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Published on 23 October 2012 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781849734929-FP001
Dietary Sugars
Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
View Online
Food and Nutritional Components in Focus
Series Editor:
Professor Victor R Preedy, School of Medicine, King’s College London, UK
Titles in the Series:

1: Vitamin A and Carotenoids: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
2: Caffeine: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
3: Dietary Sugars: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
How to obtain future titles on publication:

A standing order plan is available for this series. A standing order will bring
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Dietary Sugars
Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
Edited by
Victor R Preedy
School of Medicine, King’s College London, UK
View Online
Food and Nutritional Components in Focus No. 3

ISBN: 978-1-84973-370-0
ISSN: 2045-1695
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
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Preface
In the past three decades there have been major advances in our under-
standing of the chemistry and function of nutritional components. This has
been enhanced by rapid developments in analytical techniques and instru-
mentation. Chemists, food scientists and nutritionists are, however, separated
by divergent skills, and professional disciplines. Hitherto, this transdisci-

plinary divide has been difficult to bridge.
The series Food and Nutritional Components in Focus aims to cover in a single
volume the chemistry, analysis, function and effects of single components in the
diet or its food matrix. Its aim is to embrace scientific disciplines so that
information becomes more meaningful and applicable to health in general.
The series Food and Nutritional Components in Focus covers the latest
knowledge base and has a structured format.
Dietary Sugars has 4 major sections, namely:
Caffeine in Context;
Chemistry and Biochemistry;
Analysis; and
Function and Effects.
Coverage includes sugars in the context of honey, dental caries, whole-body

metabolism and glycemic load. Thereafter, there are sections on the chemistry
of glucose, galactose, maltose, fructose, sucrose, lactose. Other sugars are also
described throughout the book. Methodical aspects include characterization
and assays of sugars in seeds, urine, blood, human milk, vegetables, dairy
produce and other foods. The techniques cover gas, ion and thin layer
chromatography, UV spectrophotometry, electrochemical detection, mass
spectrometry, biosensors, enzymatic reactions, high-temperature liquid
chromatography, Raman spectroscopy and other methodology. In terms of

Dietary Sugars: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
Edited by Victor R Preedy
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
v
View Online
vi Preface
function and effects on health and disease there are chapters on obesity and
childhood BMI, total parenteral nutrition, intestinal transport, tracers in
metabolic studies, modelling neurological aging, sugar preference, beer, meta-
bolic syndrome, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, antioxidant defence, young
children, lactose intolerance, industry, technology and biotechnology.
Each chapter transcends the intellectual divide with a novel cohort of

features, namely by containing:
Key Facts (areas of focus explained for the lay person);

Definitions of Words and Terms; and
Summary Points.
The book is designed for chemists, food scientist and nutritionists, as well as
health care workers and research scientists. Contributions are from leading
national and international experts, including contributions from world
renowned institutions.
Professor Victor R Preedy,

King’s College London
Contents
Dietary Sugars in Context
Chapter 1 Sugars in Honey 3
Sevgi Kolayli, Laı¨d Boukraâ, Hüseyin Şahin and
Fatiha Abdellah
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Main Sugars 4
1.2.1 Monosaccharides 4
1.2.2 Disaccharides 5
1.2.3 Oligosaccharides 6
1.3 Adulteration of Honey 8
1.4 Crystallization of Honey 8
1.5 Is Honey Sweeter than Sugar? 9
1.6 Honey Sugars and Health 9
1.6.1 Honey and Blood Glucose Level 9
1.6.2 Honey as an Anti-infective Agent 10
1.6.3 Honey as a Prebiotic 10
Summary Points 11
Key Facts 12
Definition of Words and Terms 12
List of Abbreviations 13
References 13
Chapter 2 Sugars and Dental Caries 16

Anna Haukioja and Merja Laine
2.1 Dental Caries 16

2.1.1 Dental Caries and Erosion 16
2.1.2 Dental Plaque in Caries 17
2.1.3 Saliva Protects Oral Tissues 18
Dietary Sugars: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
Edited by Victor R Preedy
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
vii
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viii Contents
2.2 The Influence of Sugars in Diet on Caries Risk 18
2.3 The Relation between Different Sugars and Dental
Health 20
2.3.1 Sugar Polymers 20
2.3.2 Disaccharides 21
2.3.3 Monosaccharides 24
2.3.4 Sugar Alcohols 24
Summary Points 25
Key Facts 26
Definitions of Words and Terms 26
References 27
Chapter 3 Whole Body Glucose Metabolism 30

Jørgen Jensen and Jesper Franch
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Glucose Transport 31
3.2.1 Glucose Transporters 32
3.3 Metabolism of Glucose 34
3.3.1 Glycogen Synthesis 34
3.3.2 Glycolysis 35
3.3.3 Alternative Routes of Glucose Metabolism 37
3.4 Glucose and the Mitochondria 37
3.4.1 The Krebs Cycle 37
3.4.2 De Novo Lipid Synthesis 38
3.5 Regulation of Whole Body Glucose Metabolism 38
3.5.1 Glucose Metabolism after Meals 39
3.5.2 Glucose Metabolism in the Post-absorptive
Phase 39
3.5.3 Glucose Metabolism During Exercise 39
3.5.4 Type 2 Diabetes 40
Summary Points 42
Key Facts 43
Acknowledgements 45
References 45
Chapter 4 Medical Implications of Dietary Simple Sugars and Complex

Carbohydrates, Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load 48
Mary Downes Gastrich and Michelle Wien
4.1 Introduction 48
4.2 Purpose of this Review 49
4.3 Results 50
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Contents ix
4.4 The Relationship Between the Quality and Quantity
of Dietary CHO and Differing Medical Implications 50
4.4.1 Dietary CHO and Metabolic Syndrome/CVD
Risk Factors 50
4.4.2 Dietary CHO and T2DM/Insulin Resistance 65
4.4.3 Dietary CHO and Cancer Risks 65

4.4.4 Dietary CHOs and Other Medical Conditions 66
4.5 Gender Differences in Trials of the Effects of Dietary
CHO and Various Medical Implications 66
4.5.1 Trends in Gender Differences in Dietary CHO
and Metabolic Syndrome and CVD 66
and Insulin Resistance/T2DM 66
and Cancers 67
and Other Medical Conditions 67

4.6 Conclusions 68
4.7 Discussion 68
Summary Points 69
Key Facts 70
Definitions 70
References 71
Chemistry and Biochemistry

Chapter 5 Glucose Chemistry 77
Bilal Ahmad Malik and Mohammed Benaissa
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Structure 79
5.3 Chemical Reactions with Glucose 80
5.4 The Configuration of Glucose 82
5.5 Mutarotation of Glucose 83
Summary Points 83
References 85
Chapter 6 Galactose Chemistry 86

Fabio Vieira dos Santos, Vanessa Jaqueline da Silva Vieira dos
Santos, Juliana Pereira Lyon and Leonardo Marmo Moreira
6.1 Introduction 86
6.2 Chemical Classification of D-Galactose 88
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x Contents
6.3 Chemical Reactions with D-Galactose 91
6.3.1 Galactoside Formation 91
6.3.2 Ether Formation 92
6.3.3 Ester Formation 92
6.3.4 Cyclic Ketal Formation 93
6.3.5 Oxidation 93
6.3.6 Reduction 95
6.4 Lactose: Disaccharide Formation and Hydrolysis 96
Summary Points 97
Key Facts about Galactose and its Importance 97
References 99
Chapter 7 Maltose Chemistry and Biochemistry 101

Robert R. Crow, Sanath Kumar and Manuel F. Varela
7.1 Introduction 101

7.2 The Metabolism of Maltose 101
7.2.1 Maltose and Glycolysis 103
7.2.2 Enzymes Involved in Maltose Metabolism 103
7.3 Maltose Transport Systems 105
7.3.1 Passive Transport and Channels for Maltose 105
7.3.2 Primary Active Transporters for Maltose 105
7.3.3 Secondary Active Transporters for Maltose 106
7.3.4 Group Translocation Transport Systems for
Maltose 107
7.4 Mutations that Confer Maltose Transport in other
Sugar Transporters 107
7.4.1 The Lactose Permease of E. coli and Maltose 108
7.4.2 The Melibiose Permease of Enterobacter
cloacae and Maltose 109
7.4.3 The Raffinose Permease of E. coli and Maltose 109
Summary Points 110
Key Facts of Maltose Chemistry and Biochemistry 110
References 112
Chapter 8 Fructose Chemistry 115

David J Timson
8.1 Introduction: Structure and Stereochemistry 115

8.2 Chemical Reactions of Fructose 117
8.2.1 Oxidation and Reduction 118
8.2.2 Modifications of the Hydroxyl Groups:
Acetylation and Methylation 118
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Contents xi
8.3 Key Metabolic Reactions Involving Fructose 119
8.3.1 Phosphorylation of Fructose Catalysed by
Fructokinase 120
8.3.2 Further Metabolism of Fructose by the
Fructokinase Pathway 122
8.3.3 Phosphorylation of Fructose Catalysed by

Hexokinase 123
8.4 The Synthesis of Fructose 124
8.4.1 Chemical Synthesis of Fructose 124
8.4.2 Biosynthesis of Fructose 125
8.5 Non-enzymatic Biochemical Reactions of Fructose 125
8.5.1 Glycation and the Maillard Reaction 125
8.6 Di- and Polysaccharide Synthesis Involving Fructose 127
8.6.1 Non-enzymatic Synthesis 127
8.6.2 Biosynthesis of Sucrose 127
8.6.3 Biosynthesis of Inulin 128
8.7 Degradation of Polysaccharides Containing Fructose

Residues 129
8.7.1 Non-enzymatic Hydrolysis 130
8.7.2 The Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Sucrose:
The Invertase Reaction 131
8.7.3 Enzymatic Degradation of Inulin 132
8.8 Conclusions 133
Summary Points 133
Key Facts 133
Definitions 134
References 135
Chapter 9 Sucrose Chemistry 138

Leonardo M. Moreira, Juliana P. Lyon, Patrıćia Lima,
Vanessa J. S. V. Santos and Fabio V. Santos

9.1.1 General Features of Carbohydrates 139
9.1.2 Carbohydrates as an Energy Source 139
9.2 Sucrose 140
9.2.1 Sucrose Monosaccharides 141
9.3 Sucrose as a Sweetener 143
9.4 Sucrose Synthesis and Metabolism 144
9.5 Inverted Sugar 144
9.6 Biological Functions of Sucrose 145
9.7 Conclusions 146
Summary Points 146
Key Facts 146
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xii Contents
References 148
Chapter 10 Lactose Chemistry 150

Lee D. Hansen and Jennifer B. Nielson

10.2 Crystal Structures and Properties 151
10.3 Reactions of Lactose 153
10.3.1 Hydrolysis and Transglycosylation 153
10.3.2 Isomerization 155
10.3.3 Maillard Reaction 156
10.3.4 Fermentation 159
10.4 Disposal 159
Summary Points 160
Key Facts 160

References 162
Analysis
Chapter 11 Characterization of Sugars, Cyclitols and Galactosyl

Cyclitols in Seeds by GC 167
Ralph L. Obendorf, Marcin Horbowicz and
Les!aw Bernard Lahuta

11.2 Water-soluble Carbohydrates in Seeds 168
11.2.1 Extraction of Water-soluble Carbohydrates
from Seeds 173
11.2.2 Natural Sources of Standards not
Commercially Available 176
11.2.3 Identification of Compounds Forming
Unknown Peaks 177
11.3 GC Analysis of Water-soluble Carbohydrates 177
11.4 Species Differences in Water-soluble Carbohydrates 178
11.5 Conclusions 180
Summary Points 181
Key Facts 181
References 183
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Contents xiii
Chapter 12 Dietary Sugars: TLC Screening of Sugars in Urine and
Blood Samples 186
José Ramón Alonso-Fernández and Vinood B. Patel

12.2 Forerunners of TLC Methods 187

12.3 Early TLC Methods 189
12.4 Galactosaemia Studies 190
12.5 Oligosaccharides 191
12.6 A TLC Procedure for Screening for Sugars in Blood
and Urine 193
12.6.1 Sample Collection 193
12.6.2 Concentration of Samples 194
12.6.3 Loading Samples onto the TLC Plate 195
12.6.4 The TLC Cell 196
12.6.5 Procedure 196
12.6.6 Differential Diagnosis of Galactosaemias 198

Summary Points 203
Key Facts 203
Acknowledgements 205
References 205
Chapter 13 Analysis of Dietary Sugars in Beverages by Gas

Chromatography 208
O. Hernández-Hernández, F.J. Moreno and M.L. Sanz

13.2 Beer 210
13.2.1 Determination of Monomeric Composition 211
13.2.2 Determination of Glycosidic-Linkages of
Arabinoxylans 211
13.3 Wines 214
13.3.1 Low Molecular Weight Carbohydrates (LMWC) 214
13.3.2 Polysaccharides 216
13.4 Spirit Drinks 218
13.5 Juices 219
13.6 Soft Drinks 220
13.7 Hot Drinks 222
Summary Points 223
Key Facts 223
Abbreviations 226
References 226
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xiv Contents
Chapter 14 UV Spectrophotometry Method for Dietary Sugars 229
Ana C. A. Veloso, Lı´gia R. Rodrigues, Luı´s G. Dias and
António M. Peres

14.2 Dietary Sugars 230

14.2.1 Physicochemical Properties 231
14.2.2 Physiological Effects 232
14.2.3 Methodology for Dietary Carbohydrates
Analysis 232
14.3 UV-Vis Spectophotometric Methods for
Dietary Sugars 234
14.3.1 Derivative Spectroscopy and Chemometric
Analysis 234
14.3.2 UV-Vis Spectrophotometry for Indirect
Sugar Analysis 238
14.3.3 UV Spectrophotometry for Direct Sugar

Analysis in Controlled Multicomponent
Samples 239
14.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects 245
Summary Points 245
Key Facts 245
Definitions of Key Terms 246
References 246
Chapter 15 Extraction and Quantification of Sugars and Fructans from

Vegetable Matter 249
Katherine Cools and Leon A. Terry

15.1.1 Structure of Sugars and Fructans 249
15.1.2 Biosynthesis 250
15.1.3 Distribution of Sugars and Fructans 252
15.1.4 Sugar and Fructan Measurement 253
15.2 Sugar and Fructan Extraction 253
15.3 Quantification 259
15.3.1 Quantification of Total Sugars and
Fructans 259
15.3.2 Quantification using High Pressure Liquid
Chromatography 260
15.3.3 Quantification using Anion Exchange
Chromatography 260
15.3.4 Gas Chromatography 261
15.3.5 Detectors 261
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Contents xv
Summary Points 262
Key Facts of High Pressure Liquid Chromatography 263
Abbreviations 263
References 264
Chapter 16 Determination of Dietary Sugars by Ion Chromatography and

Electrochemical Detection: a Focus on Galactose, Glucose,
Fructose and Sucrose 269
Donatella Nardiello, Carmen Palermo, Maurizio Quinto and
Diego Centonze
16.1 Analysis of Carbohydrates: Historical Background 269

16.2 Analysis of Carbohydrates by Ion Chromatography
and Electrochemical Detection 270
16.2.1 Chromatographic Separation of Galactose,

Glucose, Fructose and Sucrose by HPAEC 270
16.2.2 Pulsed Amperometric Detection: Triple Step
PAD Waveform for Galactose, Glucose,
Fructose and Sucrose 272
16.2.3 Constant Potential Amperometric Detection
of Carbohydrates at Modified Electrodes 275
Summary Points 280
Key Facts of the Analytical Methods for the Determination
of Carbohydrates 281
Key Facts of Anion Exchange Chromatography
Separations of Carbohydrates 281
Key Facts of the Electrochemical Detection of
Carbohydrates 281
References 283
Chapter 17 Assay of Glucose Using Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy 286

Mohammed Benaissa, Amneh Mbaideen and
Bilal Ahmad Malik

17.2 Beer Lambert’s Law 288
17.3 Multivariate Calibration Methods 288
17.3.1 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) 289
17.3.2 Principle Component Analysis (PCA) 290
17.3.3 Principal Component Regression (PCR) 291
17.3.4 Partial Least Square Regression (PLS) 292
17.3.5 Performance Comparison 294
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xvi Contents
17.4 Pre-processing Techniques 294
17.4.1 Mean Centering of a Data Matrix 295
17.4.2 Smoothing 296
17.4.3 Derivative 298
17.4.4 Digital Bandpass Filtering (DBPF) 300
17.5 The Potential of Advanced Digital Signal Processing

Techniques 301
17.6 Examples of Application of NIR Spectroscopy in the
Analysis of Glucose in Food Items 301
17.7 Conclusion 302
Summary Points 302
Key Facts about NIR Spectroscopy 303
Definitions 303
References 304
Chapter 18 A New Liquid Chromatographic-Mass Spectrometric Method

to Assess Glucose Kinetics In Vivo Using 13C6 D-glucose as a
Tracer 307
David S. Millington, Haoyue Zhang, Cris A. Slentz and
William E. Kraus
18.1 Background 307

18.2 Summary of Procedures and Methods 309
18.2.1 The Labeled IVGTT Protocol 309
18.2.2 The HGO Infusion Protocol 309
18.2.3 Sample Preparation and Analysis by Mass
Spectrometry 309
18.2.4 IVGTT: Estimation of 13C6 Glucose
Concentration 310
18.2.5 HGO: Estimation of Fasting HGO 311
18.3 Results 311
18.3.1 IVGTT Results 311
18.3.2 HGO Results 314
18.4 Discussion and Future Direction 315
Summary Points 317
Key Facts of Glucose Metabolism 317
Key Facts of Liquid Chromatography and
Mass Spectrometry 318
Definitions and Explanations of Key Terms 318
References 320
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Contents xvii
Chapter 19 Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose (SMBG) 323
Tomomi Fujisawa
19.1 Background 323

19.2 Blood Samples/Skin Puncture Site 324
19.3 Monitoring Device and Strips 324

19.3.1 Glucose Readings Monitored by SMBG 325
19.3.2 Accuracy of SMBG Results 325
19.3.3 Enzyme/co-enzyme and Clinical Attention
to SMBG 326
19.4 Puncture Device and Lancets/Needles for SMBG 327
19.5 Choice of SMBG Systems 327
19.6 Procedures for SMBG 328
19.7 Clinical Significance of SMBG 329
19.7.1 Clinical Benefit of SMBG in Glycemic
Control in Insulin-treated Subjects 329
19.7.2 Clinical Benefit of SMBG on Glycemic

Control in Non-insulin-treated Subjects 330
19.7.3 Cost-effectiveness of SMBG 334
19.7.4 Effects of SMBG on Psychological
Distress 335
19.8 Future Perspectives of SMBG 335
Summary Points 336
Key Facts of Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose (SMBG) 337
References 338
Chapter 20 The Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase Assay for Glucose 340

Mary Beth Hall

20.2 Chemistry 341
20.3 Factors Affecting Method Performance 341
20.3.1 Volumetric Additions and Precision 342
20.3.2 Adherence to Protocol 342
20.3.3 Enzyme Activity and Purity 342
20.3.4 Stability of Absorbance 343
20.3.5 Nonlinear Equation Describes Standard
Curve 343
20.3.6 Interference 348
20.4 A Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase Method for Glucose
Determination 350
20.4.1 Preparation of and Considerations on Use
of Glucose Standard Solutions 350
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xviii Contents
20.4.2 Preparation of a Glucose
Oxidase-Peroxidase Reagent 354
20.4.3 Determination of Standard Curve and
Glucose Content of Test Samples 354
20.5 Conclusion 355
Summary Points on Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase

Assays for Glucose 355
Key Facts about Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase
Assays for Glucose 356
Definitions 356
Abbreviations 356
References 356
Chapter 21 Glucose Biosensors 358

Azila Abdul-Aziz

21.2 Requirements for Glucose Analysis in Food 359
21.3 Glucose Transduction Technologies 361
21.3.1 Electrochemical Glucose Biosensors 361
21.3.2 Optical Glucose Biosensors 365
21.3.3 Instrumentation 367
21.4 Commercialization Activities 369
21.5 Concluding Remarks 370
Summary Points 371
Key Facts 371
References 373
Chapter 22 Assay Galactose by Biosensors 376

Martin Ming-fat Choi and Han-chih Hencher Lee
22.1 General Review of Biosensors 376

22.2 Types of Biosensors 377
22.2.1 Transducers: Electrochemical and Optical 377
22.2.2 Enzyme Immobilization Techniques 378
22.3 Development of Galactose Biosensors 380
22.3.1 Principles 381
22.3.2 Methodology 382
22.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 386
22.4 Applications of Biosensors in Galactose Assay 387
22.5 Conclusion 388
22.6 Future Trends 388
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Contents xix
Summary Points 389
Key Facts 389
References 390
Chapter 23 Combined Assays for Lactose and Galactose by Enzymatic

Reactions 395
Nissim Silanikove and Fira Shapiro

23.2 Methodology for the Determination of Lactose and
Galactose 396
23.3 Principles of the Simultaneous Determination
of Lactose and Galactose in Dairy Products by
Enzymatic Reactions 396
23.4 Simplification of the Colorimetric Assay by

Replacing NAD with Thio-NAD 398
23.5 The Challenge of Quantifying Metabolites in
Milk and Dairy Products 398
23.6 Fluorometry Coupling to Formation of
Chromophore and Enzymatic Cycling as a Solution
for the Determination of Lactose and Galactose in
Milk and Dairy Products 399
Summary Points 402
Key Facts 402
References 403
Chapter 24 Food Sources and Analytical Approaches for Maltose

Determination 405
Elvira M. S. M. Gaspar, João F. Lopes, Daniel Gyamfi and
Ineˆs S. Nunes

24.2 Food Carbohydrates 406
24.2.1 Relevance of Dietary Carbohydrates and
Food Sugars 408
24.2.2 Maltose 410
24.2.3 Food Sources 410
24.2.4 Metabolism and Effects 411
24.3 Analytical Approaches 413
24.3.1 Non-chromatographic Methodologies 413
24.3.2 Chromatographic Methodologies 415
Summary Points 420
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xx Contents
Key Facts of Maltose as a Dietary Carbohydrate 420
References 422
Chapter 25 Determination of Maltose in Food Samples by

High-temperature Liquid Chromatography Coupled
to ICP-AES 425
Amanda Terol, Soledad Prats, Salvador Maestre and
Jose´ Luis Todolı´
25.1 Maltose Chemical Properties and their Importance in

the Food Industry 425
25.2 Analytical Methods for the Determination
of Maltose in Food Samples 426
25.2.1 Sample Preparation 426

25.2.2 Determination of Maltose in Food Samples 426
25.3 What is High-temperature Liquid Chromatography? 427
25.3.1 General Advantages and Characteristics of
HTLC 428
25.3.2 Special Instrumentation 428
25.4 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission
Spectrometry for the Determination of Sugars
in Food 432
25.5 HTLC-ICP Hyphenation 434
25.6 Comparison of HTLC-ICP-AES Hyphenation
with the Techniques Commonly used for the
Determination of Maltose 436
25.7 Conclusion 437
Summary Points 437
Key Facts of Maltose in Beer 438
Acknowledgement 439
References 439
Chapter 26 Analysis of Maltose and Lactose by U-HPLC-ESI-MS/MS 443

Luca Valgimigli, Simone Gabbanini and Riccardo Matera

26.2 Method Description and Discussion 445
26.2.1 Chromatography 445
26.2.2 Mass Spectrometry 451
26.2.3 Method Validation 457
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Contents xxi
26.3 Applications 457
26.3.1 Analysis of Nutraceutical
Preparations 457
26.3.2 Analysis of Food Products 458
Summary Points 458

Key Facts of HPLC and U-HPLC 459
References 461
Chapter 27 Assays of Fructose in Experimental Nutrition 464

Keiichiro Sugimoto, Hiroshi Inui and Toshikazu Yamanouchi

27.2 Physiological Significance 465
27.3 Sample Treatment 466

27.4 Determination of Fructose Concentration 467
27.4.1 Chemical Method 467
27.4.2 Enzymatic Method 467
27.4.3 HPLC Methods 469
27.4.4 GC/MS Methods 473
27.5 Applications 475
27.5.1 Sucrose Tolerance Test in Rats 475
27.5.2 Fructose Tolerance Test in Mice 476
27.5.3 Sucrose Tolerance Test in Humans 476
27.5.4 Evaluation of Inhibitive Activity on
Fructose Absorption in the Caco-2
Cell Line 477
Summary Points 478
Key Facts of Diabetes and Blood Fructose Levels 479
References 481
Chapter 28 Amperometric Detection for Simultaneous Assays of Glucose

and Fructose 484
Mithran Somasundrum and Werasak Surareungchai

28.2 Principles of Voltammetry 485
28.3 Experimental Details 486
28.3.1 Electrochemical Cells 486
28.3.2 Electrodes 487
28.3.3 Electrolyte 488
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xxii Contents
28.4 Types of Voltammetry 488
28.4.1 Fixed Potential Potential Step 488
28.4.2 Fixed Potential Amperometry 489
28.4.3 Potential Ramp 491
28.5 Passivation in Voltammetry 492
28.6 Electrochemistry of Glucose and Fructose 492

28.7 Pulsed Amperometric Detection (PAD) 494
28.8 Simultaneous Detection of Glucose and Fructose 496
Summary Points 497
Key Facts of Voltammetry 498
References 501
Chapter 29 Sucrose Determination by Raman Spectroscopy 503

Leonardo M. Moreira, Fabio V. Santos, Juliana P. Lyon,

Patrıćia Lima, Vanessa J. S. V. Santos, Pedro C. G. de
Moraes, Jose´ Paulo R. F. Mendonça, Valmar C. Barbosa,
Carlos J. de Lima, Fabrıćio L. Silveira and Landulfo Silveira Jr.

29.2 Vibrational Spectroscopy 505
29.2.1 Raman Spectroscopy 506
29.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy Applied to the
Characterisation of Foods and Drugs in
Biological Systems 507
Characterisation of Saccharides 510
Characterisation of Sucrose 515
29.2.5 Quantitative Analysis of Sucrose by Raman
Spectroscopy 517
29.2.6 Physico-Chemical Analysis of Sucrose by
Raman Spectroscopy 518
Summary Points 520
Key Facts of Raman Spectroscopy 520
References 522
Chapter 30 Analysis of Sucrose from Sugar Beet 526

J. Mitchell McGrath and Karen K. Fugate

View Online
Contents xxiii
30.2 Extraction for Measurement 529
30.3 Analytical Methods 529
30.3.1 Historical Perspective 529
30.3.2 Refractometry 530
30.3.3 Polarimetry 531
30.3.4 Enzyme-based Spectroscopic Assays 532

30.3.5 Gas Chromatography (GC) 534
30.3.6 High-performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC) 534
30.3.7 Near-infrared Spectroscopy (NIR) 535
30.3.8 Other Methods 537
30.4 Future Trends 539
Summary Points 539
Key Facts 540
References 543
Function and Effects

Chapter 31 Lactose in Milk and Dairy Products: A Focus on Biosensors 549
Felipe Conzuelo, A. Julio Reviejo and Jose´ M. Pingarrón

31.2 Lactose Analysis 550
31.2.1 Enzyme Reactions Involved in Lactose
Determination 550
31.2.2 Biosensors for Lactose Determination 552
31.3 Concluding Remarks 564
Summary Points 564
Key Facts 565
References 567
Chapter 32 Analysis of Human Milk Lactose 570

David S Newburg, Ceng Chen and Gherman Wiederschain

32.1.1 Biological Importance of Lactose Analysis
in Human Milk 570
32.1.2 Techniques for Lactose Analysis in Human
Milk 572
32.2 Methods of Analysis 573
32.2.1 Gravimetric and Chemical 573
View Online
xxiv Contents
32.2.2 Enzymatic 574
32.2.3 Infrared Analysis 576
32.2.4 HPLC 577
Summary Points 585
Key Facts 585

References 586
Chapter 33 Sweetened Beverages and Added Sugars in Obesity 589

Odilia I. Bermudez

33.2 Simple Sugars as Dietary Components 590
33.3 Sugar-sweetened Beverages 591
33.3.1 Sugar-sweetened Beverages 591

33.4 Trends in the Intake of Sweetened Beverages 592
33.5 Obesity as a World Epidemic 592
33.5.1 Concepts and Definitions of Obesity 592
33.5.2 The Worldwide Epidemic of Obesity 594
33.6 Sweetened Beverages and Added Sugars and Obesity 597
33.7 Final Remarks and Future Perspectives 599
Summary Points 600
Key Facts of Obesity and Intake of Sugar Sweetened
Beverages 600
Key Facts of the US National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 601
References 602
Chapter 34 Maternal Glucose and Offspring Child BMI 605

Andrea Deierlein

34.2 Anthropometric Outcomes in Early Infancy 606
34.3 Anthropometric Outcomes in Early Childhood 607
34.3.1 Anthropometric Outcomes at 1–2 Years 607
34.3.2 Anthropometric Outcomes in Early
Childhood 608
34.3.3 Other Outcomes in Childhood 609
34.4 Limitations of Studies and Gaps in our
Understanding 610
34.4.1 Role of Maternal Prepregnancy Obesity 610
View Online
Contents xxv
34.4.2 Measurement of Offspring Anthropometric
Outcomes 611
34.4.3 Assessment of Abnormal Glucose Tolerance 612
Summary Points 612
Key Facts of Screening for GDM 613
Key Facts of Diet and GDM 614

Definitions of Word and Terms 614
References 615
Chapter 35 Dextrose in Total Parenteral Nutrition 619

Karen C. McCowen

35.2 Metabolic Response to Injury 620
35.3 Route of Feeding in ICU Patients – TPN
Versus Enteral 621

35.4 Hyperglycemia 624
35.4.1 Dextrose Infusion Rates 624
35.4.2 Effects of Hyperglycemia Induced by TPN
on Clinical Outcome 624
35.4.3 Effect of Hyperglycemia to Promote
Infections 624
35.5 Hyperglycemia-induced Muscle Catabolism 625
35.5.1 Intensive Insulin Therapy in Patients
Receiving Nutrition Support in the ICU 625
35.5.2 Glycemic Lability 627
35.5.3 Hypocaloric TPN 627
35.5.4 Insulin in TPN 628
35.6 Complications Associated with Dextrose Infusions in
Parenteral Nutrition 628
35.6.1 Liver Dysfunction 628
35.6.2 Respiratory Insufficiency 629
35.6.3 Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency (EFAD) 630
35.6.4 Refeeding Syndrome 630
35.7 Conclusions and Recommendations 630
Summary Points 631
Key Facts 632
References 632
Chapter 36 The Interstinal Transport of Galactase 635

Marıá Jesús Rodrı´guez Yoldi
36.1 Galactose 635

View Online
xxvi Contents
36.2 SGLT1 and GLUT2, D-Galactose Intestinal
Transporters 636
36.2.1 Functional Disorders of SGLT1 640
36.3 Factors Involved in Galactose Intestinal Transport 640
36.3.1 Proteins 640
36.3.2 Hormones 642

36.3.3 Stress and Glucocorticoids 642
36.3.4 Diet 643
36.3.5 Heavy Metals 643
36.3.6 Infection 643
Summary Points 647
Key Facts 647
References 649
Chapter 37 Galactose and Galactose Tracers in Metabolic

Studies 653
Ana Francisca Soares and John Griffith Jones
37.1 Overview of Galactose in Nutrition and Health 653

37.1.1 Principal Metabolic Fate of Galactose 654
37.1.2 Minor Metabolic Fates of Galactose:
Galactitol and Galactonate 656
37.1.3 Endogenous Galactose Production 656
37.2 Galactose Tracers as Probes of Hepatic Metabolic
Fluxes 656
37.2.1 Oxidative and Non-oxidative Disposal of
Galactose 657
37.2.2 Galactose Flux into UDPG 657
37.2.3 Measuring UDPG Flux with Galactose
Tracers 658
37.2.4 Measuring Transaldolase Exchange Activity
with Galactose Tracers 659
37.3 Integration of Galactose and Glucose Metabolic
Flux Measurements 660
37.3.1 13C-isotopomer Analysis of Galactose and
Glucose Metabolism 660
37.3.2 Galactose and Glucose Metabolism by 2H2O 661
Summary Points 662
Key Facts of Hepatic Galactose Metabolism 663
References 664
View Online
Contents xxvii
Chapter 38 D-Galactose, Dietary Sugars and Modeling
Neurological Aging 668
Kodeeswaran Parameshwaran, Michael H. Irwin,
Kosta Steliou and Carl A. Pinkert

38.1.1 Human Intake of Dietary Sugars 668
38.1.2 Brain Energy Metabolism: Energy
Requirements and Glucose Metabolism in
Health, Disease, and Aging 669
38.1.3 Mouse Models of Glucose Metabolism
and Neurological Aging 672
38.2 D-Galactose 674
38.2.1 D-Galactose as Dietary Sugar and
Modifications in Metabolism 674
38.2.2 Chronic D-galactose Administration of
Oxidative Stress in Rodents 674

38.2.3 D-Galactose and Neurological
Aging 675
38.3 Fructose Metabolism and Brain Aging 676
Summary Points 677
Key Facts 677
References 679
Chapter 39 Maltose Preference: Studies in Outbreed

Weanling Rats 686
Yoko Horikawa and Nanaya Tamaki

39.2 Maltose Preference with a Single Diet Method 687
39.3 Maltose Preference by Selection from Suc, Glc and
Fru with a Two-choice Method 688
39.4 Maltose Preference by Selection from Dex, Mal and
Glc with a Three-choice Method 691
39.5 Increased Maltose Preference in Rats Fed
a Low-protein Diet 692
39.6 Maltose Preference in Zn-deficient Rats 693
Summary Points 696
Key Facts 696
References 697
View Online
xxviii Contents
Chapter 40 Maltose and Other Sugars in Beer 700
Gine´s Navarro, Nuria Vela and Simón Navarro

40.2 Barley: Taxonomy, Cultivation and Uses 701
40.2.1 Structure of the Barley Grain and

Composition 701
40.3 Malting Process and Enzyme Development 705
40.4 Effect of Mashing and Boiling on the
Sugar Content 707
40.5 Consumption of Sugars During Primary
Fermentation 708
40.6 Factors Affecting Stuck and Sluggish Fermentation 713
40.7 Sugar Content in Finished Beer 715
Summary Points 716
Key Facts 717

References 719
Chapter 41 Fructose Absorption and Enteric Metabolism 722

Kate Witkowska and Chris Cheeseman
41.1 Sources of Fructose in the Human Diet 722

41.2 Intestinal Absorption Mechanisms 722
41.2.1 Site of Fructose Absorption 722
41.2.2 Absorption of Free Fructose 723
41.2.3 GLUT5 (SLC2A5) 724
41.2.4 GLUT2 724
41.2.5 Putative Fructose Transporters 724
41.2.6 Intestinal Metabolism of Fructose 725
41.2.7 Release of Fructose and Metabolites into
the Circulation 725
41.2.8 Regulation of Fructose Uptake During a
Meal 725
41.2.9 Adaptation to Altered Dietary Intake of
Hexoses 726
41.2.10 Fructose Malabsorption and Development 727
Summary Points 729
Key Facts of Fructose Absorption and
Enteric Metabolism 729
References 731
View Online
Contents xxix
Chapter 42 Fructose and the Metabolic Syndrome 735
Ray Zhang and Manal Abdelmalek

42.2 Metabolic Effects of Fructose 737
42.2.1 Fructose, Weight Gain and

Obesity 737
42.2.2 Fructose and Insulin Resistance 739
42.2.3 Fructose and Diabetes Mellitus 740
42.2.4 Fructose and Serum Lipids 740
42.2.5 Fructose and Uric Acid 741
42.2.6 Fructose and Hypertension 742
42.2.7 Fructose and the Metabolic
Syndrome 742
42.3 Caveats 743
42.4 Conclusion 743
Summary Points 744

Key Facts 744
References 746
Chapter 43 Fructose and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease 751

Flavio Francini, Marıá L Massa and Juan J. Gagliardino

43.2 Fructose Metabolism in the Liver 752
43.3 The ‘‘Lipid Connection’’ 754
43.4 Fructose and the Master Transcriptional Regulators
of Lipogenesis 756
43.5 Fructose, Hepatic Leptin Resistance and Impaired
b-oxidation of Fatty Acids 759
43.6 The ‘‘Inflammatory Connection’’ 761
43.7 Epigenetic Induction of Fructose-related
Lipogenesis 762
43.8 Conclusion 762
Summary Points 763
Key Facts of Fructose and Nonalcoholic Fatty
Liver Disease 763
References 766
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1230
Diagnosis and prognosis,
410
Etiology,
406
Age and sex, influence of,
406
Heredity, influence of,
407
Pathology and morbid anatomy,
410-413
Symptoms,
407
Circulation, disorders of,
409
Digestive,
409
Pain, seat and character,
408
Paroxysms, characters of,
408
409
Synonyms,
406
Treatment,
413
Bromides, use,
414
415
Caffeine and guarana, use,
414
Cannabis indica, use,
413
415
Climate, change of,
413
Ergot, use,
413
414
Galvanism, use,
414
415
in childhood,
415
Indications for,
413
Morphia, use,
415
Muriate of ammonium and chloral, use,
415
Nitrite of amyl and nitro-glycerin,
414
Quinia, use,
414
Miliary aneurisms, relation of, to cerebral form of encephalitis,
792
hemorrhage,
921-923
tubercles in tubercular meningitis, seat and character,
730
732
Mimicry in hysteria,
251
,
255
270-272
Mind-cure in hysteria,
277
Miryachit, the, hysterical nature of,
228
Mitchell's rest-cure in hysteria,
279
in neurasthenia,
358-362
Monoplegia, hysterical,
238
in nervous diseases,
44
Monospasm in nervous diseases,
46
Moral insanity,
143
management of spinal sclerosis,
906
sense, deterioration of, in chronic alcoholism,
624
treatment of hysteria,
276
Morbid anatomy of abscess of the brain,
792
of acute simple meningitis,
719
of acute spinal meningitis,
750
of acute spinal myelitis,
812
of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,
867
of cerebral anæmia,
781
of cerebral hemorrhage,
919-927
of cerebral hyperæmia,
767
of cerebral meningeal hemorrhage,
713
of chorea,
450
of chronic spinal meningitis,
762
of chronic spinal pachymeningitis,
748
of congestion of cerebral pia mater,
716
of congestion of spinal membranes,
747
of delusional insanity,
169
of diffuse sclerosis,
886
of disseminated sclerosis,
874
880-883
of external pachymeningitis,
705
of family form of tabes dorsalis,
872
of infantile spinal paralysis,
1132
of insanity,
121
of internal pachymeningitis,
706
of neuritis,
1190
of paralysis agitans,
433
of secondary scleroses,
893
of spastic spinal paralysis,
865
of spina bifida,
759
of spinal meningeal hemorrhage,
755
of tabes dorsalis,
840
of tetanus,
549
of tubercular meningitis,
729
Morbid anatomy and pathology of chronic lead-poisoning,
689
of epilepsy,
488
of writers' cramp,
526
Morbid somnolence,
344
Morphia, use, in acute simple meningitis,
721
in cerebral anæmia,
788
in hysteria,
276
in migraine,
415
in multiple neuritis,
1198
in neuritis,
1194
in spinal sclerosis,
905
in thermic fever,
398
399
in the treatment of the opium habit,
673
675
in tumors of the brain,
1068
in vertigo,
427
Morphœa, in progressive unilateral facial atrophy,
695
Morphine habit,
647
Mortality of chorea,
454
of insanity,
125
126
of tetanus,
553
Motility, disturbances of, in spinal syphilis,
1025
Motion, disorders of, in chorea,
445
446
in chronic alcoholism,
620
in diffuse spinal sclerosis,
888
Motor paralysis in unilateral paralysis of spinal cord,
1166
Motor symptoms of thermic fever,
391
weakness, in spinal hyperæmia,
803
Motory symptoms of nervous diseases,

42
Multiple and multiple degenerative neuritis,
1195
Diagnosis,
1197
Etiology,
1197
Nature and history,
1195
Pathology,
1196
Prognosis,
1198
Symptoms,
1195
Onset,
1195
Pain, characters,
1195
Paresis and atrophy of muscles,
1196
Sensation, disturbances of,
1195
Treatment,
1198
Electricity,
1198
Morphia,
1198
Salicylate of sodium and iodide of potassium,
1198
Rest,
1198
Multiple cerebro-spinal sclerosis,
873
Muscles, atrophy of,
1267
changes in, in alcoholism,

Textbook Dietary Sugars Chemistry Analysis Function and Effects 1St Edition Victor R Preedy Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Textbook Dietary Sugars Chemistry Analysis Function and Effects 1St Edition Victor R Preedy Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Dietary Sugars Chemistry Analysis

Function and Effects 1st Edition Victor

Caffeine Chemistry Analysis Function and Effects 1st

Isoflavones Chemistry Analysis Function and Effects 1st

Vitamin A and Carotenoids Chemistry Analysis Function

B Vitamins and Folate Chemistry Analysis Function and

Aging: Oxidative Stress and Dietary Antioxidants 2nd

The Mediterranean Diet : An Evidence-Based Approach 2nd

Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention 2nd

Handbook of Nutrition and Diet in Palliative Care,

Food and Nutritional Components in Focus

Titles in the Series:

How to obtain future titles on publication:

For further information please contact:

Food and Nutritional Components in Focus No. 3

r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012

All rights reserved

Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry,

Registered Charity Number 207890

For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org

by divergent skills, and professional disciplines. Hitherto, this transdisci-

Coverage includes sugars in the context of honey, dental caries, whole-body

Food and Nutritional Components in Focus No. 3

Each chapter transcends the intellectual divide with a novel cohort of

 Key Facts (areas of focus explained for the lay person);

Professor Victor R Preedy,

Chapter 2 Sugars and Dental Caries 16

2.1 Dental Caries 16

Chapter 3 Whole Body Glucose Metabolism 30

Chapter 4 Medical Implications of Dietary Simple Sugars and Complex

4.4.3 Dietary CHO and Cancer Risks 65

and Other Medical Conditions 67

Chemistry and Biochemistry

Chapter 6 Galactose Chemistry 86

Chapter 7 Maltose Chemistry and Biochemistry 101

7.1 Introduction 101

Chapter 8 Fructose Chemistry 115

8.1 Introduction: Structure and Stereochemistry 115

8.3.3 Phosphorylation of Fructose Catalysed by

8.7 Degradation of Polysaccharides Containing Fructose

Chapter 9 Sucrose Chemistry 138

9.1 Introduction 138

Chapter 10 Lactose Chemistry 150

Lee D. Hansen and Jennifer B. Nielson

10.1 Introduction 150

Key Facts 160

Chapter 11 Characterization of Sugars, Cyclitols and Galactosyl

11.1 Introduction 167

12.1 Introduction 186

12.2 Forerunners of TLC Methods 187

12.6.6 Diﬀerential Diagnosis of Galactosaemias 198

Chapter 13 Analysis of Dietary Sugars in Beverages by Gas

13.1 Introduction 208

14.1 Introduction 229

14.2 Dietary Sugars 230

14.3.3 UV Spectrophotometry for Direct Sugar

Chapter 15 Extraction and Quantiﬁcation of Sugars and Fructans from

15.1 Introduction 249

Chapter 16 Determination of Dietary Sugars by Ion Chromatography and

16.1 Analysis of Carbohydrates: Historical Background 269

16.2.1 Chromatographic Separation of Galactose,

Chapter 17 Assay of Glucose Using Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy 286

17.1 Introduction 286

Key Facts (areas of focus explained for the lay person);