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DISCOVERING
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Third Edition

Alan F. Arbogast Michigan State University

VICE PRESIDENT AND PUBLISHER Petra Recter
EXECUTIVE EDITOR Ryan Flahive
SENIOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR Veronica Armour
ASSISTANT EDITOR Julia Nollen
SENIOR CONTENT MANAGER Micheline Frederick
SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Janet Foxman
SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR Billy Ray
MEDIA SPECIALIST Anita Castro
CREATIVE Director Harry Nolan
SENIOR DESIGNER Wendy Lai
MARKETING MANAGER Suzanne Bochet
PRODUCTION ASSISTANT John Du Val
Front-cover photo © Outdoor-Archiv/Alamy
BACK-COVER PHOTO © Alan Arbogast

Images credited with “USGS” are courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey. Due to space
considerations, the ­abbreviated version “USGS” appears throughout the text.
This book was set in 10/12 Times Roman by CodeMantra and printed and bound by Quad Graphics/
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This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Arbogast, Alan F.
Discovering physical geography/Alan F. Arbogast, Michigan State University. -- Third edition.
pages cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-118-52678-1 (pbk.)
1. Physical geography--Textbooks. I. Title.
GB54.5.A73 2014
910'.02--dc23
2013038705
978-1-118-52678-1 (Main Book ISBN)
978-1-118-70772-2 (Binder-Ready Version ISBN)
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
For Jen n, H a n n a h , a n d R o s i e
This page intentionally left blank
 About the Autho r

William Lovis

Alan F. Arbogast is Professor and Chairperson in the Department of Geography

at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan. He is an award-winning instruc-
tor at MSU where he teaches a variety of classes at the undergraduate and graduate levels.
Most of these courses are related to physical geography, geomorphology, and human-­
environment interactions. Alan frequently teaches large lecture classes and is known as an
enthusiastic instructor who uses innovative approaches. He has also taught extensively in
Australia and New Zealand in association with MSU’s study abroad program.
Alan’s research focuses on the Holocene landscape evolution of eolian, coastal, and
fluvial environments in the Great Lakes region. Most of his research focuses on the age and
formation of coastal sand dunes along Michigan’s Great Lakes. Alan has published over
30 scientific papers, book chapters, and monographs related to this work. His research has
been funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the ­National Science
Foundation, and the state of Michigan. He is a member of the Association of American
­Geographers, Geological Society of America, St. George Geographical Society, and Amer-
ican Quaternary Association. Alan is married to Jennifer and has two daughters, Hannah
and Rosie.
Follow Alan on Twitter at: @ArbogastDPG, where he posts regularly on topics related
to geography and the environment.

• vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface
Introduction to Physical Geography is a high-enrollment
course at most universities. The usual goal of this course is
to help students understand the Earth as a natural system and
how various processes on the planet operate over time and
space. Given the interactions that occur among these natu-
ral processes, physical geography requires the integration of
many different topics. For example, students are expected
to understand how seasonal Earth–Sun relationships affect
atmospheric circulation, which in turn influences the distri-
bution of vegetation. In addition, physical geography is an
applied discipline that can inform decisions about environ-
mental issues such as global warming, earthquake hazards,
coastal erosion in populated areas, soil degradation, and de-
forestation, to name only a few.
Discovering Physical Geography:
A Visually Oriented, Interactive
Approach
Everyone associated with geography is fully aware that geo-
graphical literacy in the United States is very poor. This poor
comprehension exists not only with respect to the fundamen-
tal issue of locating places, but also in understanding the age
and processes associated with physical landscapes. Because
many students enroll in a physical geography course only
to fulfill a general education requirement in natural science,
they frequently have little enthusiasm for the subject or fail
to see the relevance of the class in their lives. In addition, a
high percentage of students are simply afraid of science and
are thus intimidated by the course. As a result, they believe
that their chances of success in the class are low.
Discovering Physical Geography confronts these barri-
ers to learning and classroom success in a number of unique
ways. At a fundamental level, the text is written in a con-
versational style that is easily understandable to the average
nonmajor. This writing style was not chosen at the expense
of science, as the topics covered are dealt with in the scope
and breadth as they are elsewhere. In fact many topics, such
as Earth/Sun geometry, reconstructing past climates, ongo-
ing climate change, geologic time, tides, and formation of
sand dunes, to name a few, are covered in a more compre-
hensive way in this text than in others. The discussions are
just presented in a more accessible way to help the nonma-
jors and those intimidated by science as they grapple with
the concepts. My goal was to help them connect with the
content a bit more readily.
Another way that this text confronts learning barriers is
by offering students rich graphics and striking photos that
depict physical processes and the natural variability of the
landscape in memorable ways. The quality and breadth of
the illustrations are designed to spark students’ interest and
help them see the relevance of physical geography to their
daily lives. The illustrations are accompanied by a dynamic
tool, the Geo Media Library, which is an interactive, Web-
based multimedia resource. The Geo Media Library consists
of a variety of animations and simulations that allow students
to visualize and manipulate many of the factors associated
with geographical processes and see the results over time
and space. The multimedia will enhance students’ learning
as they participate more closely in geographical processes
and will reinforce the integrative nature of the discipline
by showing related variables in motion. This form of active
learning will, in turn, help promote long-term retention of
the material. The multimedia is fully integrated within the
chapter text in distinct sections that direct students to the
related modules on the website and explain to students what
they should expect to learn by interacting with it.
Each Geo Media module also includes a variety of self-
assessment questions for students. Students can use these
questions to test their understanding of topics, or instructors
can assign them as homework. Such questions allow both
students and instructors to assess learning. They also pro-
vide the foundation for exam questions that are independent
of class lectures. The Geo Media modules should motivate
more students to interact with the textbook and media be-
cause they will more readily see their connection with the
course. They contain a variety of self-assessment tools that
will engage the interest of all students enrolled in physical
geography, not just those who are scientifically inclined or
have a background in Earth science.
Changes for the Third Edition
Students and faculty often wonder why it is necessary to pro-
duce new editions of textbooks. The need for new editions in
• ix
geography is particularly necessary because events frequently
occur that change the nature of the cultural and physical land-
scape. Similarly, scientists learn more about Earth processes
between editions that advance the state of knowledge. Since
the second edition of this text was written, a number of im-
portant events have occurred on Earth that require coverage in
a third edition. For example, the extent of the annual Antarc-
tic ozone hole shows signs of shrinking due to international
efforts to control the production of chlorofluorocarbons. An
intense tsunami hit Japan in March 2011. This tsunami dev-
astated the coast, killed about 16,000 people, and damaged
property even on the western seaboard of the United States.
Still another major event was Hurricane Sandy, which blasted
the northeast coast of the United States (particularly New Jer-
sey and New York) in the fall of 2012. Although this storm
was ranked only as a Category 1 hurricane, the geographical
area it covered was huge. In addition, it struck the coast at the
peak high tide, which magnified beach erosion, property loss,
and flooding.
On the climate front, concentrations of atmospheric car-
bon dioxide on Earth have risen still further, from about 390
ppm in 2010 to 395 ppm in 2013. This continued increase
is causing the vast majority of climate scientists to become
even more concerned about the effects of climate change and
the potential future warming of Earth. As a result, the melt-
ing of the Greenland ice cap (as well as other glaciers on
Earth) apparently continues to accelerate, including a dra-
matic increase in the amount of surface melt area in July
2012. Ongoing climate change may have contributed to an
intense drought in the central United States from 2011 to the
early part of 2013, one that harked back to the Dust Bowl era
of the 1930s. Similarly, the occurrence of wildfires appears
to be rising in the western United States, often with disas-
trous results. Although these are far from the only changes
in the physical geography of Earth, they illustrate why a new
edition is warranted.
Aside from the new coverage of topics in this edition, an-
other reason to create a new one was simply to improve upon
the second edition and make it a better resource for students.
The first and second editions were well received, and a num-
ber of reviewers and users of it offered excellent suggestions
to strengthen the text. A key area of emphasis in this edition
was to enhance the Human Interactions theme of the text.
This theme focuses on some of the many ways that physi-
cal geography is relevant to human/environment interactions
such as global climate change, agriculture, and energy pro-
duction. Given the growing relevance of human/environmen-
tal issues in the world, and the important role physical geog-
raphers play in understanding and solving them, this theme
was systematically strengthened in this edition by adding the
following Human Interactions discussions:
1. The United States Public Land Survey—One of the key
reference features for geographers is the Earth’s grid sys-
tem, which allows people to determine location based
on latitude and longitude. In the United States we also
use another type of grid system, one based on the four
x • Preface
c­ ardinal directions, to organize property and space in a
systematic way. This discussion focuses on how this sur-
vey system is organized and used.
2. Drought in the U.S. Farm Belt—One of the most indi-
rect ways that physical geography is relevant to people
is when weather patterns change and drought conditions
evolve. Such a drought enveloped the central United
States from 2011 to 2013. The drought was particularly
bad in the summer of 2012 when searing temperatures
and low rainfall burned crops throughout the region to a
crisp. As a result, crop yields fell dramatically and food
prices surged. This discussion in Chapter 7 examines the
cause of this drought and the impact it had on the regional
farm industry.
3. Coping with Destructive Hurricanes—The intensity of
recent hurricanes, such as Katrina in 2005 and Sandy in
2012, demonstrates why people need to carefully monitor
tropical circulatory systems during the fall months. The
discussion in Chapter 8 follows the tracks of these two
storms and the devastation they caused. It also touches on
the political problems associated with dealing with these
massive storms.
4. Human Influence on Vegetation Patterns—One of the
most obvious ways that people impact the environment
is by changing the nature of plant cover, such as through
deforestation or agriculture. These issues are closely ex-
amined in Chapter 10, with an enhanced focus on the
role of agriculture in the Great Plains region in North
America.
5. The Anthropocene—This discussion in Chapter 12 re-
flects the fact that humans have become the most impor-
tant variable that influences the shape and patterns of the
Earth’s landscape. In response to this heavy influence,
geologists are strongly considering the establishment of
a new period in the geological timescale called the An-
thropocene. The discussion weighs the evidence for such
a new designation, as well as the most logical time for it
to have begun.
6. Earthquakes as Natural Hazards—Earthquakes are per-
haps the most frightening of natural hazards because they
occur without warning. Strong earthquakes can be dev-
astating, with significant loss of human life. The discus-
sion in Chapter 13 examines the concept of earthquake
probability and focuses specifically on the tsunamis that
blasted Indonesia in 2005 and Japan in 2011. It compares
the warning systems in each region at the time the earth-
quakes and associated tsunamis struck and their impacts
in terms of loss of human life.
7. Developing Unconventional Oil Supplies in North
­America—The second edition of the text included a new
chapter, Chapter 20 (Relevance of Physical Geography
to Environmental Issues). This chapter included three
case studies that focused on water issues in the arid
southwestern United States, soil salinization in Califor-
nia and Australia, and geographers’ efforts to stabilize
 the panda habitat in China. This chapter now includes
a fourth case study that focuses on the challenges we
as a nation face to develop unconventional sources of
oil, now that the easily mined oil has been consumed.
It includes a discussion of fracking, the controversial
technique used to extract oil and natural gas from shale
deposits where these carbon-based energy supplies are
tightly bound.
Special Features of the Text
To help students navigate their way through the book and
better appreciate the nature and scope of physical geogra-
phy, the chapters include a number of special and innovative
features:
• Discover…—This feature presents an opportunity for
students to discover the patterns and causes of particu-
larly interesting geographic phenomena, such as rain-
bows, wildfires, and unusual clouds (to name a few) on
Earth. Each chapter has one such feature, which includes
a photo and explanation of how geographers interpret
this aspect of the Earth system. The goal of this fea-
ture is to make students realize that there is more to the
physical landscape than meets the eye, which will hope-
fully spark their interest in what they see around them.
A variety of new such features have been included in
this edition, such as the Mars Rover (Chapter 2), What
Is the Land Skin Temperature? (Chapter 5), Fossil Fuels
(Chapter 12), Earthquake Prediction and the Italian Le-
gal System (Chapter 13), Prehistoric Cliff Dwellings in
the Southwestern U.S. (Chapter 14), and Coastal Dunes
Along the Eastern Shore of Lake Michigan (Chapter 19).
• Geo Media Library—Each chapter contains several
multimedia modules that explain to students what they
can expect to see and learn as they interact with the simu-
lations and animations on the text’s website. The website
media also include a variety of self-assessment questions
for students.
• Visual Concept Check—To provide students with a
means of self-testing within the flow of chapter content,
this feature offers a scenario with an illustration and ques-
tions to test students’ understanding of key chapter con-
cepts. Answers to the visual concept checks appear at the
end of the chapter.
• Key Concepts to Remember—This feature is an interim
summary that appears after specific sections of the chap-
ter to help students check their comprehension of the key
concepts covered.
• Locator Maps with Photographs—Photographs of non-
U.S. sites are accompanied by a small map indicating the
location of the site shown.
• Marginal Glossary—Key terms are set in boldface type
in the text and defined at the foot of the page for easy
recognition and reference.
• Summary of Key Concepts—The main points of the
chapter are summarized.
• Check Your Understanding—Self-assessment ques-
tions at the end of the chapter allow students to test their
comprehension.
Acknowledgments
A project of this scope naturally required the help and sup-
port of a number of people. I would first like to thank the
friendly people at John Wiley & Sons, Inc., for their faith in
my vision and for giving me the freedom and resources to
see it through. In this context, I have to give special thanks
to a group of four who, in reality, are good friends who
happened to help me create a great book. Ryan Flahive de-
serves special kudos for recruiting me, backing me up many
times, and making a number of good things happen along
the way. I am particularly indebted to Veronica Armour, who
has worked with me in the past two editions. She did such a
good job managing the second edition that I begged to work
with her again on this project. As I expected, she remained
an organizational force who effectively guided the process,
kept me on track, edited effectively, had great ideas, and just
made it a whole lot of fun. Thank you Veronica!. I am also
grateful for the awesome job that Janet Foxman did on guid-
ing the production process, and to Billy Ray for the great
work on photo research. My thanks also go to Harry Nolan
for the beautiful design that supports all our efforts. For the
expert proofreading in producing the book, I am extremely
grateful to Katrina Avery.
I also want to extend my thanks to the many geogra-
phers and scientists who are doing the research that needs to
be done in this complex time of Earth history. Their research
is crucial to a better understanding of our world and for the
development of sustainable land-use practices. Many mem-
bers of this team served as reviewers for this book, and I
want to thank them for taking the time out of their very busy
schedules to help out. They include:
John All, Western Kentucky University
John Anderton, Northern Michigan University
Jake Armour, University of North Carolina, Charlotte
Barbara Batterson-Rossi, Cuyamaca College (California)
Kevin Baumann, Indiana State University
Sheryl Beach, George Mason University
Jason Blackburn, Baton Rouge Community College
Greg Bohr, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis
Obispo
Margaret Boorstein, Long Island University, C.W. Post
William Budke, Ventura College (California)
Michaele Ann Buell, Northwest Arkansas Community
­College
David Cairns, Texas A&M University
Preface • xi
Tom Carlson, University of Washington, Tacoma
Nicole Cerveny, Mesa Community College
Philip Chaney, Auburn University
Richard Cooker, Kutztown University
Ron Crawford, University of Alaska, Anchorage
James Davis, University of Utah
Lisa DeChano, Western Michigan University
Carol DeLong, Victor Valley College
Mike DeVivo, Grand Rapids Community College
Lynn Fielding, El Camino College
Donald Friend, Minnesota State University, Mankato
John D. Frye, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Colleen Garrity, SUNY Geneseo
Alan Gaugert, Glendale Community College
David Goldblum, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater
John Greene, University of Oklahoma, Norman
Duane Griffin, Bucknell University
Chris Groves, Western Kentucky University
Patrick Hesp, Louisiana State University
Miriam Helen Hill, Jacksonville State University
Curt Holder, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
David Harms Holt, University of Southern Mississippi
Michael Holtzclaw, Central Oregon Community College
Robert Hordon, Rutgers University
Hixiong (Shawn) Hu, East Stroudsburg University
Peter Jacobs, University of Wisconsin
Scott Jeffrey, Community College of Baltimore County,
­Catonsville
Kris Jones, Long Beach City College
Stacy Jorgenson, University of Hawaii, Manoa
Theron Josephson, Brigham Young University, Idaho
Trudy Kavanagh, University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh
Ryan Kelly, Lexington Community College
Joseph Kerski, U.S. Geological Survey
John Keyantash, California State University, Dominguez
Hills
Eric Keys, Arizona State University
Marti Klein, Saddleback College
Dafna Kohn, Mt San Antonio College
Jean Kowal, University of Wisconsin, Parkside
Jack Kranz, California State University, Northridge
Barry Kronenfeld, George Mason University
Steve LaDochy, California State University, Los Angeles
Charles Lafon, Texas A&M University
Phillip Larson, Arizona State University
Jeff Lee, Texas Tech University
xii • Preface
Elena Lioubimtseva, Grand Valley State University
James Lowry, Stephen F Austin State University
David Lyons, Century College
Michael Madsen, Brigham Young University, Idaho
Emmanuel Mbobi, Kent State University, Stark
Christine McMichael, Morehead State University
Beverly Meyer, Oklahoma Panhandle State University
Armando V. Mendoza, Cypress College
Peter Mires, Eastern Shore Community College
Laurie Molina, Florida State University
Christopher Murphy, Community College of Philadelphia
Steven Namikas, Louisiana State University
Andrew Oliphant, San Francisco State University
Darren Parnell, Kutztown University
Charlie Parson, Bemidji State University
Brooks Pearson, University of West Georgia
Robert Pinker, Johnson County Community College
Rhea Presiado, Pasadena City College
Kevin Price, University of Kansas
David Privette, Central Piedmont Community College
Carl Reese, University of Southern Mississippi
David Sallee, University of North Texas
Justin Scheidt, Ferris State University
Peter Scull, Colgate University
Glenn Sebastian, University of Southern Alabama
John Sharp, SUNY New Paltz
Wendy Shaw, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville
Andrew Shears, Kent State University
Binita Sinha, Diablo Vallege College
Brent Skeeter, Salisbury University
Thomas Small, Frostburg State University
Lee Stocks, Kent State University
Sam Stutsman, University of South Alabama
Aondover Tarhule, University of Oklahoma
Roosmarijn Tarhule-Lips, University of Oklahoma, Norman
Thomas Terich, Western Washington University
Donald Thieme, Georgia Perimeter College
U. Sunday Tim, Iowa State University
Paul E. Todhunter, University of North Dakota
Erika Trigoso, University of Arizona
Alice Turkington, University of Kentucky, Lexington
Lensyl Urbano, University of Memphis
Michael Walegur, Moorpark College
David Welk, State Center Community College District,
­Clovis Center
Forrest Wilkerson, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Dennis Williams, Southern Nazarene University
Joy Wolf, University of Wisconsin, Parkside
Lin Wu, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Ken Yanow, Southwestern College, Chula Vista
Brent Yarnal, Pennsylvania State University
Hengchun Ye, California State University, Los Angeles
Zhongbo Yu, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Guoqing Zhou, Old Dominion University
Yu Zhou, Bowling Green State University
Tongxin Zhu, University of Minnesota, Duluth
Charles Zinser, SUNY Plattsburgh
Craig ZumBrunnen, University of Washington
A thank you also goes to the following professors and com-
panies for allowing us to use select videos and animations in
the Geo Media Library:
AccuWeather, Inc.
Allianz SE
Bill Dietrich, University of California, Berkeley
Glacier National Park
Paul Heller, University of Wyoming
NOAA Center for Tsunami Research
Andrew Oberhardt
Chris Paola, University of Minnesota
Taichiro Sakagami, Duke University
Doug Smith, California State University, Monterey Bay
The Times-Picayune Publishing Company
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
U.S. Geological Survey
Last, and most important, I wish to express my heartfelt
thanks to my family for their support. My wife, Jennifer, is a
wonderful and beautiful person who has enriched my life in
ways that I cannot describe. She urged me to write the first
edition and has patiently lived with the many ups and downs
along the way. I simply could not have done it without her
support. My children, Hannah and Rosie, have consistently
given me their affection throughout this process and I love
them dearly. I hope this effort inspires them someday to
stretch the limits of their potential.
Alan F. Arbogast
Professor of Geography
Michigan State University
The Teaching and Learning Package
Discovering Physical Geography, Third Edition, is supported
by a comprehensive supplements package that includes an
extensive selection of print, visual, and electronic ­materials.
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promote positive learning outcomes. Students engage with
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items, including:
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false, multiple-choice, and short-answer questions.
• www.ConceptCaching.com: caches linked directly to the
e-book give additional examples of the concepts.
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Preface • xiii
Course Materials and Assessment Content
• Lecture Notes PowerPoint Slides
• Classroom Response System (Clicker) Questions
• Image Gallery
• Instructor’s Manual
• Gradable Reading Assignment Questions (embedded
with online text)
• Geo Media Library
• Testbank
Gradebook
WileyPLUS provides instant access to reports on trends in
class performance, student use of course materials, and
progress toward learning objectives, helping inform deci-
sions and drive classroom discussions.
WileyPLUS. Learn More. www.wileyplus.com.
Powered by proven technology and built on a foundation of
cognitive research, WileyPLUS has enriched the education of
millions of students in over 20 countries around the world.
Discovering Physical Geography
­Instructor’s Site (www.wiley.com/
college/arbogast)
This comprehensive website includes numerous resources
to help you enhance your current presentations, create new
presentations, and employ our premade PowerPoint presen-
tations. These resources include:
• Image Gallery. We provide online electronic files for the
line illustrations and maps in the text, which the instruc-
tor can customize for presenting in class (for example, in
handouts, overhead transparencies, or PowerPoints).
• A complete collection of PowerPoint presentations,
available in beautifully rendered, four‑color format, has
been resized and edited for maximum effectiveness in
large lecture halls.
• A comprehensive Test Bank with multiple‑choice, fill‑in,
matching, and essay questions is distributed via the se-
cure Instructor’s website as electronic files, which can be
saved into all major word-processing programs.
• Geo Media Library. In addition to the modules from the
book, this easy-to-use website offers lecture launchers that
help reinforce and illustrate key concepts from the text
through the use of animations, videos, and interactive ex-
ercises. Students can use the resources for tutorials as well
as self-quizzing to complement the textbook and enhance
understanding of geography. Easy ­integration of this con-
tent into course management systems and homework as-
signments gives instructors the opportunity to integrate
multimedia with their syllabi and with more traditional
reading and writing assignments. Resources include:
xiv • Preface
• Animations: Key diagrams and drawing from our rich
signature art program have been animated to provide a
virtual experience of difficult concepts. These anima-
tions have proven beneficial to the understanding of
this content for visual learners.
• Videos: Brief video clips provide real-world examples
of geographic features and put these examples into
context with the concepts covered in the text.
• Simulations: Computer-based models of geographic
processes allow students to manipulate data and vari-
ables to explore and interact with virtual environments.
• Interactive Exercises: Learning activities and games
built off our presentation material give students an op-
portunity to test their understanding of key concepts
and explore additional visual resources.
• An online database of photographs, www.ConceptCach-
ing.com, allows professors and students to explore what
a physical feature looks like. Photographs and GPS coor-
dinates are “cached” and categorized along core concepts
of geography. Professors can access the images or submit
their own by visiting www.ConceptCaching.com.
• Instructor’s Manual. This manual includes chapter
overviews, lecture suggestions, and classroom activities.
Wiley Faculty Network
This peer-to-peer network of faculty is ready to support your
use of online course management tools and discipline-­specific
software/learning systems in the classroom. The Wiley Fac-
ulty Network will help you apply innovative classroom tech-
niques, implement software packages, tailor the technology
experience to the needs of each individual class, and provide
you with virtual training sessions led by faculty for faculty.
Student Companion Website (www.
wiley.com/college/arbogast)
This easy-to-use and student‑focused website helps re-
inforce and illustrate key concepts from the text. It also
provides interactive media content that helps students pre-
pare for tests and improve their grades. This website pro-
vides additional resources that complement the textbook
and enhance your students’ understanding of physical
geography:
• Flashcards offer an excellent way to drill and practice
key concepts, ideas, and terms from the text.
• The Geo Media Library allows students to explore key
concepts in greater depth using videos, animations, and
interactive exercises.
• Chapter Review Quizzes provide immediate feedback to
true/false, multiple-choice, and short-answer ­questions.
• Annotated Web Links put useful electronic resources
into context.
A Gu ide to the F eatures

DISCOVER…—This feature presents a pho- DISCOVER…

to and demonstrates how visual clues con-
tained within it can be used to “discover” the
character of the landscape or environment.
The goal of this feature is to make students
FA SCI NAT IN G CLO UDS AS SO CI ATED
WI TH T HUN DERS TO RMS
In addition to strong wind, lightning, and thunder, powerful
thunderstorms sometimes produce fascinating cloud pat-
terns diagnostic of distinct meteorological processes. One
such cloud formation is a shelf cloud like the one pictured

Mike Hollingshead / Science Source

here. A shelf cloud develops when a cold downdraft within a
storm surges outward along the ground after it reaches the

realize that there is more to the physical surface. As it does so, it lifts the relatively warm and moist
air ahead of the storm up to the level of condensation, form-

landscape than meets the eye, which will
hopefully spark their interest in what they see
ing this shelf-like feature. Such a cloud is often accompa-
nied by a cold gust front.
Another interesting and diagnostic cloud formation as-
sociated with thunderstorms is mammatus clouds. Also
known as mammatocumulus, which means “mammary

around them. cloud,” mammatus clouds look like pouches or lobes hang-

Tom Fleming/Photo Researchers/Getty Images

ing eerily upside down in the air like those shown here.
These clouds are usually found on the base of a spread-
ing anvil downwind of a large thunderstorm. Their forma-
tion is poorly understood but may be somehow related to
overturning pockets of colder air that descend into warmer
air at high altitudes. Although they are usually composed of
ice, they also contain liquid water and can seem translucent.
Mammatus clouds are more common during warm months
and are more often seen in the Midwest and the eastern
parts of the country.

Geo media library MULTIMEDIA—

Multimedia in every chapter explain to stu-
dents what they can expect to see and learn
as they interact with the simulations, ani-
mations, and videos on the text’s website.
­WileyPLUS also includes a variety of self-­
assessment questions for students.

www.wiley.com/college/arbogast

Formation of a Midlatitude Cyclone

We can now examine how the development of midlatitude cy-
clones occurs in an animated way by viewing the animation
Formation of a Midlatitude Cyclone. This module allows you
to see the process of cyclogenesis in motion. Figure 8.9 is the
foundation of this animation. As you watch the animation, follow
how an initial kink in the atmosphere evolves into a mature cy-
clone that spins counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
This animation will help you better understand how these sys-
tems and associated processes cause highly variable weather
when they migrate through a region. Once you have completed
the animation, be sure to answer the questions at the end of the
module to test your understanding of this concept.

• xv
KEY CONCEPTS TO
KEY CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER
­REMEMBER—This ­feature A B O U T A I R M A S S E S A N D F R O NTS
is an interim summary
that appears after specific 1. An air mass is a large body of air that has distinctive char-
­sections of the chapter to acteristics and forms in specific geographic regions.

help students check their 2. Five principal types of air masses affect North America.
Continental air masses include continental Polar (cP),
comprehension of the key
continental Arctic (cA), and continental Tropical (cT).
concepts covered. Maritime air masses are maritime Tropical (mT) and
maritime Polar (mP).
VISUAL CONCEPT
V I S U A L C O N C E PT C HE CK 3. Air masses have distinct boundaries called fronts. A
8.1
stationary front is a place where contrasting CHECK—To air massesprovide
This image shows temperature in the United
States. Where is the approximate location of
are flowing parallel to one another without students
one advanc- with a means of
ing into another. Direction of rotation
the cold front? Raindrops
moving away45 self-testing within the flow
a) Western Texas. from radar unit
50

b) Florida. 4. A warm front is an atmospheric feature

Raindrops
55
60 of chapterthat forms content,
Rain hook
Central
this
updraft
moving toward
c) It cuts across the states of Washington where warm radar unit air advances into relatively cool air. Warm
65

feature offersa a scenario

70
and Oregon.
air slowly slides over the top of the cooler air along
75
d) It extends from western Michigan to 80
85
central Texas.
warm front, causing slow and steady rainfall. with an illustration and
5. A cold front is an atmospheric feature that questions
forms where to test students’
cold air advances into NEXRADrelatively
radar
transmitter/receiver
warmunderstanding
air. Given the of key
Tornado
Hook echo
chapter concepts. Answers
(a) (b)
to the visual(c)concept
Figure 8.20 Doppler radar. (a) Doppler radar “sees” the rotation of a tornado because of the Doppler Effect, which, in this case,

checks appear means that at the end

reflects the variation in returning wave frequency from either side of the system. (b) The rotation of a tornado is displayed as a hook
echo on the computer screen. (c) A hook echo is indicative of aggressive cloud rotation, which usually a tornado is present.

of the chapter.
In contrast to conventional radar, which shows the intensity of
precipitation in any given storm, Doppler radar can detect both
rainfall patterns and the actual rotation of a tornado. It does
GLOSSARY—Key terms so by making use of the Doppler Effect, described first by the
19th-century physicist Christian Doppler, which states that
are set in boldface type in the frequency of energy waves generated by a moving source
changes relative to an observer.
A classic example of this effect is the sound a train
the text and defined at the makes as it approaches you. Have you ever noticed what hap-
pens? The pitch of the train’s whistle rises with the approach
the other side are rotating away because of the shift in en-
ergy frequency that occurs relative to each side of the twister
(Figure 8.20a). This rotation is seen by the meteorologist in the
weather laboratory as a distinct hook echo on the computer
screen (Figure 8.20b, c). If such a feature is identified, a tornado
warning is quickly issued for the area in the path of the storm
and people usually have sufficient time to seek shelter before
the storm strikes.

foot of the page for easy of the train and then lowers after it passes. Using this effect,
Doppler radar can determine that raindrops on one side of a
Hook echo The diagnostic feature in Doppler radar indicat-
ing that strong rotation is occurring within a thunderstorm and
tornado are moving toward the radar detector, while those on that tornado development is thus possible.
recognition and reference.

SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS www.wiley.com/college/arbogast SUMMARY OF KEY

1. An air mass is a large body of air that forms in specific
Tornadoes
the polar front jet stream at the 500-mb pressure level.
­CONCEPTS—The main
geographic regions and thus has distinctive character- As a cyclone spins, it pulls warm (mT) air up from the
istics. Five principal air masses affect North America. south onTornadoes
its easternare fascinating
side. natural
This warm, moistphenomena
air encoun-that are often points
interactive exercise, involving ofFujita
the Enhanced the chapter
scale, which are
Continental air masses include continental Polar (cP), ters coldcaught
air as on film bytostorm
it moves chasers
the north. and
The regularalso
cyclone citizens alike. To allows you to determine the strength of a tornado based on the
continental Arctic (cA), and continental Tropical (cT). The
maritime air masses are maritime Tropical (mT) and mari-
learn
pulls cold
side. This
The
air more
cold,
first dry
about from
(cP) down
partair
tornadoes,
of encounters
this modulewarm
view
the north onthe western Tornadoes.
its animation
air as it moves
demonstrates how tornadoes form
summarized.
damage it caused. After you interact with this module, be sure
to answer the questions at the end to test your understanding of
time Polar (mP). to the south.
and shows real storm video. The last part of the module is an this concept.
2. Air masses have distinct boundaries called fronts. At a 4. In general, the most severe midlatitude storms form along
stationary front, contrasting air masses are flowing par- strong cold fronts when warm, moist (mT) air ahead of
allel to one another. A warm front is a place where warm the front is rapidly forced aloft. Thunderstorms evolve in
Thunderstorms • 189
air is advancing into relatively cool air. Given that warm predictable stages, including the cumulus stage, mature
air slowly slides over the top of the cooler air along a stage, and dissipating stage, that are related to the up-
warm front, rainfall is slow and steady. A cold front is a ward and downward flow of air. The strongest storms as-
place where cold air is advancing into relatively warm air. sociated with midlatitude weather are tornadoes, which
Given the higher density of colder air, rainfall is intense are localized bodies of intense low pressure that develop
and of short duration along the front because warm air Arbo_03ed_c08_168-199hr.indd 189 supercell thunderstorms.
in association with 11/6/13 5:18 PM

cools quickly when it is rapidly forced aloft.

5. The strongest tropical storms are hurricanes, which
3. A midlatitude cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere spins develop when easterly waves strengthen beyond the
in a counterclockwise fashion as seen from above. These depression and tropical storm phases to produce sus-
atmospheric features develop when undulations form in tained winds greater than 63 knots (74 mph).

CHECK YOUR
C H E C K Y O U R U N D E R S TA N D I N G

1. Define an air mass. 7. What is the basic difference between a warm front and
UNDERSTANDING—Self-
2. What are the specific characteristics of an mT air mass,
and how do they differ from the characteristics of a cP
a cold front? Why is the term front used in association
with these concepts? assessment questions
air mass?

3. Which air mass is most likely to be associated with

8. Precipitation along a warm front is gradual and long-
lasting, whereas it is short-lived and often violent along at the end of the chapter
a cold front. Why does this difference exist?
precipitation—an mT air mass or a cP air mass? Why?
4. Discuss the evolution and migration of a midlatitude
9. Describe the evolution of a thunderstorm and the vari- allow students to test their
ous stages it goes through during its life cycle.
comprehension.
cyclone.
10. What is a downdraft, and why is it the first step in the
5. Why are midlatitude cyclones a mechanism through
dissipation of a thunderstorm?
which contrasting air masses are mixed?
11. Discuss the evolution of a hurricane in the Northern
6. How does the formation of an upper air trough at the
Hemisphere, including its various stages, movement,
500-mb level result in the development of a midlatitude
and relationship with ocean temperature.
cyclone?
 Brief Contents

1 Introduction to Physical Geography 2 12 Earth’s Internal Structure, Rock Cycle,

and Geologic Time 304
2 The Geographer’s Tools 12
13 Tectonic Processes and Landforms 332
3 Earth–Sun Geometry and
the Seasons 42 14 Weathering and Mass Movement 370

4 The Global Energy System 58 15 Groundwater and Karst

Landscapes 390
5 Global Temperature Patterns 84
16 Fluvial Systems and Landforms 408
6 Atmospheric Pressure, Wind, and
Global Circulation 104 17 Glacial Geomorphology: Processes and
Landforms 446
7 Atmospheric Moisture and
Precipitation 136 18 Arid Landscapes and Eolian
Processes 478
8 Air Masses and Cyclonic Weather
Systems 168 19 Coastal Processes and Landforms 504

9 Global Climates and Global Climate 20 Relevance of Physical Geography to

Change 200 Environmental Issues 536

10 Plant Geography 234

11 The Global Distribution and

Character of Soils 264

• xvii
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

1   Introduction to Physical Global Positioning Systems 37

Geography 2
The Scope of Geography 4
Defining Physical Geography 5
The Earth’s Four Spheres 7
Organization of This Book 8
Exploring Cause-and-Effect Relationships
­Holistically 9
Emphasis on Human Interactions with the
­Environment 10
Geo Media Library: An Interactive Tool
Focus on Geographical Literacy 10
Physical Geography Is Interesting, Exciting, and
Very Relevant to Your Life 11
Geo Media Library: Stream Meandering
2 The Geographer’s Tools 12
The Geographic Grid 14
Latitude 15
Geographic Information Systems 39
Geo Media Library: Using a Geographic
Information System 39
3 Earth–Sun Geometry and the
Seasons 42
Our Place in Space 44
The Shape of Earth 44
Earth’s Orbit Around the Sun 45
10 The Earth’s Rotation and Axial Tilt 47
The Seasons 50
50
Solstice and Equinox
Human Interactions: How We See
11 Earth–Sun Geometry on Earth 53
Day and Night 53
Geo Media Library: Orbital View and Earth as
Viewed from the Sun 54
Seasonal Changes in Sun Position (Angle) and
Length of Day 54

Longitude 17 Geo Media Library: Celestial Dome 56

Using the Geographic Grid 19 Geo Media Library: Sun Angle and Length of
Day 56
Human Interactions: The United States Public
Geo Media Library: Earth–Sun Geometry and
Land Survey 19
­Ancient Humans 56
Geo Media Library: Using the Geographic
Grid 19
Maps—The Basic Tool of 4 The Global Energy System 58
Geographers 22
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and
Map Projections 23 ­Solar Energy 60
Map Scale 27 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 60
Isolines 29 Solar Energy and the Solar Constant 61
31
Geo Media Library: Using Maps Geo Media Library: The Electromagnetic
Digital Technology in Geography 32 ­Spectrum 62
Remote Sensing 32 Composition of the Atmosphere 62

• xix
 Constant Gases 63 106
Factors That Influence Air Pressure
Variable Gases 63 Measuring and Mapping Air Pressure 107
Particulates 69 Atmospheric Pressure Systems 108
The Flow of Solar Radiation Low-Pressure Systems 108
on Earth 70 High-Pressure Systems 108
Heat Transfer 70 The Direction of Airflow 110
Flow of Solar Radiation in the ­Atmosphere 71 Unequal Heating of Land Surfaces 110
Interaction of Solar Radiation and the Earth’s Pressure Gradient Force 111
Surface 74
Coriolis Force 112
Geo Media Library: The Angle of Incidence 75
Geo Media Library: Fluctuations in the Pressure
The Global Radiation Budget 76 Gradient 113
Geo Media Library: The Global Energy Geo Media Library: The Coriolis Force 114
­Budget 77
Frictional Forces 114
Human Interactions: Solar Energy
Global Pressure and Atmospheric
­Production 80
­Circulation 116
Tropical Circulation 116
Midlatitude Circulation 119
5 Global Temperature Patterns 84
Polar Circulation 122
Layered Structure of the Geo Media Library: Global Atmospheric
­Atmosphere 86 ­Circulation 123
The Troposphere 86 123
Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems
The Stratosphere 88 Geo Media Library: The Asian Monsoon 124
The Mesosphere 88 Geo Media Library: Global Atmospheric
The Thermosphere 88 Circulation and Water Vapor Movement 125
Surface and Air Temperatures 89 Human Interactions: Harnessing Wind
Human Interactions: Calculating the Heat Index Energy 125
and Wind Chill 90 Local Wind Systems 128
Large-Scale Geographic Factors That Influence Land–Sea Breezes 128
Air Temperature 90 Topographic Winds 129
Local Factors That Influence Air
Oceanic Circulation 130
­Temperature 93
Gyres and Thermohaline Circulation 130
Geo Media Library: Surface Temperature 96
El Niño 133
Geo Media Library: Maritime vs. Continental
­Effect 98 Geo Media Library: El Niño 134

The Annual Range of Surface ­Temperature

(A Holistic Assessment) 98
7 Atmospheric Moisture and
Geo Media Library: Global Temperature
­Patterns 100
­Precipitation 136
Human Interactions: Urban Heat Physical Properties of Water 138
­Islands 101 Hydrogen Bonding 138
Geo Media Library: Temperature and Thermal Properties of Water and Its Physical
­Location 102 States 138
140
Geo Media Library: Latent Heat
The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic
6 Atmospheric ­Pressure, Wind, and Cycle 140
Global Circulation 104
Humidity 142
Atmospheric Pressure 106 Maximum, Specific, and Relative ­Humidity 142
xx • Contents
 Dew-Point Temperature 145
Geo Media Library: Atmospheric
Humidity 147
Evaporation 148
Adiabatic Processes 149
The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Geo Media Library: Adiabatic Processes
The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Cloud Formation and
­Classification 152
Cloud Classification 153
Fog 153
Precipitation 156
Types of Precipitation 156
Precipitation Processes 156
Geo Media Library: Orographic
Processes 161
Geo Media Library: Convectional
­Precipitation 164
Human Interactions: Drought in the U.S.
Farm Belt 164
8 Air Masses and Cyclonic
Weather Systems 168
Air Masses and Fronts 170
Air Masses 170
Fronts 170
Evolution and Character
of Midlatitude Cyclones 173
Upper Airflow and the 500-mb
Pressure Surface 174
Interaction of Upper Airflow
and Surface Airflow 176
Cyclogenesis 177
Geo Media Library: Formation of a Midlatitude
Cyclone 179
Geo Media Library: Migration of a Midlatitude
Cyclone 180
Thunderstorms 180
Evolution of Thunderstorms
Geo Media Library: Formation of
­Thunderstorms 182
Severe Thunderstorms 182
Tornadoes 184
Geo Media Library: Tornadoes
Tropical Cyclones 190
Hurricanes 190
Human Interactions: Coping with Destructive
Hurricanes 192
Geo Media Library: Tracks of Hurricane Katrina
and Hurricane Sandy 194
9 Global Climates and Global Climate
149
Change 200
151
151 Climate and the Factors That Affect It 202
Köppen Climate Classification 203
Geography of Köppen Climates 207
Tropical (A) Climates 207
Arid and Semi-Arid (B) Climates 208
Geo Media Library: Tropical Savanna Climate
(Aw) 208
Mesothermal (C) Climates 211
Geo Media Library: Humid Subtropical
Hot-­Summer Climate (Cfa, Cwa) 213
Geo Media Library: Marine West-Coast Climates
(Cfb, Cfc) 214
Microthermal (D) Climates 214
Polar (E) Climates 215
Highland (H) Climates 216
Geo Media Library: Global Climates 217
Geo Media Library: Remote Sensing and
­Climate 217
Reconstructing Past Climates 217
Pollen Records 218
Tree Ring Patterns 219
Ice Core Analysis 221
Geo Media Library: Reconstructing Past
Climates Using Oxygen Isotopes 224
Causes of Past Climate
Change 224
Geo Media Library: The Milankovitch
Theory 225
Human Interactions and Future ­Climate
Change 226
The Carbon Cycle 227
Is Anthropogenic Climate Change ­Really
­Occurring? 229
180
Predicting Future Climate Change 230
Geo Media Library: The Greenhouse Effect and
Global Climate Change 231
189 10 Plant Geography 234
Ecosystems and Biogeography 236
The Process of Photosynthesis 237
Contents • xxi
 Geo Media Library: Photosynthesis and 12 Earth’s Internal ­Structure, Rock Cycle,
­Respiration 240 and Geologic Time 304
The Relationship of Climate and
Earth’s Inner Structure 306
­Vegetation: The Character and
­Distribution of Global Biomes 241 The Major Layers 306
Forest Biomes 243 Rocks and Minerals in
Grassland Biomes 247
the Earth’s Crust 310
Igneous Rocks 311
Desert Biomes 249
Tundra Biome 250 Geo Media Library: Identification of Igneous
­Environments 312
Local and Regional Factors
Sedimentary Rocks 313
That Influence the Geographic
Distribution of Vegetation 251 Geo Media Library: Clastic Rocks 316
Slope and Aspect 251
The Rock Cycle 320
Vertical Zonation 252
Geo Media Library: The Rock Cycle 321
Plant Succession 254 Geologic Time 322
Riparian Zones 254 Geo Media Library: Geologic Time 324
Geo Media Library: Plant Succession 255 “Telling” Geologic Time 324
Human Interactions: Human ­Influence Putting Geologic Time in Perspective 324
on Vegetation Patterns 255 A Holistic View of Geologic Time and the Rock
Cycle: The Grand Canyon and the Spanish
Deforestation 256
Peaks of Colorado 325
Agriculture in the Midlatitude
Grassland Biome 259 Human Interactions with Geologic Time:
Geo Media Library: Deforestation 259 The Anthropocene 328
Overgrazing 260
Geo Media Library: Remote Sensing and the 13 Tectonic Processes and
­Biosphere 261 ­Landforms 332
11 The Global ­Distribution and ­Character Plate Tectonics 334
of Soils 264 The Lithospheric Plates 334
What Is Soil? 266 Plate Movement 335
266
Basic Soil Properties Geo Media Library: Continental Drift 337
Soil-Forming (Pedogenic) Processes 268 Types of Plate Movements 338
Soil-Forming Factors 271 Passive Margins 338
Measurable Soil Characteristics 275 Transform Plate Margins 338
Soil Chemistry 278 Plate Divergence 339
Soil pH 278 Plate Convergence 340
Colloids and Cation Exchange 279 Geo Media Library: Folding 347
Geo Media Library: Soil Colloids and pH 280 Geo Media Library: Plate Tectonics 347
Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil) 280 Earthquakes 348
Time and Soil Evolution 282 Seismic Processes 348
Geo Media Library: Soil Horizon Human Interactions: Earthquakes as
­Development 283 Natural Hazards 353
Soil Science and Classification 283 Geo Media Library: Types of Faults 360
The Twelve Soil Orders 284
Volcanoes 360
Geo Media Library: African Climate, Vegetation,
Explosive Volcanoes 361
and Soils 290
Geo Media Library: Walk the Pacific Ring of
Geo Media Library: Regional Pedogenic
­Processes 296 Fire 363
Geo Media Library: North American Climate, Fluid Volcanoes 364
­Vegetation, and Soils 297 Hotspots 365
Human Interactions with Soils 299 Geo Media Library: Volcanoes 368
xxii • Contents
14 Weathering and Mass Geo Media Library: Bedload Transport and
­Movement 370 Braided Streams 423
Geo Media Library: The Graded Stream 425
Weathering 372
Evolution of Stream Valleys
Mechanical Weathering 373 and Floodplains 427
Chemical Weathering 375 Geo Media Library: Stream Meandering 428
Human Interactions: Acid Rain 379 Geo Media Library: Fluvial Geomorphology and
Geo Media Library: Weathering 380 Stream ­Processes 429

Mass Wasting 381 Human Interactions with Streams 438

Rockfall 382 Urbanization 438
Artificial Levees 439
Soil Creep 383
Dams and Reservoirs 440
Landslides 384
Flows 385
17 Glacial Geomorphology: Processes
Avalanches 386
and Landforms 446
Geo Media Library: Weathering and Mass
­Movements 387 Development of a Glacier 448
The Metamorphosis of
15 Groundwater and Karst Snow to Glacial Ice 448
­Landscapes 390 The Glacial Mass Budget 449
Geo Media Library: The Glacial Mass
Movement and Storage Budget 450
of ­Groundwater 392 Glacial Movement 450
Human Interactions Types of Glaciers 452
with ­Groundwater 395 Glaciers in Mountainous Regions 452
The High Plains Aquifer 395 Geo Media Library: Glaciers in the Cascade
Subsidence 400 ­Mountains 455
Groundwater Contamination 400 455
Continental Glaciers
Geo Media Library: Hydrologic Cycle and Glacial Landforms 456
Groundwater 402 Landforms Made by Glacial Erosion 457
Karst Landforms and Landscapes 402 Deposition of Glacial Drift
Caves and Caverns 402 and Resulting Landforms 461
Karst Topography 404 Geo Media Library: Depositional Glacial
­Landforms 465
History of Glaciation on Earth 465
16 Fluvial Systems and Landforms 408
The Wisconsin Glaciation and Evolution of the
Overland Flow and Drainage Great Lakes 467
­Basins 410 Probable Human Impact
Origin of Streams 410 on Glaciers 470
Drainage Basins 411 Geo Media Library: Glaciers and Climate
Drainage Patterns, Density, Change 472
and Stream Ordering 413 Periglacial Processes
Geo Media Library: The Rhine River 415 and Landscapes 473
Hydraulic Geometry Permafrost 474
and Channel Flow 416 Ground Ice and Associated Landforms 475
Fluctuations in Stream Discharge 416
Fluvial Processes 18 Arid Landscapes and Eolian
and Landforms 420 ­Processes 478
Erosion and Deposition 420 Arid Landscapes 480
Stream Gradation 422 Desert Geomorphology 480
Contents • xxiii
 Eolian Erosion and Transport 485 20 Relevance of Physical Geography to
The Fluid Behavior of Wind, Erosion, and Environmental Issues 536
Sediment Transport 485
A Short History of
Eolian Deposition Human Population 538
and Landforms 488
Technological Development and ­Population
Airflow and the Formation Growth 538
of Sand Dunes 488
The Impact of Growing
Classification of Sand Dunes Human Population on
and Related Landforms 491 the Natural Environment 539
Deposition of Windblown Dust 493 Case 1: Water Issues in the Arid
Geo Media Library: Eolian Processes and American Southwest 542
­Landforms 497
Establishing Water Rights 543
Human Interactions Will Water Supplies Disappear? 544
with Arid Landscapes
A Drought-Prone Future? 547
and Eolian Processes 497
Desertification in the African
Case 2: Soil Salinization in
Sahel 498 Arid and Semi-Arid Lands 548
Desertification in the Great Plains of the United Ancient Sumeria 550
States: The Dust Bowl 500 The Current Global Extent
of Salinization 551
The San Joaquin Valley in
19 Coastal Processes and California 552
­Landforms 504
Australia 555
Oceans and Seas on Earth 506 The Challenge of Sustainable ­Agriculture in Semi-
Arid and Arid Regions 558
The Nature of Coastlines:
Intersection of Earth’s Spheres 507 Case 3: Developing ­Unconventional Oil
Processes That Shape the Coastline 507 Supplies in North America 558
Geo Media Library: Tides 513 Oil Supply, Demand, and Geography 558
Developing Unconventional
Coastal Landforms 515
Sources of Oil 560
Erosional Coastlines 515
Is the Environment Threatened
Geo Media Library: Waves and Coastal by Fracking? 562
­Erosion 519
Case 4: Giant Panda ­Conservation in
Depositional Coastlines 519
China 565
Geo Media Library: Longshore Processes and
The Wolong Nature Reserve 567
Depositional Coastlines 525
Human Interactions with
­Coastlines 529
Coastal Engineering 530
Global Climate Change and the Impact on
   Glossary 573
Coastlines 532
Geo Media Library: Evolution of the Louisiana
Coastline 534    Index 586

xxiv • Contents
DISCOVERING
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Third Edition
 INTRODUCTION TO
C H A P T E R O N E
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

I want to welcome you to this introductory textbook about physical geography, an exciting scientific discipline that
examines the Earth and how it functions. Physical geographers study a wide variety of interesting things, ranging
from climate and weather to soils, glaciers, and beaches, to name just a few. Their purpose is to understand the
location and character of certain features on the landscape, such as mountain ranges and river valleys, and to
explain why they came to be and how they differ from a geographical perspective. This text seeks to encapsulate
the essence of physical geography in a way that is appropriate for a beginning student of the discipline such as
yourself. As you read through it, your first goal should be to investigate the various physical processes on Earth
and how they operate and combine to form distinctive geographical features and patterns. At a secondary level,
you will be asked to examine how aspects of physical geography affect human lives and, in turn, how people im-
pact them. This opening chapter outlines the topics discussed in this book and places them in the context of the
overall discipline of geography. Then we discuss the various components and features of the book and how they
will assist with your learning.

2 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Physical Geography

 Kyu Oh/Getty Images

This view of Mt. Hood in Oregon reflects many geographical processes discussed in this text, including the character of
the atmosphere, how water is stored and flows within the hydrosphere, the role of climate and its impact on vegetation,
and the way landscapes evolve over time.

CHAPTER PREVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The Scope of Geography 1. Comprehend the character and scope of geography

as a scientific discipline.
Defining Physical Geography 2. Discuss the concept of spatial analysis and how it
­relates to geography.
Organization of This Book 3. Define the subdisciplines of physical geography.
Stream Meandering 4. Explain the concept of a natural system.
5. Define the four Earth spheres.
6. Describe how the scientific method is used in ­physical
geography.
7. Discuss why physical geography is relevant to many
human/environment issues.

The Scope of Geography • 3

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “A good riddance of bad rubbish,” said Ned contemptuously; “if
there’s anything I loathe in this world it’s an eavesdropper. There’s
only one thing worse, and that’s a religious hypocrite.”
“I only hope he didn’t hear you call him a mean spy-cat, Ned,” I
said, anxiously regarding my coxswain.
“Bless your young heart, sir, I don’t care a snap of the fingers if he
did or not. He can’t do me more harm than he has already, I take it.”
“I wouldn’t give him the chance if I were you, my man,” said Mr.
Triggs in a low tone. “For the future we’d best just talk in whispers,
for that swab is sure to be up to his spy-catting tricks again from time
to time.”
This was good advice, and we determined that we would follow it.
At about the hour of sunset, Miguel brought us our supper of
porridge; but he made no reference to the late episode, and indeed
did not vouchsafe to utter a word, good, bad, or indifferent. We did
not at all object to his taciturnity, but ate our suppers with as good an
appetite as we could muster up—certainly with many wry faces on
my part. Even Ned allowed that the hominy and rancid butter wasn’t
a patch on the salt fish and rice.
We were kept well supplied with water, a pannikin being always
near us.
The sun went down, and our prison-deck became wrapped in
gloom. It seemed as if night was to be ushered in by the baying of
bloodhounds, for I distinctly heard a mournful chorus from those
four-footed man-hunters, which was kept up for some little time. Ned
was very superstitious about this, and declared that the Irish
“banshee” was nothing to it.
Soon after darkness fell a couple of armed sentries arrived to
mount guard over us. For the greater part of the time they marched
up and down with rifles in their hands; but occasionally they sat
down upon the deck within easy reach of us, smoked bad cigarettes,
and played at dominoes. They were relieved at intervals, I believe;
but I slept very soundly, strange to say, and was hardly cognizant of
what went forward during the night hours.
 I was awoke in the early hours of the morning by a chorus of
shouts and angry yells, and a grinding and buffeting noise and
vibration which seemed to shake our little vessel violently from her
cutwater to her stern-post.
“We’ve struck on a rock, I’m afraid!” cried the gunner, starting up in
great alarm. “I hope, if the vessel begins to sink, they’ll knock off our
manacles in time to give us a chance for our lives.”
“Maybe ’tis a collision,” said Ned, “and that would be as bad
perhaps. I take it these furriners are only fair-weather sailors at the
best of times.”
Our guards had rushed on deck at the first sound of alarm.
At this moment the crash of a volley of musketry rang out above
the confused din on deck. Then we heard shrieks and yells of agony
mingled with the shouts of commanding voices and the baying of the
bloodhounds.
We exchanged glances of astonishment and horror.
“Didn’t I say they were pirates?” exclaimed Mr. Triggs in an excited
tone of voice. “This proves it. There is no need to be on deck to
watch their villanous deeds, for ’tis all as plain as a pikestaff. We’ve
run alongside some merchant vessel, and these precious scamps
are going to board and take possession of her.”
I clung to the hope that the other vessel was the attacking one,
and might prove to be a Spanish man-of-war or revenue boat; but I
could not help feeling that the gunner was most likely correct in his
conjecture.
Without doubt we were in the hands of lawless, bloodthirsty
pirates.
A brisk fire of musketry was being kept up, and now and again I
distinguished the sharp crack of pistols and the clash of steel. The
shouts and yells of the contending parties were indescribable, so
prolonged and violent were they. The fight was evidently a desperate
one.
 The grinding and buffeting noise still continued as if the two
vessels were lashed to each other pending the issue of the conflict.
We listened intently for every sound, exchanging remarks now and
again in awestruck, subdued whispers.
At times we thought we could distinguish the voice of the chief
ringing out like a brazen trumpet, as he directed the operations of his
followers. To my surprise, no guns were fired from the upper deck,
although, in my hasty glance around, when I was carried on board, I
had noticed that the brig was provided with some sort of armament.
Presently the shouts and yells of the combatants grew fainter, as
also did the rolling reports of the musketry and the sharp, spiteful
cracks of the death-dealing pistols.
“The pirates have boarded ’em, poor chaps,” said the gunner;
“there can be no doubt about that. The fight is being carried on
aboard t’other craft now.”
“God help ’em if they gets the worst of it, poor chaps!” said Ned; “I
don’t believe they’d get quarter from men like Miguel and his mates.”
At this moment a piercing shriek rent the air, followed by a dead
silence which lasted for some seconds. Then we heard loud hails,
apparently from a distance, and answering shouts from some one on
board our brig. This was immediately followed by some orders given
in a piercing voice by an officer on deck.
A rush of men’s feet—a rattling of ropes and blocks—a steady
tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp.
“Bracing up the yards,” said Mr. Triggs, “and altering course to
close t’other craft, which has shot clear of us somehow. That shriek
haunts me, shipmates, and I’m afraid it meant some deed of infamy.”
There was no doubt that the gunner was quite correct as to the
two vessels having in some way swung clear of each other, for we
had noticed for some little time that the two hulls were no longer
clashing and colliding together.
“Well, I’d give summat to be on deck and to see what’s going
forward!” exclaimed Ned impatiently; “and what’s more, I’d like to be
striking a blow for those poor chaps what’s in danger of losing their
vessel.”
Bump, bump, bump! The two ships were evidently alongside each
other once more. We heard shots, the creaking of spars, and the
rattling of cordage, but no sounds of conflict.
The fight had evidently been settled the one way or the other.
A few minutes later, the chief, with a look of animal ferocity
gleaming from his sombre eyes, came slowly down the ladder. He
had a bloodstained bandage around his head, and walked with a
limp. Close at his heels stalked his bloodhound, which had evidently
lost an ear in the fray.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
THE PIRATES’ ISLAND.

W HAT the chief’s intention was in seeking us I do not know, for

before he had reached our side of the ship he turned livid,
swayed heavily forward, and fell prone upon the deck, evidently in an
unconscious state.
“The fellow has fainted from loss of blood,” exclaimed the gunner;
“what shall we do?”
“Rather a good job he has, I take it,” said Ned with great
complacency; “for he looked mighty vicious as he came down the
ladder, as if he hadn’t half slaked his thirst for slaughter.”
The bloodhound seemed much concerned at the mishap that had
occurred to its master. For a few seconds it stood and glared at us
ferociously, as if convinced that we were in some way responsible for
what had happened. Its bristles were erect upon its back, and, in the
semi-darkness of the lower deck, its eyes glowed like red-hot coals,
whilst blood oozed from its shred of a mutilated ear and dripped
upon the deck. It flashed across my mind for a moment that the great
beast was going to spring upon us like a tiger upon its prey, and that
with our legs in irons we should be in a very awkward predicament;
but to my immense relief the savage animal at that moment sat down
beside its master, and throwing back its massive head with a jerk,
gave vent to a loud and most pathetic howl.
“If that dogerwauling don’t bring some of the swabs tumbling down
the hatchway, smash my top-lights if anything will!” observed Ned;
“’tis the most onnatural shindy that ever I came across by a long
chalk.”
My coxswain was right. The dog had just lifted his head for
another ear-piercing howl, when a confused hubbub of voices was
heard at the top of the hatchway, and the next moment Miguel and
two or three other swarthy fellows came rushing down the ladder in a
reckless manner, evidently very perturbed in mind.
They were all talking at once, vociferating at the top of their voices,
and gesticulating wildly. All were armed, and bore unmistakable
traces of the late fray.
“Your boss has fainted from loss of blood, I reckon,” said Ned,
pointing out the chief’s motionless recumbent form to Miguel. “He
suddenly fell down as if he had been shot.”
Miguel made some surly rejoinder, the meaning of which we did
not catch. Then he made a sign to his comrades, and together they
stooped and raised their leader’s apparently lifeless body, and bore it
swiftly up the companion ladder, closely followed by the bloodhound.
“I wonder if he’s dead,” I remarked in an awestruck voice as soon
as they were out of sight. “He may have suffered from heart disease,
and the excitement of the battle may have brought on an attack.”
“That’s possible,” said Mr. Triggs; “but it’s much more likely to be
the effect of the wound in his head, which, I expect, was more
serious than he thought.”
Soon after this occurrence Miguel brought us some breakfast of
coffee and brown bread. As the reader may suppose, we did our
best to wheedle some information out of him; but he was even more
taciturn than usual, and would not deign to respond to our questions.
An admirable spy and an admirable jailer, was he not?
Before we had finished our meagre breakfast, we knew that the
two vessels were no longer alongside each other, and that our brig
was cleaving her way through the waves again as if nothing out of
the common had happened. She had doubtless been brought to her
course again; but what of the captured craft? Had a prize crew been
put on board, and was she accompanying us on our mysterious
voyage? We came to the conclusion that this must be so; for there
had been no time to transfer her cargo to the deck of the brig, and
the pirates would not have scuttled her without performing this very
necessary operation.
 We were now very careful not to talk on subjects that might be
considered treasonable by our captors, for fear of being overheard. I
managed, by great good fortune, to sleep away a good many hours
of this particular day, which was an uncommonly hot one. The pain in
my head from which I had suffered so much on the two previous
days had now entirely disappeared, but the place where I had been
struck by the miscreant’s pistol was still swollen and sore. For this
latter misfortune, however, I cared but little.
It was about the hour of sunset that Mr. Triggs aroused me from a
fitful slumber into which I had fallen.
“Wake up, Mr. Darcy,” he said; “we’ve come to an anchor.”
I was keenly on the alert in a moment. At anchor! Yes, but where?
Of course, I had been expecting to hear the news at any moment;
and yet, when it came, it gave me a sort of electric shock.
The brig was lying steadily upon the water. I heard the last links of
her cable rumbling out of the hawse-hole. Yes, we were at anchor.
A half-hour of anxious suspense followed, during which we hardly
spoke. I felt very despondent, and so, judging from their looks, did
my companions. Then heavy footsteps resounded on the deck
above us, and half a dozen armed men—one with his left arm in a
sling, and another with a bandaged head—descended the
companion ladder, bringing tools with them wherewith to release us
from our manacles.
This latter operation did not take long, and our guards then
secured our wrists with stout twine and led us on deck. How thankful
I was that they did not blindfold us.
The chief was on his quarter-deck, looking rather haggard. His
head was still bandaged, but was surmounted by a very large broad-
brimmed felt hat. He was armed with his sword and silver-mounted
pistols; and grouped about him were some of his principal followers,
several of whom had evidently not come scathless out of the late
affray. I noticed that upon the upper deck the brig carried six small
brass guns, and abaft all, under a small poop, were stands for rifles
and side-arms. I took all this in with a hasty glance, and then
hurriedly turned my attention to the long, low stretch of land which
was just visible over the port bulwarks.
Was it an island?
I was just debating this point in my mind, and trying to obtain a
clearer view of the brig’s surroundings, and to see if there was
another vessel with us, when I received a severe blow upon the back
from a sheathed sword.
Turning hastily to ascertain who my cowardly assailant was, I
found that it was Miguel, whose face wore its usual malevolent smile.
“Keep eye shut,” he said significantly, “or you get your troat cut,
like plentee moch of ze udder Ingleeshmans!”
I considered that this was a delicate hint worth taking, for I had no
wish to be put out of the way, or even blindfolded. So I cast my eyes
sheepishly to the deck, and answered not a word.
But I very quickly had fresh opportunities of using my powers of
observation. The chief issued some order, and we were at once
marched to the entry-port by our guard, and conveyed down the side
into a large cutter-shaped boat which lay alongside, manned by half
a dozen of the brig’s crew. We were placed in the stern-sheets; and I
had no sooner taken my seat there than my eye fell on a topsail
schooner lying at anchor a few cable-lengths ahead of our own
vessel. Everything on board her looked in great disorder, and I
noticed that some of her rigging was shot away and hanging in
bights, while her sails were loosely flapping about, and her yards and
gaffs at all sorts of queer angles. I heard a confused hubbub of
voices proceeding from her upper deck, but could not see the
speakers owing to the schooner’s very lofty bulwarks.
“Yonder is the prize,” whispered Ned to me; “and a taut little craft
she looks.”
I could not answer him, for I saw Miguel’s glittering eyes upon me.
I gave my coxswain a warning nudge, and at the same moment the
order was given to shove the boat off.
 The oars splashed into the water, our bows were turned towards
the land, and the crew struck up some kind of a boat-song with a
weird refrain.
The chief and some of his followers remained on board the brig,
but I fancied that they were preparing to follow in another boat.
There was a dead calm on the sea. The surface was like a mirror,
unruffled by the faintest zephyr of a catspaw. The sky in the west
was aflame with the ruby tints of sunset, fading away above in
delicate gradations of colour into topaz, aquamarine, and pale
sapphire; while faint bars of amethyst cloud, edged with gold,
seemed to hover above the horizon line, as if preparing to follow the
sun on his nightly journey. The exquisite sky-tints were reflected in
the motionless ocean mirror in tender shades of colouring.
I thought of my messmate Fitzgerald, and how he would have
raved about this fairy-like scene; then my mind reverted to my chum,
Charlie Balfour, lying wounded on board the Rattler, and I wondered
if he would be told of my disappearance. Again my thoughts travelled
across the broad seas, and concentrated themselves on my happy
home in the old country; and with tears gathering in my eyes I found
myself muttering a prayer to the Creator of the universe, that those
near and dear to me might never know the painful particulars of my
capture and captivity.
I strove to shake off these gloomy thoughts, and turned my
attention to the island we were now fast approaching.
I could not be certain whether what I saw before me was an island;
but it had every appearance of being so, and I felt sure that we had
not sailed far enough to reach the coast of Central America. An
exuberant tropical vegetation seemed to cover the low hills, and the
shore was fringed with dense groves of palm trees, some of the
latter appearing almost to kiss the waves with their great drooping
fronds. I saw no signs of any inhabitants, or of buildings of any kind,
nor could I detect any traces of cultivated land. As we drew inshore,
however, I noticed that there were numerous outlying cayos, as they
are called in these seas, or coral reefs, covered with exquisite
verdure. To thread one’s way in a boat through these labyrinths of
tiny West Indian islets is often an operation requiring great skill and
nerve, and a thorough knowledge of the winding channels.
The world looked beautiful, bright, and happy, and as if wrapped in
a sublime repose. How strange it seemed that we should form part of
such a fair scene! A band of bloodthirsty pirates, their souls black
with recent crime, were indeed an incongruity in such a picture.
I glanced at them for a moment. Their swarthy, unprepossessing
faces were positively irradiated with the fast-fading roseate tints of
the western sky, but even that could not redeem them. They were
stamped too legibly with the brand of their evil passions.
I had for a long time felt convinced that our captors had no
connection with the Cuban insurgents, or with the mutineers of the
Flying-fish. There could be no doubt that Mr. Triggs had surmised
rightly, and that they were pirates first and smugglers afterwards. It
was merely a coincidence that their great cave happened to be not
far distant from our line of march; and undoubtedly our reliable spies
had mistaken them for a body of insurgents, and had so led us
astray. The pirates’ reason for kidnapping us, of course, I could not
fathom. It remained a mystery.
We threaded our way carefully through the cayos, and presently I
noticed that we were approaching what appeared to be a narrow but
fairly deep lagoon, fringed with mangrove bushes, and overhung with
clumps of tall feathery bamboos, and picturesque palm trees. Flocks
of sea-birds, which had apparently been fishing, rose into the air with
shrill screams of protest as we approached, and then winged their
way seawards.
The boat’s crew had ceased their wild singing, and now began to
pull rather leisurely, the oars dipping very irregularly in and out of the
placid waters.
In a few minutes we were gliding up the lagoon, which seemed to
teem with fish. I noticed that two or three cranes were standing in a
watchful attitude in the shallows, and that kingfishers and several
kinds of waterfowl were seeking the shelter of the mangrove-studded
banks. Far above our heads soared a frigate pelican.
 A rude pier, constructed of roughly-hewn logs of wood, now came
into view, and the boat was steered directly for it. The steersman
gave a loud and very peculiar shout, which echoed with weird effect
among the trees, and seemed to die away in mocking laughter on
the slopes of the more distant hills.
Two dark alert-looking figures almost immediately emerged from a
grove of trees near the head of the pier, and gave a shrill answering
shout, at the same time moving forward rapidly in the direction of the
boat. It was now getting dusk, and I could not distinguish them
clearly, as the triumphant glories of the sunset sky were fast fading in
the western heavens.
Amid much jabbering and inane laughter on the part of the crew,
we glided alongside the pier. I just had time to notice that one of the
men who stood there to receive us was old, and wore a grey pointed
beard, although his figure was erect and military-looking. The next
instant, we were hustled out of the boat by our guards, and marched
off without any delay towards the head of the pier. I had time to
notice that four men remained in the boat, and that these fellows
promptly pushed off into deep water, as if with the intention of pulling
off to the brig again for a fresh consignment of passengers.
The two men who had awaited our advent at the pier accompanied
us on our march, and I saw them look at us keenly, and heard them
asking innumerable questions in a very surprised tone of voice,
evidently pumping our captors as to our identity and nationality.
Miguel was the one who principally took upon himself to answer
these queries.
On quitting the rude pier we struck off by an upward gradient on a
broad but roughly-constructed path leading through a grove of palm
trees. The atmosphere here was hot and close, although the sun had
set, and mosquitoes and other insects seemed to swarm in myriads
and caused us much annoyance. The shades of evening were
gathering fast, and the pirates stepped out briskly as if afraid of
being benighted. They were, of course, well armed, and kept a
watchful eye on us, having orders, no doubt, to shoot us dead should
we make the slightest attempt to escape.
 I fancied that both Mr. Triggs and my coxswain looked less
anxious than they had done on board the brig. They were marching
just in front of me, and now and again I caught a hasty glimpse of
their faces.
To our great relief, we soon emerged from the palm-grove, and
found ourselves on a small open savannah of natural turf. On the
right hand it sloped away rather abruptly to a sheet of water which
was either a long narrow lake, or the upper strip of the salt water
lagoon that we had just quitted. Its dark waters were only visible here
and there through vistas in the trees that studded the savannah, but I
could see that they swarmed with waterfowl. I found myself
wondering whether the pirates’ brig could be towed through the
outlying cayos into the outer and deeper waters of the lagoon. As the
island seemed to possess no harbour, the brig would otherwise have
to remain in the open roadstead, and run the risk of being perceived
by passing vessels.
The track we were following wound up over the upper slopes of
the savannah, and had evidently been trodden by many feet from
time to time. On our left hand, at the distance of about a hundred
yards, was a belt of somewhat stunted jungle; and beyond the upper
boundary was a precipitous escarpment of rocks and boulders,
amidst which clumps of brushwood and tussocks of long coarse
grass seemed to find soil enough to flourish in. Above these, again,
were other gentle slopes, clothed with trees, terminating in a long,
level, arid-looking ridge destitute of any vegetation, which was
doubtless the backbone of the island.
As we toiled up over the savannah, we came upon the first signs
of a human habitation which we had seen. This was a long low
dwelling with mud walls, and a roof of the flimsiest description
thatched with dried grass. Around the building were a few banana,
bread-fruit, and guava trees; and in front was a large patch of
cultivated ground containing yams and sweet potatoes, which was
being lazily hoed by two sleek-looking and nearly nude negroes. In
the doorway of the house a stout negress, arrayed in a flaring cotton
dress, was seated, nursing a pickaninny, and singing softly to herself
the refrain of some African cradle-song. I noticed the start of
astonishment this black trio gave when their eyes fell upon us. The
negroes ceased working, and leaning upon their hoes stared at us
as if their great rolling black orbs were going to drop out of their
sockets; and the negress, starting to her feet, and placing her baby
in a sort of rude hammock, which was slung under a couple of fruit
trees, waddled toward us with her arms akimbo, and her full-moon
face expressive of the greatest astonishment.
The scene changed in a twinkling, for Miguel and some of his
choice companions attacked these black dependants of theirs with
what was, I am sure, a torrent of invective. The hoers resumed their
work without a word of remonstrance; and the negress, evidently
terrified at the threats hurled at her, fairly turned tail, and attempted
to run in the direction of the hammock in which she had deposited
her pickaninny. Any pace but that of a slow walk, however, was
evidently foreign to this good lady’s habits, and in her confusion she
caught her foot in the root of a tree, and went sprawling on the
ground in a very helpless sort of fashion; for it was evident that she
could not get up again without assistance, and was very much in the
predicament of a turned turtle on the beach. The pickaninny set up a
roar at this critical moment, and I could hear its “mammy” gasping
and spluttering like a stranded fish.
Bearing away sharp to the left, we entered the belt of jungle of
which I spoke before. Here the light was sombre, and, but for the fact
that the trees had been felled along the route, would have been
difficult to traverse.
In about ten minutes we emerged from the belt, and found
ourselves in a singularly arid, barren-looking stretch of country,
which had, I fancied, a volcanic appearance. The island was
certainly larger than I had expected, and appeared to be of
somewhat remarkable formation. Boulders of peculiar shape were
scattered about in all directions, and ridges of scarred and fissured
rock, running up towards the central ridge, broke up the slopes of the
hills into numerous shallow stony ravines, one or two of the latter
conveying streams of water in the direction of the sea.
 A small lake of remarkably transparent emerald-green water lay
beneath us, and on its surface was a canoe containing two dark
figures, evidently men engaged in fishing. Miguel gave them a yell
that might have awakened the dead, but we did not pause in our
march for an instant. There came a responsive shout from the lake,
whereupon I saw that the canoe was being paddled to the shore.
The path was now narrower and more stony, but the pirates did
not diminish their pace. The way was tortuous, winding amongst
huge cliff-like rocks, and around the brows of desolate boulder-
strewn hills. Suddenly we arrived upon the verge of what looked like
the large crater of an extinct volcano. Its edges were fringed with
sparse vegetation, but within all was arid and desolate in the
extreme, and the brown, bare, thirsty-looking soil was strewn with
blocks of lava and igneous rocks, where lizards probably held high
revelry whenever they felt in a “jinky” humour.
I jumped two or three feet off the ground!
The old greybeard, who was walking close to my side, had pulled
out a bugle, on which he blew an ear-piercing and mighty blast.
The way the notes echoed and re-echoed in apparently endless
reverberations amid the rocky cliffs of the crater sounded almost
uncanny, at length dying away like the faint mutterings of some evil
spirits lurking in the shadowy ravines.
A couple of vultures soared over our heads, and I fancied I heard
in the distance the mournful howl of a jackal.
The evening air seemed unusually chilly after the sweltering heat
of the day, and in spite of our brisk walk I felt a cold shivering fit
come over me.
As if in response to the bugle blast, half a dozen villanous-looking
fellows came rushing along the path to meet their compatriots. They
eyed us with a broad stare of astonishment, and then fell to
questioning our captors eagerly.
The track now led us down over the lip of the crater, and in a
moment we found ourselves on a sort of terrace strewn with
boulders, and apparently blasted out of the volcanic detritus
deposited centuries before amid frightful convulsions of nature.
 CHAPTER XIX.
IN THE CRATER CAVE.

I T was a weird spot, and in the gathering darkness had a

depressing effect upon one’s spirits. Here there might have been
enormous catacombs, where the dead of untold ages had been
brought from other lands to be entombed; and if so, what troops of
uneasy ghosts might be found wandering about the yawning chasms
of the gloomy crater after nightfall!
For was there not the dusky entrance yonder to some land of
hidden rock-tombs?
Before it stood two small brass cannon, their polished mouths
gleaming with a menacing look through the semi-darkness. Beside
these weapons of war stood, neatly arranged, piles of shot.
It flashed across me immediately that the pirates had here some
cave dwellings; perhaps their headquarters, where they kept their
looted cargoes.
I was not long kept in suspense, for our captors hurried us through
the dark entrance which I had noticed in the cliffs as resembling the
gloomy portals to some dreary abode of the dead.
We found ourselves in a beautiful little grotto, low in the roof, but
almost circular in shape. The atmosphere reeked with the strong
fumes of tobacco. On one side several cases, bales of goods, and
barrels were piled, the one on top of the other, and on one of the
latter stood a lighted ship’s lantern, which thoroughly illuminated the
little cavern.
I was enabled to take only a very hurried survey of our new
surroundings, for the pirates hustled us through a very narrow
passage opening from the rear of the cave into another of about the
same dimensions, but irregular in shape, and exceedingly dark and
gloomy in appearance, there being no natural orifices in the roof to
admit light or air. It was in fact a subterranean dungeon, for such in
my present depression of spirits I felt it to be.
One of the pirates struck a match and lit a lantern that he had
brought with him from the outer cave. This he placed in the centre of
the sandy floor. Another individual had brought in a bundle or two of
dried grass, and this he proceeded to strew upon the ground at the
farther end of the little cavern. Upon this Miguel motioned us to take
our seats, a gesture with which we at once complied. All the pirates
now retired to the outer cave, with the exception of the old greybeard
and Miguel, who stood eyeing us for some time without uttering a
word.
Mr. Triggs broke the unpleasant silence.
“It is time, I think, that we should demand some explanation of
your conduct,” he said, speaking slowly, and addressing the mule-
driver. “We should like to know for what reason we have been taken
prisoners, and what is going to be done with us.”
The greybeard evidently did not understand English, for he looked
in a puzzled way at Miguel and addressed some question to him.
The two men conferred together for some minutes, and it was
evident that they disagreed upon some knotty point. At length Miguel
turned to us in rather a sulky manner, and addressing the gunner
said,—
“Ze Captain-General in Havana have gotten in one prison two
mans zat pelong to our ship; and if he shall kill zem, we shall kill you
for ze return complimont, as you shall spik in ze Inglees. We should
have much like better to catch ze Spanish orficer; but Inglees or
Spanish, it can make vaire leetle deference to us.”
“But it makes a deal of difference to us, my fine fellow,” said Mr.
Triggs, with a considerable amount of indignation in his tone; “and I
should like to know how and when you are going to let the Captain-
General know that you have taken us prisoners?”
One of his malevolent smiles flitted across Miguel’s features, and
he shrugged his shoulders disdainfully. Then, slipping his arm
through the greybeard’s, the two quitted the cave without
vouchsafing us another word.
“I wonder whether that fellow is a consummate liar or not,”
whispered the gunner, turning to me.
“I shouldn’t wonder if he was speaking the truth for once,” I
answered in the same low tone. “I think the old greybeard persuaded
him to tell us how matters stand.”
“Not a bad old codger, I’m thinking, that there ancient,” chimed in
Ned; “but I’m dashed if I think Miguel could speak the truth if he tried
for a month of Sundays!”
“You think what he told us was a made-up yarn then?” I asked my
coxswain.
“Yes, sir, I do, and for this here reason. Do you suppose as these
bloomin’ pirates would go and run their heads into a noose just
because a couple of their pals are in chokey? Why, they’d bring a
hornets’ nest about their ears in the shake of a pig’s whisker if they
tried on any such little game! Mighty foolish they’d look, I take it,
strung up in a row like a lot of Yarmouth herrin’s!”
Mr. Triggs looked thoughtful and rather troubled. He was not a
man of much imagination, and was fairly puzzled by the perplexities
of the situation.
“How is your head, my boy?” he asked, turning abruptly to me.
“Much better, thank you, Mr. Triggs. There is still a swelling like a
walnut, but it doesn’t hurt me an atom.”
“Good. How’s your back, Ned?”
“Pretty tol-lollish, sir, thank’ee.”
“These are queer diggings the pirates have,” said I; “and I expect
they’ve more caves even than these two. They couldn’t stow away
very much loot here.”
“’Tis a place that can be very easily defended from an assault,”
remarked Ned. “I should say there was no path leading to the terrace
except the one we arrived by, and the beggars could sweep that in a
murderous manner with their two cannon.”
“True enough, true enough,” assented the gunner; “as far as I
could see ’twas all precipices below and aloft, and ’twould be
something of the nature of a forlorn hope to try to rush it.”
“Don’t you think it would be quite possible for the pirate chief to
communicate with the Spanish authorities, without betraying the
whereabouts of his island?” I asked Ned.
“Do you suppose as the Jack Spaniards don’t know of this here
settlement then?” demanded my coxswain in a surprised tone. “It
may be so, of course, but I shouldn’t be a bit taken aback if I was
told that they were all in the swim, and winked at it.”
I could tell by the expression of Mr. Triggs’s face that he didn’t
much believe in this theory of Ned’s; but at this moment some of our
captors entered with supper, and we relapsed into silence. The meal
consisted of a sort of kedgeree, made of fresh fish and boiled rice,
and would have been palatable enough if the cook had not used
garlic as a flavouring. We were all allowed to discuss our supper at
the same time, but four armed men took up their position as sentries
just within our cave-entrance, and looked quite capable of shooting
us at a moment’s notice.
From a subsequent uproar of shouting and talking in the outer
cavern, I gathered that the chief and some more of his followers had
arrived, and I was confirmed in this belief by hearing the deep baying
of the bloodhounds. None of these late arrivals, however, intruded
themselves upon us, which I attributed partly to the indisposition of
the chief.
The atmosphere of our cave grew very oppressive as evening
wore on, all the more that it was permeated with clouds of smoke
from strong tobacco; but in spite of all this I slept soundly, worn out
with fatigue and anxiety.
The next day, nothing occurred to break the monotony of our
captivity. We were not permitted to leave the cavern, and its gloom
and foul atmosphere were depressing. Nevertheless, our guards did
not prevent our talking, which was indeed a precious boon, but we
took especial care not to abuse the privilege. Every evening our
arms were bound, and four armed sentries were always on watch
day and night.
Every morning when I awoke, it was with a hope in my heart that
we should hear during the day the roar of the Rattler’s guns, or of
some war-vessel sent by the Spanish Government to demand our
release. Every evening I had to confess to bitter disappointment, for
no such warlike sounds had thundered forth.
Day after day passed in this manner, and we began to grow sick at
heart. Had Captain Graves and our shipmates deserted us in our
hour of need? No; we scouted the idea indignantly. They must have
utterly failed to trace us. There was no other explanation. Mr. Triggs
and I began to think too that Ned was right in his conjecture that
Miguel had been telling us falsehoods regarding the Captain-General
of Cuba. If there was any question of exchanging prisoners, why all
this delay?
After the first few days of our captivity had passed, we were
allowed to go out on the terrace for an hour every day about the time
of sunset. If this privilege had been withheld, we should soon have
become very ill, for the weather was extremely oppressive; and the
cool sea-breezes, which ought to have tempered the fierce heat
during the day, did not seem able to penetrate into the great hollow
of the volcanic crater. We badly wanted a change of clothing, but
there was no means of obtaining it. Occasionally, however, we were
allowed to perform our ablutions.
I think about a fortnight must have passed, when it came to our
knowledge through various channels that the chief and a good many
of his followers had gone off upon some expedition, whether on the
island or by sea we did not know. Miguel remained behind, and the
greybeard. This event caused much comment amongst us. I noticed
that Ned visibly brightened up.
“Ah, how I wish we could get a chance to give the swabs the slip!”
the latter whispered to me just after our arms had been bound that
evening. “It’s when their numbers are reduced like this that we could