurinko
paistaa vielä, vaikk'et sinä voi sitä nähdä, ja että korkealla, pilvien
yläpuolella on vielä päiväpaistetta, lämpöä ja pilvetön, sininen taivas.
Usko Jumalan liittoa. Usko että aurinko voittaa pilvet, lämpö voittaa
kylmän, hiljaisuus voittaa myrskyn, kaunis voittaa ruman, valo voittaa
pimeyden, ilo voittaa surun, elämä voittaa kuoleman, rakkaus voittaa
hävityksen ja nielevät virrat; tämä tapahtuu sen tähden että Jumala
on valkeus, Jumala on rakkaus, Jumala on elämä, Jumala on rauha
ja ikuinen ilo, Jumala on muuttumaton ja tekee työtä antaakseen
elämää, iloa ja rauhaa ihmiselle, eläimelle ja kaikelle luodulle. Se oli
sateenkaaren merkitys. Se on todistuksena siitä, että Jumala, joka
loi maailman, on ihmisen ystävä ja ylläpitäjä; että Hänen
lupauksensa ovat kuin ikuisesti kestävä päiväpaiste, joka on
yläpuolella pilviä eikä pimene tai katoa, ei muutu eikä vähääkään
vaihtele.

National Sermons.

Ellen minä uskoisi erityiseen Sallimukseen, ihmisten alituiseen

kasvatukseen, niinhyvin pahain kuin hyväin, niinhyvin pienten kuin
suurten seikkain kautta — ellen minä uskoisi tähän — en minä
ollenkaan voisi uskoa mihinkään.
 Letters and Memories.

Olkaamme tyytyväiset; me emme tiedä mikä on hyvää meille;

vaan Jumala tietää sen. — Se on totta ja sinä huomaat sen todeksi
(vaikka Jumala tietää että on hyvin vaikeaa saada ihmiset sitä
oppimaan), ettei kristityille ihmisille olisi mitään suurempaa apua kuin
tulla Kristuksen kaltaisiksi kärsivällisesti kestämällä ei ainoasti
jokapäiväsen elämän kovassa työssä, vaan myös suruissa,
vaikeuksissa ja sairauden sattuessa, milloin Jumala armollisessa
hyvyydessään suvaitsee koetella heitä minkinlaisella
vastoinkäymisellä. Sillä Kristus itsekin tuli sitte kotia iloon, kun ensin
oli kärsinyt kipua. Hän ei ennen mennyt ihanuuteen kuin oli
ristiinnaulittu. — Se on totta että sairaus ja kaikellaiset vaikeudet
lähetetään ojentamaan meitä ja tekemään meille hyvää, mitä
taivaallinen Isämme näkee meidän tarvitsevan. Se on totta ja sen
tulet sinä huomaamaan todeksi, että ketä Herra rakastaa, sitä Hän
kurittaa.

All Saints' Day Sermons.

»Meillä on oleva toivo siinä kärsivällisyydessä ja lohdutuksessa,

minkä Raamatut antavat», sanoo Paavali (Rom. 15:4) ja vielä:
»Mutta kärsivällisyydestä syntyy täydellinen työ» (Jak. 1:4). Vaan
mistä saamme kärsivällisyyttä? Jumala tietää kuinka vaikea
ihmisraukkain on tämmöisessä maailmassa aina olla kärsivällisiä.
Mutta usko voipi synnyttää kärsivällisyyttä, vaikkei kärsivällisyys voi
syntyä itsestään; ja usko kehen? Usko taivaalliseen Isäämme,
Kaikkivaltiaaseen Jumalaan itseensä. Hän nimittää itseään
»kärsivällisyyden ja lohdutuksen Jumalaksi». Rukoile. Hänen Pyhää
Henkeään, ja Hän tekee sinut kärsivälliseksi; rukoile Hänen Pyhää
Henkeään ja Hän lohduttaa sinua ja lievittää murheesi. Hän on
luvannut antaa Pyhän Henkensä — Lohduttajan, rakkauden, uskon
ja kärsivällisyyden Hengen — kaikille niille, jotka sitä rukoilevat.
Rukoile Häntä Herran pyhän pöydän ääressä tekemään sinut
kärsivälliseksi; rukoile Häntä että sinun oma tahtosi kukistuisi ja
muuttuisi Hänen tahtonsa kaltaiseksi. Silloin sinun silmäsi
aukenevat; silloin sinä Raamatusta näet varman lupauksen toivosta,
ihanuudesta ja pelastuksesta itsellesi ja koko maailmalle; silloin sinä
näet Herran ruumiin ja veren siunatussa sakramentissa varman
merkin ja pantin, joka siirtyy kädestä käteen, suvusta sukuun,
vuodesta toiseen, isältä pojalle, siitä että Hänen lupauksensa
täytetään, — että kärsivällisyydestä syntyy täydellinen työ ja että
toivo tulee toteutetuksi —, ettei yksikään Herran sana turhaan
raukea tai jää syrjään, sillä ne kaikki täytetään.

National Sermons.

Jumala tarkoittaa sillä sinun hyvääsi, kun Hän lyöpi sinut alas, —
ehkä Hän tahtoo antaa sinulle siunausta, vaikk'et ole sitä
rukoillutkaan, näyttääkseen kuinka vähän sairaloinen tunteellisuus
tai itseään kiusaava taistelu auttaa. Viisastelevat luonteet ovat
taipuvaiset kiusaamaan itseään sillä tavoin. Semmoisena
aikakautena elämästäsi on hyvä tulla uudelleen lapseksi. Tällä en
minä tarkoita toistamiseen uudestasyntymistä, vaan mielen muutosta
hiljaiseen ihmettelyyn ja lapselliseen luottamukseen, joka sallii
kaikkien luontaisten kykyjen, kaikkien Jumalan antamain
armolahjain, jotka myrsky on murtanut ja alas taivuttanut, uudestaan
lempeästi kukoistaa kimmeltävässä valossa sateen jälkeen —
elämän tämmöisenä ajanjaksona saamme vähän huo'ahtaa, emme
tarvitse kovin paljon silmäillä taaksepäin tai tutkia itseämme, on
parempi kätkeä se semmoiseen aikaan, jolloin mieli on terve ja
voimallinen, — vaan nyt kylvemme hiljaisesti Jumalan läsnäolon
valossa — tämä on enempi uskon aikakausi kuin työn, alituisen
rukouksen aika huolimatta niin paljon selvistä lauseista kuin
erityisestä, innokkaasta rukouksesta.

Letters and Memories.

Suru on raskas, mutta ei hedelmätön. Ei mikään tarvitse olla

hedelmätön niille, jotka näkevät kaikki seikat niitten oikeassa
valossa, renkaina siinä suuressa sekä heidän itsensä että yleisen
kehityksen ketjussa. Silloin näkisimme ajan olevan täynnä elämää,
huomaisimme kuinka joka silmänräpäys hautautuu ja syntyy
lukemattomia tapauksia ja suunnitelmia taivaassa ja maan päällä, se
ilmaisee Jumalan ajatuksia meistä — kaikki seikat liikkuvat hiljaa ja
varmasti, huolimatta luulluista seisauksista ja hairauksista, edeltä
päin määrättyä loppua kohti!

Letters and Memories.

Kaikissa tämän kuolevaisen elämän tapauksissa ja muutoksissa

on ainoa lohdutuksemme täydellisesti ja lujasti ja elävästi uskoa
siihen muuttumattomaan kuningaskuntaan ja muuttumattomaan
Kuninkaaseen. Ainoasti tämä usko voipi antaa meille rauhaa,
kärsivällisyyttä ja toivoa, vaikka taivas ja maa ympärillämme järiseisi.
Sillä ainoasti siten me saamme nähdä, että se kuningaskunta, jonka
alamaisia me olemme, on valon valtakunta eikä pimeyden, totuuden
eikä valheen, vapauden eikä orjuuden, anteliaisuuden ja laupeuden
eikä vihan ja pelon; että me elämme, liikumme ja olemme ei
semmoisessa Jumalassa (»Deus quidam deceptor»), joka kätkee
viisauden lapsiltaan, vaan valkeuden Isässä, josta kaikki hyvä ja
täydellinen lahja tulee, joka tahtoo kaikkien ihmisten pelastusta ja
totuuden tuntoon tulemista. Hänen valtakunnassaan me elämme, ja
siihen Kuninkaaseen, jonka Hän on asettanut sitä hallitsemaan,
voimme mitä täydellisimmin luottaa. Meidän tähtemme tuli se
Kuningas taivaasta alas maan päälle; meidän tähtemme Hän syntyi
tänne, meidän tähtemme teki Hän työtä, meidän tähtemme Hän
kärsi, kuoli ja nousi jälleen ylös ja istuu ijankaikkisesti Jumalan
oikealla kädellä. Emmekö siis voi uskoa ja luottaa Häneen?
Antakaamme Hänen tehdä, mitä Hän tahtoo. Antakaamme Hänen
johtaa itseämme, mihin Hän tahtoo. Mihin tahansa Hän viepi meitä,
on se totuuden ja elämän tietä. Mitä tahansa Hän tekee, on se siitä
rajattomasta rakkaudesta meihin, ota Hän osoitti ristillä. Mitä tahansa
Hän tekee, kuuluu se siihen ijankaikkiseen suunnitelmaan: ilmoittaa
Jumala ihmisille heidän Isästään. Sentähden joskin taivas ja maa
järiseisi ympärillämme, luotamme me Häneen; sillä me tiedämme
että Hän on sama eilen ja tänään ja ijankaikkisesti.

National Sermons.

Jos me uskomme, että Jumala kasvattaa ihmisiä, ovat kysymykset

siitä, milloin, missä ja miten se tapahtuu, ei ainoasti tarpeettomat
meille, vaan jos me otamme huomioon kuka on opettaja, ovat ne
myös käsittämättömät; on kylliksi että uskomme Herralla ylitse
kaiken olevan vaikutusvaltaa meihin kaikella tavoin.

Essaya

Ottamalla huomioon että me lopuksi tulemme totiseen, ylevään ja

jumalalliseen elämään, joka on toimeliasta ja voimallista elämää, ei
se niin paljoa merkitse, mitä merkillisiä ja väsyttäviä teitä eli minkä
tuskallisen ja nöyryyttävän kehityksen kautta olemme saavuttaneet
sen. Jos Jumala on rakastanut meitä, jos Jumala tahtoo ottaa
vastaan meitä, niin alistukaamme rehellisesti ja nöyrästi Hänen
lakinsa alaiseksi: »ketä Herra rakastaa, sitä Hän kurittaa, ja jokaista
poikaa Hän pieksää, ketä Hän omakseen ottaa».
 All Saints' Day Sermons.

Minä luulen että viisain tapa kantaa surua ei ole se, että koettaa
kantaa sitä — niinkauvan kuin ihmistä ei sen kautta estetä
jokapäivästen velvollisuuksien täyttämisestä — vaan että antautuu
surun valtaan kokonaan ja vapaasti. Kenties on suru lähetetty
ottamaan haltuunsa meidät ja jos me tyhjennämme maljan pohjaan
asti, löydämme sieltä kenties jonkin parannusaineen, jota emme
löytäsi, jos rupeisimme parantelemaan itseämme tai antasimme
toisten sitä tehdä. Jos me aivan yksinkertaisesti sanomme: »minä
olen viheliäinen, minun tulee olla viheliäinen», silloin saamme ehkä
kuulla äänen sanovan: »kuka muu teki sinut viheliäiseksi kuin
Jumala? mitä muuta Hän sillä tarkoittaa kuin sinun parastasi?» Ja
jos sinun sydämesi vastaa kärsimättömästi: »minunko parastani? en
minä sitä halua, vaan minä haluan sitä, jota rakastan», niin vastaa
ehkä ääni sisältä: »sinä saat molempia aikanaan».

Letters and Memories.

Kun kaikki ympäri käydään, ei elämän ongelma olekaan niin

vaikea, sillä se selviää itsestään — paraimmassa tapauksessa
piankin — kuolemassa. Tee mikä oikein on mahdollisimman
parhaalla tavalla, ja odota loppua. —

Jos tämä maailma voipi olla viheriä ja kaunis huolimatta sodista,

rutosta, onnettomuuksista ja luomakunnan kirouksesta, kuinka ihana
silloin tuleva maailma lienee? Lohduttakaamme itseämme, niinkuin
Paavali teki (paljoa vaikeampina aikoina) sillä, että nykyisen ajan
vaivat eivät ole verrattavat siihen ihanuuteen, joka meille ilmestyy.
Rom. 8:18,22. Ei ole oikein mainita sitä Raamatun paikkaa, missä
puhutaan luomakunnan huokaamisesta ja tuskasta, mainitsematta
toista, nim. ettei se kaukaa huokaa eikä tuskaile. Tahtoisiko äiti, joka
on huokaillut ja tuskaa kärsinyt synnyttäessään lapsia maailmaan,
hylätä nämä lapset, ettei hänellä olisi ollut näitä tuskia? Meidän tulee
uskoa sen päivän tulevan, jolloin maailma ja jokainen ihmisolento
siinä, joka todella on huokaillut ja tuskassa ollut, ei tahtoisi kärsittyjä
tuskia olemattomiksi silloin vallitsevan täydellisyyden tähden; mutta
silloin me katsomme takasin tähän elämään, samoin kuin äiti
muistelee kärsittyjä tuskiaan suurella ilolla ja riemulla.

Letters and Memories.

Minä kirjoitan Teille, siksi että jokainen ihmisten osanoton ilmaus

voipi tuottaa hiukan lohdutusta, joskaan se ei muuta olisi kuin
muistuttaa semmoisia kuin Te, ett'ette ole yksin maailmassa. Minä
tiedän ettei mikään voi korvata semmoista tappiota kuin Teidän on,
puolison kuolemaa. Mutta vieläkin on rakkautta maailmassa Teidän
ympärillänne; eikä hänen rakkautensa ole kuollut, se elää vielä
tulevassa maailmassa Teidän tähtenne ja kenties Teidän kanssanne.
Sillä miksi eivät he, jotka ovat pois menneet, jos he ovat menneet
Herransa tykö, olisi todella lähempänä meitä eikä kauvempana
meistä taivaallisessa maailmassa, jossa he rukoilevat edestämme, ja
onhan mahdollista että heillä on vaikutusta meihin ja että he johtavat
meitä moninaisella tavalla, josta emme täällä kuolevaisten
vankilassa voi edes uneksiakaan?

Niin, elkää pelätkö uskoa että hän, jota Te olette rakastaneet, vielä
on Teitä lähellä ja Te häntä lähellä, ja te molemmat Jumalaa lähellä,
joka kuoli ristillä teidän tähtenne. Tämän enempää en minä voi
sanoa. Mutta siinä on lohdutus, jos todella voipi saada sydämensä
uskomaan sitä.

Letters and Memories.

 ‒ ‒ ‒ Kaikki mitä minä voin sanoa tästä lauseesta, Matt. 22:30
(avioliitosta tulevassa elämässä), on se ettei sillä ole mitään
tekemistä minun ja minun vaimoni kanssa. Minä tiedän että kun
kuolemattomuus minun suhteeni merkitsee samaa kuin
personallisuus, tulevat minun tunteeni häntä kohtaan olemaan samat
kuin nyt. Tämä tunne on kehittyvä aivan odottamattomalla tavalla; se
voipi mahdollisesti ilmestyä semmoisissa muodoissa, jotka ovat
hyvin eroovia tähän elämään kuuluvista pyhimmistä sakramenteista,
pyhistä toimista, jotka Jumala on asettanut. Se ei minua ollenkaan
huoleta. Minä luulen tämän yhdistyksen olevan kuolemattoman kuin
minun oman sieluni, ja minä jätän kaikki hyvän Jumalan huostaan.

Eikö avioliitto ole jokseenkin kuin kuva taivaassa täydelliseksi

tulevasta yhdistyksestä? Ja emmekö tule taivaassa jälleen
yhdistetyiksi vielä syvemmillä siteillä? Varmaankin, sillä jos
Herramme Kristus maan päällä rakasti muutamia enempi kuin toisia,
miksi me emme rakastaisi samoin taivaassa, ja kuitenkin
rakastaisimme samalla kaikkia?

Näyttääkö siltä kuin minä ala-arvoisena pitäisin maallista onnea?

Ei! minä kohotan sitä, kun teen sen korkeamman yhdistyksen
sakramentiksi! Eikö se ajatus anna vielä erikoisempaa nautintoa;
eikö se revi pois piikkiä jokaisesta ruususta, ja tee jokaista
mesimaljaa täysin siunatuksi varmuudeksi tässä elämässä, kun
saapi tuntea että meillä on enempi odotettavaa, että kaikki
rakkauden ilmaukset täällä ovat vain tulevan täydellisen yhdistyksen
heikkoja varjoja, jos me vain täällä työtä teemme, ja teemme niin
kuin omaksi autuudeksemme.

Letters and Memories.