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Dietary Lipids for
Healthy Brain Function
Dietary Lipids for
Healthy Brain Function
Claude Leray
Originally published in French by Edition Sauramps Medical, Montpellier, France under the title:
Ces Lipides qui stimulent notre cerveau by C. LERAY, 2016.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Leray, Claude, author.
Title: Dietary lipids for healthy brain function / Claude Leray.
Other titles: Ces lipides qui stimulent notre cerveau. English
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2017. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016056527 | ISBN 9781138035256 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Lipids–physiology | Dietary Fats | Brain–growth &
development | Mental Disorders | Nervous System Diseases
Classification: LCC QP752.F35 | NLM QU 85 | DDC 612.3/97–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016056527
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................ ix
Acknowledgment .............................................................................................. xi
Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2 Brain development ...................................................................... 7

2.1 ω-3 Fatty acids.......................................................................................... 7
2.2 Vitamin D ............................................................................................... 19
2.3 Vitamin E ................................................................................................ 21
References.......................................................................................................... 23
Chapter 3 Cognitive development ............................................................ 27

3.1 ω-3 Fatty acids........................................................................................ 27
3.1.1 Epidemiological investigations ............................................. 27
3.1.2 Intervention studies ................................................................ 32
3.2 Fatty acids............................................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Phosphatidylcholine................................................................ 36
3.2.2 Phosphatidylserine.................................................................. 37
3.3 Vitamin D ............................................................................................... 39
References.......................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 4 Cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease......................... 45

4.1 Age-related decline................................................................................ 45
4.1.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ......................................................................... 47
4.1.1.1 Epidemiological investigations............................. 48
4.1.2 Vitamin A and carotenoids ................................................... 57
4.1.2.1 Vitamin A ................................................................ 57
4.1.2.2 Carotenoids ............................................................. 58
4.2 Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease .................................................... 59
4.2.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ......................................................................... 62
4.2.1.2 Intervention studies ............................................... 64
v
vi Contents
4.2.2 Vitamin A and carotenoids ................................................... 68

4.2.2.1 Vitamin A ................................................................ 68
4.2.2.2 Carotenoids ............................................................. 70
4.2.3 Vitamin D................................................................................. 70
4.2.4 Vitamin E.................................................................................. 77
4.2.5 Cholesterol................................................................................ 81
References.......................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 5 Other neurological diseases .................................................... 95

5.1 Parkinson’s disease................................................................................ 95
5.1.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ......................................................................... 97
5.1.2 Vitamin D................................................................................. 98
5.1.3 Vitamin E................................................................................ 100
5.1.3.1 Intervention studies ............................................. 100
5.2 Multiple sclerosis ................................................................................. 101
5.2.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ....................................................................... 103
5.2.2 Vitamin D............................................................................... 105
5.3 Epilepsy................................................................................................. 110
5.3.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ....................................................................... 112
5.3.2 Vitamin D............................................................................... 114
References........................................................................................................ 117
Chapter 6 Mental disorders...................................................................... 123

6.1 Major clinical disorders ...................................................................... 124
6.1.1 Depressive disorders ............................................................ 124
6.1.1.1 ω-3 fatty acids ....................................................... 126
6.1.1.2 Vitamin D .............................................................. 135
6.1.1.3 Vitamin E............................................................... 139
6.1.2 Bipolar disorder and ω-3 fatty acids.................................. 140
6.1.2.1 Epidemiological investigations........................... 141
6.1.3 Schizophrenia (psychotic disorders) .................................. 143
6.1.3.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ...................................................... 145
6.1.3.2 Vitamin D .............................................................. 148
Contents vii
6.1.4 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder............................ 150

6.1.4.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ...................................................... 152
6.1.4.2 Vitamin D .............................................................. 154
6.1.5 Autism .................................................................................... 156
6.1.5.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ...................................................... 157
6.1.5.2 Vitamin D .............................................................. 159
6.2 Other personality and behavior disorders ...................................... 162
6.2.1 Aggressive behavior ............................................................. 163
6.2.1.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ...................................................... 164
6.2.1.2 Vitamin D .............................................................. 170
6.2.1.3 Cholesterol............................................................. 172
6.2.2 Suicidal behavior................................................................... 174
6.2.2.1 ω-3 Fatty acids ...................................................... 176
6.2.2.2 Vitamin D .............................................................. 180
6.2.2.3 Cholesterol............................................................. 181
References........................................................................................................ 184
Chapter 7 Annexes ..................................................................................... 197

7.1 Essential fatty acids............................................................................. 197
7.2 Dietary allowance of essential fatty acids ....................................... 198
7.2.1 Main DHA and EPA sources as sea products...................... 198
7.2.2 Foods for infants and young children ............................... 201
7.2.3 Food supplements rich in EPA, DHA,
or both ........................................................................202
7.3 Vitamin A and carotenoids................................................................ 203
7.3.1 Vitamin A............................................................................... 203
7.3.2 Carotenoids ............................................................................ 204
7.4 Vitamin D ............................................................................................. 205
7.5 Vitamin E .............................................................................................. 209
7.6 Cholesterol ............................................................................................ 211
7.7 Phospholipids....................................................................................... 212
7.7.1 Phosphatidylcholine.............................................................. 212
7.7.2 Phosphatidylserine................................................................ 213
7.8 Apolipoprotein E ................................................................................. 214
7.9 Evaluation of cognitive performances ............................................. 214
7.9.1 Different types of memory .................................................. 214
7.9.1.1 Working or short-term memory: Baddeley
model...................................................................... 215
7.9.1.2 Long-term memory .............................................. 216
7.9.2 Evaluation of memory capacity by MMSE....................... 217
7.9.3 Test of executive functions .................................................. 219
7.9.4 Global deterioration scale .................................................... 221
7.9.5 Peabody picture vocabulary test ........................................ 222
viii Contents
7.9.6 Wechsler intelligence test..................................................... 222

7.9.7 Bayley motor test .................................................................. 223
7.10 Kaufman children intelligence test ................................................. 223
7.11 Estimation of depression .................................................................. 224
7.12 Evaluation of aggressiveness and violence ................................... 225
Index................................................................................................................. 227
Foreword
Claude Leray, a prolific and recognized scientist in lipids research, presents
here his latest book in which he tackles lipids related to the neurosciences. It
is a vast program! Too vast for those who are not medical doctors? No.
Undoubtedly, his scientific mind, rigorous and methodical, allows him to
address neuroscience holistically, covering both neurology and psychiatry.
These two sides of medicine were separated a little more than 40 years
ago, although so closely intertwined by the substrate on which they work
the nervous system. Neuropsychiatric diseases with an aging population
and the increasing stress accompanying a more urban life style are major
public health concerns. The incidence of multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s
disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and depres-
sion is constantly growing. What is the cause? Possibly aging. Also our life-
styles. Surely our environment. Neuropsychiatric medicine and research are
indeed changing, and the neurosciences represent the second investment
field in the development of new treatments.
A main focus of this book is to emphasize, rightly, the importance of
lipids in brain function both structurally and developmentally by high-
lighting the current understanding and data of their key roles. It is also
necessary to review the most emblematic pathologies in the neuropsychia-
tric field, which Claude performs with erudition and remarkable scientific
caution.
You will not find here provocation, miracle recipes, or magic foods.
However, you will have the most relevant data, such as the important
discoveries about the role of vitamin D in the development of the
nervous system, neuronal homeostasis, and neuropsychiatric diseases,
all derived from fundamental and medical research. Claude stresses
the importance of lipids in diseases ranging from multiple sclerosis
and autism to Alzheimer’s. Beyond the methodical and documented
descriptions, he stresses the importance of nutrition from birth to old
age to create the conditions for optimal maintenance of our neuronal
assets. The key issue here is thus aging well. Clearly, lipids are not a
panacea, and Claude balances the nature of his comments, supports his
arguments, and justifies his conclusions.
ix
x Foreword
Knowledge facilitates better insights, answers, and medical treat-

ments; therefore, I am convinced that this work, along with its compre-
hensive bibliography, is important for any researcher or physician
interested in the subject. It will also be a key tool for students by offering
a clear overview of the topic, stimulating their curiosity and their culture,
and providing an essential base to facilitate future research in the
neurosciences.
Prof. William Camu

Montpellier University Hospital
Montpellier, France
Acknowledgment
I sincerely thank my friend Louis Sarliève, INSERM Research Director, for
invaluable assistance in reading of the French and the English manuscripts.
I thank my wife for continuous support and invaluable involvement
in the correction of the final version of the French text.
xi
chapter one
Introduction
Research on the structure and function of the human brain started very
early in the history of medical science. Greek doctors, in the sixth century
BC, recognized the brain as the center of the highest human activities. At
the time of Galen in the second century AD, brain anatomy was already
known in detail, and the brain’s importance was established as the seat
of intelligence, voluntary movements, and sensations. The composition
of the brain generated a significant interest as early as the time of Plato
(428–348 BC), who considered this body part as equal to the bone marrow,
whereas Aristotle (384–322 BC) compared the brain to a fat deposit com-
parable to the spermaceti found in the brain of the sperm whale.
The first observations on the fatty nature of the brain were made in
the seventeenth century by the Danish physician Thomas Bartholin
(1616–1680), discoverer of the lymph system and of the glands present
in women that were given his name (Bartholin glands), and by the Dutch
inventor of the microscope and discoverer of the spermatozoids, Antoni
van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723). But it was the early work of the French
chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul (1786–1889), the founder of lipid chem-
istry, that led the way for other researchers in the nineteenth century to
provide new knowledge about the composition of brain lipids: Nicolas
Vauquelin, Jean-Pierre Couerbe, Nicolas Gobley (all in France), and
Johann Thudichum (in Britain). All of these researchers described the nat-
ure of brain phospholipids, and Gobley and Thudichum also revealed the
presence of few simple acids (stearic, palmitic, and oleic acids).
In the 1960s, with the advent of more efficient analytical techniques,
many researchers focused on the richness of the brain and retina in doco-
sahexaenoic acid (DHA [22:6 ω-3]), a fatty acid found in 1942 in Japanese
fish (see Section 7.1). This fatty acid, called “marine fatty acid,” likely
appeared during the Cambrian explosion, about 600 million years ago,
when its synthesis became possible because of the rising atmospheric oxy-
gen levels above the Pasteur point responsible for aerobic life. In parallel,
complex cell types also appeared that were characterized by the presence
of a nucleus and several mitochondria, structures known to be common to
all cellular organisms called eukaryotes.
Among the discoverers of the biochemical features characteristic of
all nervous tissues, mention should also be made of John S. O’Brien
(University of California–San Diego). In 1965, he was one of the first to
1
2 Dietary lipids for healthy brain function
describe accurately the fatty acid composition of several lipid fractions

extracted from the white and gray substances of the human brain (O’Brien
and Sampson 1965). Similar observations were made by N. C. Nielsen
(Vision Research Institute, The Ohio State University) on beef retinal cells,
nerve cells specialized in the perception of light (Nielsen 1979). Nielson
found that the DHA content of the photoreceptor lipids was very large
(36%) and higher than that measured in synaptic membranes.
Very quickly and naturally, these biochemical features led investiga-
tors to suggest that high DHA levels in brain cell membranes should cor-
respond to a specific physiological function. One of the first assumptions
was that a dietary deficiency of this fatty acid during the development of
an animal or a human could hinder the formation of the myelin sheath,
known to isolate nerves, thereby inducing instability in the nervous sys-
tem and causing major disorders (Bernsohn and Stephanides 1967).
Subsequently and to this day, this specific affinity of the brain and retina
for DHA has prompted investigations showing the plurality of functional
roles for DHA in humans and animals (rat, monkey). Human clinical studies
have sometimes confirmed the results found in epidemiological studies.
Despite the resistance of the nerve tissue to any change after a dietary
modification, work published in 1971 first revealed that a prolonged diet-
ary deficiency of linolenic acid (18:3 ω-3), the precursor of DHA found in
plants, induced a decrease in the DHA content in rat retina (Anderson
and Maude 1971). Four years later, Wheeler et al. (1975) showed that these
changes were accompanied by a weakening of the electrical functioning of
the retina, thereby affecting the vision of DHA-deficient animals.
Independently of this work on vision, the influence of an essential
fatty acid deficiency on the general functioning of the brain was being
widely explored. It seems that the subject was first described in 1966 by
D. F. Caldwell in Detroit, Michigan. Caldwell and Churchill (1966) clearly
demonstrated that the administration of a diet devoid of fatty acids in
pregnant rats led to a serious reduction in the learning capacity of the
second-generation rats. However, these investigations could not target a
precise group of lipids because the food was totally delipidated.
Several researchers then showed that this lipid deficiency not only
decreased the learning ability of the rats, but also induced a large drop
in the DHA content in specific brain phospholipids (Lamptey and Walker
1976). Similar results were described in monkeys (Fiennes et al. 1973). In
France, Bourre et al. (1989) confirmed that a diet without linolenic acid,
but rich in linoleic acid, induced a significant decrease in learning ability
in rats. All this research finally allowed for the determination that ω-3 fatty
acids, and particularly their precursor linolenic acid, were responsible for
these physiological disorders. Using a fortification of the food given
to pregnant rats with a fish oil rich in DHA and eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA [20:5 ω-3]), Yonekubo et al. (1994) in Japan demonstrated
Chapter one: Introduction 3
an improvement of learning capacities in young rats born from these

mothers, compared with animals ingesting no fish oil. In addition, this
DHA and EPA intake had no effect when fed during the postpartum per-
iod. From these investigations, it can be considered that surely DHA and
probably its precursor EPA are among the several components involved in
the “noblest” and most vital functions of the brain.
What could be the role of these particular fatty acids of marine origin
in brain function? The problem is very complex, but one of the mechan-
isms underlying the behavioral problems observed after a linolenic acid
deficiency was proposed by Delion et al. (1994) via work done in Tours
University, France. They showed that a linolenic acid deficiency was able
to induce important changes in neurotransmission pathways involving
dopamine- and serotonin-secreting cells in various regions of the rat brain,
changes likely interfering with the animal behavior.
Work on determining the major role of ω-3 fatty acids and especially
long-chain DHA in brain function, as demonstrated by Michael Crawford
of the Brain Chemistry and Human Nutrition Institute in London, pro-
moted with some success the hypothesis of their decisive intervention in
the anatomical and functional development of the human brain during
its development.
Indeed, from the anthropological studies we know that bipedalism,
present in Homo habilis 2 million years ago, was contemporaneous with a
significant increase in brain volume, a phenomenon likely accompanied
by the adoption of a meat-rich diet. These changes were favored by the
migration of this prehistoric early-human ancestor to aquatic areas rich in
land animals where DHA-concentrated prey could be found. Later, about
100,000 years ago, a further increase in brain volume led to modern humans
(Homo sapiens); this brain volume increase was contemporaneous with a
new migration toward East Africa in lakeshore areas or countries close to
marine environments. There, these humans found prey that supplied all of
the long-chain ω-3 fatty acids (EPA, DHA) needed to build the brain. In
addition, this migration was accompanied by a cultural explosion, marked
by the emergence of arts, religions, and unfortunately wars. This develop-
ment may ultimately be characterized more by higher brain functions
than by an increased brain volume (Horrobin 1998). As emphasized by
Horrobin, a prolific and popular English author, the differentiation of
humans and great apes can only be based on lipid metabolism, if one con-
siders the richness of these organic compounds in the brain and the impor-
tance of the neuronal connections.
Just as past trends have been influenced by a steady and increasing
supply of DHA, it is likely that the intellectual evolution of current humans
will depend on the consumption of foods rich in ω-3 fatty acids. The deple-
tion of marine animals suitable for human consumption, as a result of inten-
sive fishing and contamination by pesticides or heavy metals, should
encourage the development of a controlled aquaculture of fish or algae pro-

ducing DHA: this approach may be the only way to ensure good physical
and mental health for future generations.
The role of fatty acids in the functioning of the nervous system of
laboratory animals has been the subject of much research. Although a direct
link has not yet been established, the effects of these fatty acids on behavior
and cognitive abilities of these animals are no longer questionable. This
zoopsychological approach is necessary, but the transposition of the find-
ings from rat or even chimpanzee to the human cognitive domain remains
questionable. Despite the complexity of such research, it is not surprising
that neurophysiologists and psychiatrists were interested in these topics,
with some of them being already investigated in animals. Much epidemio-
logical research was recently undertaken, along with some therapeutic
trials. Thus, various aspects of child development, aging, neurological dis-
orders, or mood (or affective) disorders have been considered for therapeu-
tic or preventive actions. Although the mechanisms involved remain poorly
understood, applications of some of this research are beginning to be
successfully exploited in various situations.
In addition to fatty acids, many observations have indicated that other
lipids such as vitamins (A, D, and E), cholesterol, and some carotenoids
could contribute to maintenance of the noble functions of the brain in aged
people and also prevent serious neurological disorders such as epilepsy or
multiple sclerosis.
Similarly, many mood disorders, as classified in psychopathology,
seem to be under the control of these lipids. Numerous clinical studies
and some experimental interventions now suggest that supplementation
with some of these lipids may improve depressive and bipolar disorders,
schizophrenia, autism, and attention-deficit disorders and also contribute
to reduction in the intensity of aggressive or suicidal impulses.
If new results confirm the initial assumptions of the involvement of ω-3
fatty acids in brain function, and also other related compounds and vita-
mins belonging to the lipid group, it will be important to promote the
consumption of these natural substances, the supply of which should be
sufficient from a diversified diet. As suggested by D. Horrobin in 2003,
the deficiencies observed in a population at risk with an unbalanced diet
should be quickly filled by a supplementation with simple nutrients.
The treatment of mental disorders using a dietary approach is not yet
common among the public or medical doctors. It is significant that a recent
report by the Montaigne Institute in Paris evoked only the possibility of
vitamin D to counteract the environmental effects on mental illness.
Undoubtedly, lipid administration will gain momentum when patients
realize that the current research is usually performed by government teams
receiving no aid from the pharmaceutical industry. This independence
may encourage a pragmatic and sympathetic consideration from the public
Chapter one: Introduction 5
because all of the nervous disorders described in this book could poten-
tially be diminished without risk by a moderate dietary change or by a
simple supply of an appropriate supplementation. Although this cognitive
impairment approach in no way excludes modern medical therapy,
patients should be aware that any alternative or at least complementary
treatment already exists. This topic should be mentioned in the interview
between doctor and patient, especially after taking into account the docu-
ments related to the involved problems.
These encouraging results offer the potential for a new and important
treatment of many mental conditions that are currently a heavy burden on
social budgets. Indeed, the World Health Organization (WHO) found that
more than 450 million people suffer from behavioral or mental disorders
worldwide. In the European Union, a recent analysis has shown that 27%
of individuals aged 18–65 years suffered from psychiatric troubles during
the past year. In France, 1 in 5 people currently suffers from a mental dis-
order (12 million for the whole country), compared with 1 in 10 for cancer.
The Montaigne Institute and the “FondaMental Foundation” in France
estimated that in 2014 the costs associated with mental illness would reach
nearly 110 billion euros per year or 5.8% of the gross domestic product. In
comparison, the cost of cancer for the society was estimated at 60 billion
euros and that of cardiovascular diseases at 30 billion euros. As emphasized
in the Montaigne Institute report, only 2% of the budget of biomedical
research is actually devoted to these problems. It is thus time to make the
fight against mental diseases a public health priority. Taking into account
the steady lengthening of the “total” life expectancy and the incidence of
mental diseases related to old age, the main challenge of medicine in this
twenty-first century is to increase the “healthy” life expectancy. Failure to
achieve this ambitious goal will lead to formidable economic challenges
for all nations in the management of an increasing number of frail or depen-
dent older people.
The purpose of this book is to focus on the most important and recent
work on food lipids and human health, placing the work in a historical
context. Such research has provided some indisputable evidence of the
beneficial effects, even for a moderate intake, of some specific lipids, some-
times absent or introduced at too low amounts in the normal diet. It is
hoped that this information could be propagated widely to more easily
preserve and improve brain development in young people and mental
health of some adults, with only slight dietary modifications. Further-
more, these improvements involve only natural products that are much
cheaper than the current traditional drugs. Despite the lack of support
by pharmaceutical companies, the advances of these “nutritional treat-
ments” as highlighted in this book may be immediately applied by health-
care personnel for the greatest benefit of patients and the global health
budget.
It is regrettable that the basic rules of nutrition and dietetics are not
part of the general culture, a likely consequence of the absence of educa-
tion in these matters at all levels of schooling. Hopefully, the recent rela-
tionships noted between mental or neurological troubles and food lipids
will spur people to take responsibility for their health status. The informa-
tion in this book details how to live to old age in good health and in full
autonomy, particularly by slowing the inevitable decline of the upper
brain functions and by trying to avoid the development of the most
disabling nervous disorders.
References
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the fetal and postnatal periods on the learning ability of postnatal rats. Biosci.
Biotech. Biochem. 58:799–801.
chapter two
Brain development
It has long been known that low-weight newborns (less than 2500 g) are
more common in environments with the lowest socioeconomic status.
After examining the dietary habits of mothers, it became clear that mater-
nal nutrition plays a key role. For example, a rigorous study in East
London found that mothers of such children had a dietary energy defi-
ciency, but that deficit could be mostly attributed to lipids, a relationship
implying logically a deficiency in essential fatty acids as well as lipidic
vitamins such as vitamin D and E (Crawford et al. 1986). Although the
hypothesis of essential fatty acid involvement was quickly confirmed by
the analysis of maternal blood, the intervention of vitamins, in particular
vitamin D, has still to be confirmed.
The benefits of breastfeeding in child survival were recognized long
ago in that breast milk had a role in preventing the sometimes fatal effects
of bacterial infections. It is now certain that it guarantees the development
of intelligence, higher performance in school, and even social level in
adults (Victora et al. 2015).
The influence of nutrition on brain development is in short a manifes-
tation of neuronal plasticity as mentioned by neurologists when put at the
service of rehabilitation or functional repair of brain damage. The harmo-
nious development of the brain and cognitive performance in children as in
adults is conditioned by several lipid nutrients. Unfortunately, only three
of these lipids have been the subject of specific research: ω-3 fatty acids,
vitamin D, and vitamin E. The effects of vitamin A are not well known
because experimental research used global supplementation of various
micronutrients, thereby masking the specific effects of that vitamin.
2.1 ω-3 Fatty acids

Among the essential fatty acids (Section 7.1), the links between ω-3 fatty
acids and cerebral function were established early. Since the 1960s, it
is known that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA [22:6 ω-3]) is the brain’s major
ω-3 fatty acid (about 10%–15% of total fatty acids, about 5 g in an adult brain),
with the other ω-3 fatty acids amounting to less than 1% of total fatty acids.
The DHA concentration varies according to the diet and the age of the sub-
ject; it is higher in the young and lower in the elderly. It is synthesized, as
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA [20:5 ω-3]), by marine phytoplankton and some
7
animals, but not by higher plants. Notably, these two “noble” fatty acids,
DHA and EPA, are absent from vegetable oils and seeds and are found at
very low concentrations in fats of mammalian or poultry meat and in milk
and eggs. The most generous sources are marine fish (or fish oil) and some
other marine animals (molluscs, shellfish) (Section 7.2). Humans may
directly absorb these fatty acids from food, and they also can synthesize
them, albeit slowly, from linolenic acid (18:3 ω-3) that is present in plants
and mainly in some vegetal oils (walnut, soybean, linseed). That biosynth-
esis, the exact efficiency of which is still controversial, is complex and
involves a cascade of enzymes that sequentially elongate, desaturate, and
oxidize the carbon chain (Section 7.1).
EPA and DHA biosynthesis efficiency appears to be higher in
women than in men, but it has been shown that a dietary supplementa-
tion of linolenic acid in pregnant women has no effect on the DHA levels
in maternal blood (de Groot et al. 2004). So, a strict vegan diet (excluding
products and by-products of animal origin) could not be compatible with
normal fetal development, although several observations suggest that an
intake of only linolenic acid would be sufficient to maintain suitable
brain DHA levels. This important issue deserves further epidemiological
research. Importantly, throughout pregnancy, the placenta facilitates the
transfer of DHA from the mother’s body to the fetus, with its supply
being ensured to the newborn through milk (breast or formula). Because
DHA level in milk depends on the maternal diet, it is recommended that
nursing women continue to consume foods rich in marine products.
Indeed, it has been shown that even in Denmark, where fish is frequently
consumed, breast milk provides only one fifth of the recommended vita-
min D intake to the newborn (Streym et al. 2016).
For ethical reasons, experiments using dietary restriction of ω-3 fatty
acids could be performed only in animals. Despite the usual objection
for their transposition in humans, it has been established that an ω-3 fatty
acid deficiency in developing animals produced a DHA depletion in the
brain and that this depletion was associated with lower learning abilities.
Many studies have confirmed that lower DHA levels in nerve cell mem-
branes always induced a slowdown in neurogenesis, the formation of neu-
ronal connections, and cell migration, with these events having negative
consequences for brain growth and function.
It seems now clear that DHA deficiency in humans as in animals is cri-
tical for brain development, but details and importance of the effects are not
fully understood. The impossibility to perform experiments in humans, as
in rats, explains the lag time for our knowledge in this area. Moreover,
in mammals the main fact that emerges is the very different timing of
the brain growth spurt in relation to birth in different species (Figure 2.1).
These features are at the origin of the concept of vulnerability during a
so-called critical period when fast changes in function and structure occur.
Chapter two: Brain development 9
Human
6
Monkey Rat
Weight, %
–30 –20 –10 +10 +20 +30

Age Birth Age
Figure 2.1 Evolution of brain growth in human, monkey, and rat. Weight increase
is expressed in percentage of the brain weight in adults. The time unit has been
adapted for each species: 1 day in rat, 4 days in rhesus monkey, and 1 month in
human. (Modified from Dobbing, J., and Sands, J., Early Hum. Dev., 311, 74–83,
1979. With permission.)
Thus, unlike in monkeys, rats are born very immature, with this feature
being advantageous for the investigator. In contrast, the central nervous sys-
tem of humans grows very rapidly in the perinatal period. Therefore, we
must remain cautious about the conclusions drawn from experiments done
in different animal species focusing on the central nervous system as well as
for other physiological situations that may vary during body development.
The studies of human brain development have suggested that incor-
poration of DHA is essential at the end of the gestation period and imme-
diately after birth (Clandinin et al. 1980). Indeed, it has been found that
nearly 80% of the sum of embryonic arachidonic acid (20:4 ω-6) and
DHA are deposited in the last 3 months of gestation. During these 3 months,
the fetus has accumulated about 67 mg of DHA per day and about 75 mg
during breastfeeding (Makrides and Gibson 2000). The whole amount
should come from the lipid deposit of the mother, with these stocks being
recovered during several months after birth. Considering these data, it is
easier to appreciate the maternal needs of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids during
pregnancy and later, especially in the case of a long-lasting breastfeeding.
Through animal studies, it can be assumed that intake of polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids guarantees harmonious development of brain functions
in the early childhood, after 2 years, and toward the final period of brain
maturation.
A confirmation of this hypothesis was reported in 1990 among low-

weight newborns (1000–1500 g) via work done by Dr. R. D. Uauy (Depart-
ment of Pediatrics, Medical School of Dallas, Texas). Indeed, Uauy et al.
(1990) demonstrated that the addition of ω-3 fatty acids from fish oil in
reconstituted milk provided the same results as breast milk in relation
to retinal function. The addition of linoleic acid (LA [18:2 ω-6]) added or
not to linolenic acid (18:3 ω-3) provided the worst results. Subsequent
research, largely carried out by Dr. D. L. O’Connor and colleagues at
The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids) in Toronto, Canada, has led to
the same conclusions. In addition, there were beneficial effects on both
motor development at 12 months and vocabulary comprehension at
14 months (O’Connor et al. 2001).
Other research in this area is less categorical about the favorable effects
of DHA, and all neonatologists are waiting more coordinated work with
greater numbers of children subjected to comparable experimental proce-
dures and finally tested with unified tools to better assess their psychomo-
tor development (Molloy et al. 2012). Research has identified the essential
role of DHA and sometimes arachidonic acid in the anatomical and func-
tional maturation of the brain. For example, blood DHA levels were
observed to be higher in breastfed children than in those fed with a specia-
lized newborn formula (Sanders and Naismith 1979). In rhesus monkeys
(Connor et al. 1990) as well as in humans (Makrides et al. 1994), brain ana-
lyses have shown that breastfeeding ensured the highest DHA concentra-
tions. In addition, Crawford (1993) promoted the idea that DHA was, as
arachidonic acid, a vital compound in breast milk in ensuring the best
development of a child’s brain. Shortly afterward, a large meta-analysis
consisting of 20 clinical studies conducted in six countries showed that com-
pared with infant formulas, breastfeeding was significantly associated with
better cognitive development (Anderson et al. 1999). Importantly, at that
time infant formulas were not supplemented with DHA or arachidonic
acid, and the ongoing changes in the production of formulas resulted from
this research.
Many studies have been carried out to examine the possible effects of
DHA intake on cognitive and motor development in children. In Denmark,
Lauritzen et al. (2005) could not identify any effect. These negative results
have been explained by the experimental use of too low amounts of
DHA, an usually large consumption of fish in northern populations, or
by balanced diets already rich in essential fatty acids. Moreover, these com-
pounds may induce very early in life psychomotor effects that are unable
to be detected by the current tests (Section 7.9) due to their unsuitability or
low sensitivity.
The large DOMIno study, conducted in five Australian maternity hos-
pitals, based on a supplementation of pregnant women (from the 21st week
to birth) with DHA, did not detect any modification of cognitive and
language development in children aged 18 months or 4 years (Makrides

2016). These negative findings seem to highlight the importance of breast-
feeding because these Australian children were fed only infant formulas.
Several studies have shown that after 4 to 6 months of normal breast-
feeding, a diet enriched with DHA for 1 year had a beneficial effect on the
development of vision in children (Hoffman et al. 2003).
The clinical work published between 2001 and 2008 by Dr. I. B. Helland
(Department of Pediatrics, University of Oslo, Norway) provides the first
serious database enabling the conclusion for improved child mental devel-
opment when the mother has ingested fish oil during 5 months before birth
and during the first 3 months of breastfeeding. These beneficial effects are
clearly observed at 4 years or age (Helland et al. 2003), and some of them
still remain even after 7 years of age (Helland et al. 2008).
How were these conclusions reached? In these studies, selected
mothers were given daily for defined periods 10 mL of cod liver oil (pro-
viding approximately 2.5 g of ω-3 fatty acids). Control subjects received
corn oil (providing about 4.7 g of LA and 92 mg of linolenic acid). At
the age of 4, the children of these mothers were submitted to intelligence
testing according to the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. This
classic multi-subtest battery (Section 7.10) aims to evaluate both intelli-
gence and knowledge by using three scales: sequential processing, simul-
taneous processing, and nonverbal abilities. The study of these 4-year-old
children has shown that the children from mothers ingesting fish oil
(48 children) tested 4.1 intelligence quotient (IQ) points higher than those
from mothers ingesting vegetable oil (36 children). The former children
had also a head circumference at birth that was significantly higher than
that of the latter children. At the age of 7 years, the researchers did not
find any IQ difference between the two groups; however, the positioning
on the scale of the sequential processing was still in favor of children born
from mothers who were supplemented with fish oil.
As the authors pointed out with some humor, if new teaching meth-
ods could increase the IQ by 4 points, education authorities would imme-
diately implement the methods. So, why are these intelligence effects in
children via dietary supplementation administered in pregnant women
ignored? In addition, such treatment is without side effects. If there is
any doubt, why not extend these experiences to several groups of women
belonging to different social positions? The interest of such results would
justify the cost of the research work needed to obtain them.
Another study, published by Dr. E. E. Birch (University of Texas–Dallas)
and colleagues, underscores the importance of a diet enriched with DHA
(together with arachidonic acid) for only 17 weeks after birth on visual
acuity and cognitive development (Birch et al. 2007). By comparing the
effects of breastfeeding and infant formula supplemented or not with
DHA plus arachidonic acid, Birch et al. (2007) clearly showed that the
worst results on visual acuity and IQ based on verbal expression are

observed among children receiving no DHA after 4 years. A large European
study (United Kingdom, Belgium, Italy) has revealed that 6-year-old
children who had received a diet enriched with DHA and arachidonic
acid for 4 months after birth were faster at processing information com-
pared with children who received an unsupplemented formula (Willatts
et al. 2013).
A review conducted by Protzko et al. (2013) at the University of
New York focused on a dozen recent studies exploring the effects of a
maternal supplementation with at least 1 g of DHA or an infant supple-
mentation with a reconstituted milk containing up to 0.5 g of DHA and
EPA per 100 g of lipids. All the screened studies have shown that such
a nutritional therapy clearly enabled the measurement of higher IQ sev-
eral years later. After such results, Dr. Protzko did not hesitate to give
as a title for his article, “How to make a young child smarter: evidence
from the database of raising intelligence.”
The scientific community has not entirely adopted the providential
efficiency of ω-3 fatty acids in improving child neurological development.
Those who are the most critical will hide behind the relatively inconclu-
sive conclusions that arose from some meta-analyses, such as the analysis
performed in Australia (Gould et al. 2013). Studies have highlighted many
methodological limitations, but despite reservations, a benefit of the
supplementation with ω-3 fatty acids on cognitive development in 2- to
5-year-old children has been validated. The complexity of this research
is noticeable when one considers the work of Dr. C. L. Jensen and
co-workers (Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas), performed with
5-year-old children whose mothers had received 200 mg of DHA daily for
the first 4 months of breastfeeding (Jensen et al. 2010). The results have
shown that among the battery of 12 neuropsychological tests, only the test
measuring the children’s attention revealed a highly significant positive
effect of the maternal treatment.
In another study, the offspring of an important cohort of 338 women
in Mexico participating in a trial of daily 400-mg DHA supplementation
during the latter half of pregnancy were assessed (Ramakrishnan et al.
2015). At 18 months of age, no overall differences in infant cognitive,
motor, or behavioral development, as measured by the Bayley Scales
of Infant Development (Section 7.9), were found. Nevertheless, the sup-
plementation has attenuated the positive association between home
environment and psychomotor development index observed in controls,
suggesting potential benefits for children living in poor-quality home
environments. The follow-up of the same children up to 5 years of age
showed that DHA supplementation in the second half of pregnancy
had a significant potential to improve sustained attention in preschool
children (Ramakrishnan et al. 2016).
A follow-up of the large DOMInO trial is presently being carried out

to explore the effects of prenatal DHA supplements on child development
beyond the age of 3 years; the results are expected ca. 2018 (Gould et al.
2016).
It is clear that research of the effects of some nutrients on cognitive
development is paved with many difficulties, thereby explaining the wide
dispersion of results and the complexity of the comparisons between inves-
tigations that may seem, at first, similar. The greatest challenges remain the
need to select subjects with well-known fatty acid status; to design well-
defined control groups; and to do experiments for prolonged times, with
the time needed to feed the brain with lipids not being that of the general
body feeding.
The determination of the organizers of the large French EDEN survey
was appreciated in conducting cooperative programs in several epide-
miology laboratories of Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche
Médicale (INSERM) and in the university hospitals of Poitiers and Nancy
(https://eden.vjf.inserm.fr/). That survey consists of a general study of
many people focusing on what determines child psychomotor develop-
ment and health before and after birth.
Among several topics, nutritional intake of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids was
estimated in late pregnancy and was associated with the nursing times,
with evaluations of language at the age of 2 years and psychomotor devel-
opment at the age of 3 years made by parents and assessments made by
psychologists at the age of 3 years.
Taking into account a set of characteristics in children and their
families, the first results showed that the longer the breastfeeding, the
better the children’s cognitive performances at the ages of 2 and 3 years
(Bernard et al. 2013). Among nonbreastfed children, the lower the ω-6 fatty
acid/ω-3 fatty acid ratio in the maternal diet, the higher the psychomotor
development scores in children at the ages of 2 and 3 years. Moreover,
even if mothers have a diet rich in ω-6 fatty acids in late pregnancy, better
language development was observed in children at the age of 2 years
when breastfeeding was practiced longer.
Ethically acceptable ways to estimate the importance of arachidonic
acid in the presence of DHA include the comparison of dietary treatments
with DHA only and with DHA and arachidonic acid or the comparison of
treatments with various ω-6/ω-3 fatty acid ratios. The latter option was
adopted in a study of very preterm infants (<1500 g at birth) comparing
two levels of arachidonic acid with constant DHA. The outcomes were
that infants consuming formulas with greater arachidonic acid (twofold)
had better psychomotor development at 2 years of age (Alshweki et al.
2015). Furthermore, the psychomotor development of the former group
was similar to that of comparable infants who were fed exclusively with
breast milk. As emphasized by the authors, these results may be explained
if it is recalled that arachidonic acid is a key component of cell membranes,

serving as a precursor to prostaglandin formation, and being involved in
the signaling systems of the brain. Generally, the weight of existing clini-
cal evidence favors arachidonic acid inclusion with DHA.
Therefore, these important findings suggest that the ω-6/ω-3 fatty
acid ratio in the maternal diet may directly influence the development
of children’s brains, mainly during pregnancy, but that breastfeeding
can still overcome nutritional mistakes of the mother, at least for the qual-
ity of lipids.
In the future, the monitoring of children up to the age of 5 years will
enable clinicians to examine the persistence of the beneficial effects of a
steady ω-3 fatty acid intake.
These early results showing all the beneficial effects in newborns of
a natural diet “for their growth, development and short, medium and
long term health” echo the international recommendations made by
WHO in 2007 advocating an exclusive breastfeeding up to 6 months
(http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241596664_eng.pdf).
It does not seem possible to doubt the long-term effects when taking
into account the results obtained in Brazil from a study of about 3500 new-
borns (Victora et al. 2015). This study has indeed verified, on the basis of the
IQ estimated between 6 months and 30 years after birth, that breastfeeding
improves intellectual performance. That improvement may have a signifi-
cant impact detectable 30 years later by a higher level of education and even
a higher income in adulthood. Victora et al. (2015) determined that children
breastfed for 1 year have an IQ that is 4 points higher than that measured
in children breastfed only 1 month. These results therefore confirm the
findings reported by the WHO after an analysis of 14 studies published
from 1988 to 2011: “This meta-analysis suggests that breastfeeding is asso-
ciated with increased performance in intelligence tests in childhood and
adolescence, of 3.5 points on average” (Horta and Victora 2013). Many
studies of brain imaging have confirmed these findings, stating that breast
milk allows the brain to develop faster. In addition, at Brown University
(Providence, Rhode Island), Deoni et al. (2013) established that breastfeed-
ing promotes myelin development, especially in brain areas related to
language, emotions, and cognitive abilities. Also, a 7-year longitudinal
study in Australian preterm infants determined that a predominantly
breast milk feeding in the first 28 days of life was associated with greater
gray matter volume and better IQ, academic achievement, working
memory, and motor function at 7 years old (Belfort et al. 2016).
It is surprising that the recommendations made in the early twenty-
first century correspond to the conclusions made almost a century ago
in the United States after a study of a “socially disadvantaged group”
(Hoefer and Hardy 1929). In France, the National Program for Nutrition
and Health has recommended breastfeeding “exclusively up to 6 months
age and at least up to 4 months age for health benefits” (Hercberg et al.
2008). In addition, to the increase in the breastfeeding frequency from
birth, that program recommended to increase its duration, if possible over
6 months, even during food diversification, a time when foods and bev-
erages other than milk are introduced. Similarly, WHO recommended that
breastfeeding be initiated within the first hour of birth and be exclusive for
6 months, with the introduction of complementary food after 6 months
and continued breastfeeding up until 2 years or beyond.
Despite these common sense recommendations that are also based on
corresponding findings in a multitude of scientific work, postnatal feed-
ing, although improving in all countries, is still far from matching recom-
mendations of the official texts.
In the United States, according to the Department of Health and Human
Services, breastfeeding rates continue to rise. In 2011, 79% of newborn infants
started to breastfeed, but breastfeeding did not continue for as long as recom-
mended. Of infants born in 2011, only 49% were breastfeeding at 6 months
and 27% at 12 months.
In Europe, WHO has estimated that only 25% of infants were exclu-
sively breastfed for the first 6 months during a 2006–2012 study, compared
with 43% in South East Asia. WHO has recommended that breastfeeding be
initiated within the first hour of birth and be exclusive for 6 months, with
the introduction of complementary food after 6 months and continued
breastfeeding up until 2 years or beyond. In Europe, the country with the
highest rate of breastfed babies is Norway: 99% of new mothers initiate
breastfeeding at the hospital and 80% still do it after 6 months.
In France, the Epifane 2012–2013 study (Perinatal and Nutritional
Monitoring Unit, Institute of Health Monitoring, Uspen) revealed that at
birth 59% of infants are breastfed. However, 3 months later, no more than
39% were breastfed, with only 10% exclusively. After 6 months, 23% of
children were still breastfed, but only 1.5% exclusively. Thus, the median
value of breastfeeding is 15 weeks and that of the exclusive breastfeeding
is only 24 days. As noted by the authors of that report, it seems imperative
to better spread and adapt the messages on infant feeding during the first
year of life.
To avoid the problems associated with analytical costs, and lengthy
and cumbersome food surveys, other investigators have used an “ecologi-
cal” approach, already adopted in various epidemiological studies such
as those aiming at the determination of the incidence of disease in differ-
ent geographical regions. This compelling approach was adopted by
Dr. W. D. Lassek at the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. This work
(Lassek and Gaulin 2014) has taken into account the national data pub-
lished in 28 countries worldwide on the fatty acid composition of breast
milk and the intellectual scores of students at the end of the compulsory
education (at the age of 15 years) (Figure 2.2). These data were measured
China
Hong Kong
550 Singapore
Korea
Finland Japan
Canada
The Netherlands Taiwan
Germany
Australia
Average PISA score
United Kingdom Norway

500 United States Denmark
Sweden France
Hungary
Italy Portugal
Spain
Israel
Turkey
450
Chile
Thailand
Mexico
400 Brazil
Argentina
–2.2 –2.0 –1.8 –1.6 –1.4 –1.2 –1.0

log DHA/LA
Figure 2.2 Relationship between the PISA test score in 15-year-old children and
the docosahexaenoic/linoleic acid (DHA/LA) ratio in breast milk for 28 countries.
1: Argentina, 2: Australia, 3: Brazil, 4: Canada, 5: Chili, 6: China, 7: Denmark,
8: Finland, 9: France, 10: Germany, 11: Hong Kong, 12: Hungary, 13: Israel,
14: Italy, 15: Japan, 16: Korea, 17: Mexico, 18: The Netherlands, 19: Norway,
20: Portugal, 21: Singapore, 22: Spain, 23: Sweden, 24: Taiwan, 25: Thailand,
26: Turkey, 27: United Kingdom, 28: United States. (Modified from Lassek
W.D., and Gaulin, S.J., Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 9, 195–201,
2014. With permission.)
by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). Notably, PISA,

managed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,
aims to follow every 3 years the evolution of the performance of education
systems in member countries and 60 partner countries. The results are also
widely disseminated and discussed in the press, with each country trying
to understand and analyze its place in the general classification. The inves-
tigations of W. D. Lassek have taken into account the assessments of the
three skills measured in 2009 and 2012: reading, mathematics, and science.
The authors have decided to consider the quantitative ratio of the two
major milk fatty acids, DHA and LA, rather than to consider only the
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the element of fitness enters largely into the questions of
appointment in your respective districts and States. It can not be.
The necessities of the case prevent it. The pressure upon men who
want to be elected prevents it. The demands that are made by
partisan friends and those who have been influential and potent in
securing personal triumph to gentlemen who may happen to be in
such relation to the appointing power that they have the influence to
secure appointment prevent it. The result is as I have stated, that
instead of making fitness, capacity, honesty, fidelity the only or the
essential qualifications for office, personal fidelity and partisan
activity alone control.
When I came to the Senate I had occasion more than ever before to
make some investigation upon the subject, and found to my surprise
the extent to which the demoralization of the service had gone. I saw
the civil service debauched and demoralized. I saw offices distributed
to incompetent and unworthy men as a reward for the lowest of dirty
partisan work. I saw many men employed to do the work of one man.
I saw the money of the people shamefully wasted to keep up
electioneering funds by political assessments on salaries. I saw the
whole body of the public officers paid by the people organized into a
compact, disciplined corps of electioneerers obeying a master as if
they were eating the bread of his dependence and rendering him
personal service. I saw these evils were fostered, encouraged,
stimulated very largely by Senators and Representatives. They had
their friends who lent them a helping hand; and regardless of the
fitness of these friends, of the necessity of their employment, they
insisted on the appointment and had the power, which on
consideration, was found sufficient to secure it.
I believed then, and I believe now, that the existing system which,
for want of a better name, I call the “spoils system,” must be killed or
it will kill the Republic. I believe that it is impossible to maintain free
institutions in the country upon any basis of that sort. I am no
prophet of evil, I am not a pessimist in any sense of the word, but I
do believe that if the present system goes on until 50,000,000 people
shall have grown into 100,000,000, and 140,000 officers shall have
grown into 300,000, with their compensation in proportion, and all
shall depend upon the accession of one party or the other to the
Presidency and to the executive functions, the Presidency of the
country, if it shall last in name so long, will be put up for sale to the
highest bidder even as in Rome the imperial crown was put to those
who could raise the largest fund.
I beg gentlemen to believe that whatever I may have said as to the
relations of parties I do not approach the question of the reform of
the civil service in any mere partisan spirit. It was because I thought
I saw this danger, because I believed that it was imminent, because I
believed then as I do now that it is destructive of republicanism and
will end in the downfall of republican government, that I felt it my
duty to devote whatever ability I had to the consideration of this
subject. It was that which induced me a year or two ago to introduce
a bill which after the best reflection, the best study, the best
assistance that I could get I did introduce in the Senate, and which in
some degree modified, has come back from the Committee on Civil
Service Reform, and is now pending before this body.
The purpose of this bill is merely to secure the application of the
Jeffersonian tests, fidelity, honesty, capacity. The methods are those
which are known and familiar to us all in the various avocations of
life—competition, comparison. Perhaps the bill is imperfect. If so, I
am sure I express the wish of every member of the committee that it
may be improved. There is no pride of opinion, there is no
determination, if suggestions of value are made not promptly to
adopt them. There is no disposition to do aught except to perfect,
and in the best possible way, this bill, the sole object of which is to
improve this great department of our Government.
Mr. President, it is because I believe the “spoils system” to be a
great crime, because I believe it to be fraught with danger, because I
believe that the highest duty of patriotism is to prevent the crime and
to avoid the danger, that I advocate this or a better bill if it can be
found for the improvement of the civil service.
I shall say in passing that I find it no objection to this bill at all that
while I believe it is of great value to the country in all its aspects, I do
not believe it will bring disaster to the Democratic party. There has
been great misapprehension as to the methods and the scope of the
bill. I desire the attention of the Senators while I briefly state them. I
see I have spoken a good deal longer than I intended. The bill simply
applies to the Executive Departments of the Government here in
Washington and to those offices throughout the country, post-offices
and custom-houses, which employ more than fifty persons. I am told,
and I am sure that I am not far out of the way, if I am not exactly
accurate, that the number of such offices does not exceed thirty or
perhaps thirty-five, and that the number of persons who are
employed in them, together with those in the Departments here, will
not exceed 10,000.
I said that this was a tentative effort; that it was intended to be an
experiment, and it is because it is tentative, because it is intended to
be an experiment, that the committee thought it advisable in its
initial stages to limit it, as they have limited it, in the bill. The bill
does not apply to elective officers, of course, nor to officers appointed
by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
nor to the military, nor to the naval, nor to the judicial
establishment. It applies simply now to those officials who are
employed in the Departments here and in the large offices of the
Government elsewhere, first, because as an experiment it was
thought that it gave scope enough to test its value and labor enough
to employ all those who are engaged in putting it in operation until
its merits shall be fairly tried and it shall commend itself either to the
approval or condemnation of the American people.
There was another reason. The heads of offices and bureaus, where
the number of employès is small, can themselves personally judge of
the fitness of persons who are applicants for appointment, knowing
as they do more or less in their narrow communities their
antecedents, their habits, and their modes of life.
The bill does not touch the question of tenure of office or of
removal from office. I see it stated by those who do not know that it
provides for a seven years’ tenure of office. There is nothing like it in
the bill. I see it stated that it provides against removals from office.
There is nothing like it in the bill. Whether or not it would be
advisable to fix the tenure of office, whether or not it would be
advisable to limit removals are questions about which men will
differ; but the bill as it is and as we invoke the judgment of the
Senate upon it contains no provisions either as to tenure of office or
removals from office. It leaves those questions exactly where the law
now finds them. It concerns itself only with admission to the public
service; it concerns itself only with discovering in certain proper
ways or in certain ways—gentlemen may differ as to whether they are
proper or not—the fitness of the persons who shall be appointed. It
takes cognizance of the fact that it is impossible for the head of a
Department or a large office personally to know all the applicants,
and therefore it provides a method by which, when a vacancy occurs
by death, by resignation, by the unlimited power of removal, a
suitable person may be designated to fill the vacancy. It says in effect
that when a vacancy occurs in the civil service everybody who desires
entrance shall have the right to apply. Everybody, humble, poor,
without patronage, without influence, whatever may be his condition
in life, shall have the right to go before the parties charged with an
examination of his fitness and there be subjected to the test of open,
regulated, fair, impartial examination.
Mr. Maxey. If it is agreeable I should like to interrupt the Senator
to ask a question upon that point. In the plan suggested for
examination as to fitness is it to be a competitive examination by the
bill? I ask the Senator if the committee has fallen upon any plan as to
the line of inquiry that should be instituted in that examination, and
if so will he indicate it? That I think is an important consideration.
Mr. Pendleton. I am glad that the Senator has asked that
question, for it gives me an opportunity of saying to him and to the
Senate that if they will examine the report made by the committee,
they will find that this system is not entirely new, but that to a very
large extent in certain offices in New York, in Philadelphia, and in
Boston it has been put into practical operation under the heads of the
offices there, and that they have devised, with the assistance of the
commission originally appointed by General Grant, but largely upon
their own motion, a system which I suppose would, to some extent,
be followed under this bill.
Mr. Maxey. What I desire to know is whether the committee, after
examining the various lines of questions asked in the competitive
examinations, have themselves fallen upon any plan which they
could recommend to the Senate as a proper plan for examination?
Mr. Pendleton. No; the committee have not carried their
investigations to that point for the simple reason that it would be
impracticable for a committee of the Senate charged with the
examination of the general subject to look into the proper
examinations as to every Department of the Government and every
department in that Department. For instance, for a letter-carrier one
series of examinations might be very proper, for an assayer another
system of examination, for an accountant still other examinations,
for a weigher and gauger still another. The examinations must be
adapted to the particular offices which it is sought to fill, and that can
only be by the leisurely and competent investigation of gentlemen
who are charged as an official duty with the determination of what
the needs of all the Departments and offices require.
Mr. Maxey. That may be quite a reasonable view of the case; but
some of the questions which I have seen submitted I am of the
opinion have nothing whatever to do with the examination for a
mere clerkship, but would have something to do perhaps with an
examination in a college or something of that sort.
Mr. Pendleton. The examinations are to be regulated in relation
to the particular offices to be filled. I am not the advocate of any
special system of questions which has been devised. I am not the
apologist for any error which may have been committed. I am not
prepared to say that I have seen any of these series of questions
which might not admit of improvement.
Mr. Maxey. I will state to the Senator that the suggestion he has
himself made is about the best that I have heard. A great many of the
questions which have been submitted I think are nonsensical to be
put to an applicant for a minor clerkship.
Mr. Pendleton. I shall offer some amendments in behalf of the
committee and in behalf of myself before we reach a vote. The details
of the bill are these: The preamble expresses fully the philosophy of
the bill. Read it carefully. It sets forth what common justice demands
for the citizen and for the Government. It sets forth what the
economy, efficiency, and integrity of the public service demand.
Whereas common justice requires that, so far as practicable,
all citizens duly qualified shall be allowed equal
opportunities, on grounds of personal fitness, for securing
appointments, employment, and promotion in the subordinate
civil service of the United States; and
Whereas justice to the public likewise requires that the
Government shall have the largest choice among those likely
to answer the requirements of the public service: and
Whereas justice, as well as economy, efficiency, and
integrity in the public service will be promoted by
substituting open and uniform competitive examinations for
the examinations heretofore held in pursuance of the statutes
of 1853 and 1855.
Section 1 provides for the appointment by the President of a
commission of five persons, of different political parties, of whom
three shall hold no official place, and two shall be experienced in the
public service.
The second section is in the following words:
Sec. 2. That it shall be the duty of said commission.
First, To devise and submit to the President for his approval and promulgation,
from time to time, suitable rules, and to suggest appropriate action for making this
act effective: and when so approved and promulgated it shall be the duty of all
officers of the United States in the Departments and offices to which any such rules
may relate to aid, in all proper ways, in carrying said rules, and any modifications
thereof, into effect.
Second, And, among other things, said rules shall provide and declare, as nearly
as the conditions of good administration will warrant, as follows:
First, for open, competitive examinations for testing the capacity of applicants
for the public service now classified or to be classified hereunder.
Second, that all the offices, places, and employments so arranged or to be
arranged in classes shall be filled by selections from among those graded highest as
the results of such competitive examinations.
Third, that original entrance to the public service aforesaid shall be at the lowest
grade.
Fourth, that there shall be a period of probation before any absolute
appointment or employment aforesaid.
Fifth, that promotions shall be from the lower grades to the higher on the basis
of merit and competition.
Sixth, that no person in the public service is for that reason under any
obligations to contribute to any political fund, or to render any political service,
and that he will not be removed or otherwise prejudiced for refusing to do so.
Seventh, that no person in said service has any right to use his official authority
or influence to coerce the political action of any person or body.
Eighth, there shall be non-competitive examinations in all proper cases before
the commission, when competition may not be found practicable.
Ninth, that notice shall be given in writing to said commission of the persons
selected for appointment or employment from among those who have been
examined, of the rejection of any such persons after probation, and of the date
thereof, and a record of the same shall be kept by said commission.
And any necessary exceptions from said nine fundamental provisions of the
rules shall be set forth in connection with such rules, and the reasons therefor shall
be stated in the annual reports of the commission.
Third. Said commission shall make regulations for, and have control of, such
examinations, and, through its members or the examiners, it shall supervise and
preserve the records of the same, and said commission shall keep minutes of its
own proceedings.
Fourth. Said commission may make investigations concerning the facts, and may
report upon all matters touching the enforcement and effects of said rules and
regulations, and concerning the action of any examiner or board of examiners, and
its own subordinates, and those in the public service, in respect to the execution of
this act.
Fifth. Said commission shall make an annual report to the President, for
transmission to Congress, showing its own action, the rules and regulations and
the exceptions thereto in force, the practical effects thereof, and any suggestions it
may approve for the more effectual accomplishment of the purposes of this act.
The third and fourth sections authorize the commission to employ a chief
examiner, a secretary, and the necessary clerical force; to designate boards of
examiners, to direct where examinations shall be held; and requires that suitable
rooms shall be furnished for its accommodation in the public buildings in
Washington and elsewhere. They require also the chief examiner to act, as far as
practicable, with the examining boards, and to secure accuracy, uniformity, and
justice in all their proceedings.
The fifth section defines the offenses which are calculated to defeat the just
enforcement of the act, and declares the penalties.
The sixth section requires the heads of the different Departments to make a
more perfect classification of clerks and employès, both in the Departments in the
various offices under their charge, in conformity with the one hundred and sixty-
third section of the Revised Statutes, and to extend and revise such classification at
the request of the President.
The seventh section is in these words:
Sec. 7. After the expiration of four months from the passage of this act no officer
or clerk shall be appointed, and no person shall be employed to enter or be
promoted in either of the said classes now existing, or that may be arranged
hereunder, pursuant to said rules, until he has passed an examination, or is shown
to be specially exempted from such examination in conformity herewith.
But nothing herein contained shall be construed to take from those honorably
discharged from the military or naval service any preference conferred by the
seventeen hundred and fifty-fourth section of the Revised Statutes, nor to take
from the President any authority not inconsistent with this act conferred by the
seventeen hundred and fifty-third section of said statutes: nor shall any officer not
in the executive branch of the Government, or any person merely employed as a
laborer or workman, be required to be classified hereunder; nor, unless by
direction of the Senate, shall any person who has been nominated for confirmation
by the Senate be required to be classified or pass an examination.
Now, Mr. President, recurring to what I have said as to scope of
this bill, to the officers who are embraced in it, to the avoidance of
the question of removal and tenure, I have only to say that the
machinery of the bill is that the President shall call to his aid the very
best assistance, with or without the concurrence of the Senate—for
that is a matter about which gentlemen would differ and upon it I
have no very fixed opinion—that the President shall with the
concurrence of the best advice which he can obtain, form a plan, a
scheme of examination free for all, open to all, which shall secure the
very best talent and the very best capacity attainable for the civil
offices of the Government. The method adopted in the bill is by
competitive examination. That method has been imperfectly tried
throughout the country. I have here the statement of the postmaster
of New York who has given much attention and has had great
experience in this matter. I have here his statement that the business
of his office increased 150 per cent. within a certain number of years,
and the expenses increased only 2 per cent.
To be specific—
Says Mr. Pearson—
while the increase in the volume of matter has been from 150 to 300 per cent.
the increase in cost has only been about 2 per cent.
Mr. Graves, whose testimony I read before, has stated as the result
of the efforts which were made by General Grant during the period
that he was allowed any funds for the purpose of putting this scheme
into operation, that the expenses of the Departments here can be
reduced at least one-third.
I have heard it said that this system of examination proposes to
present only a scholastic test; that it proposes only to give advantage
to those who are college-bred, and have had the advantage in early
life of superior education. The committee investigated that subject to
some extent, and I have here the result in the city of New York. Says
Mr. Burt:
Taking seven hundred and thirty-one persons examined, 60 per cent. of the
appointees selected from them had been educated simply in the common schools
of the country; 33⅓ per cent. had received what they call academic or highschool
education; and 6½ per cent, a collegiate education. In all the statistics in regard to
common school education there is one little weakness resulting from the fact that
we have to throw in that class men who have had hardly any education, men who
will say, “I went to school until I was 11 years old,” or “I went to school in the
winter,” or something of that kind. We have to throw them in that class—
That is the class who have received a common-school education—
and it rather reduces the average standing in that category. As to the matter of
age we have very thoroughly exploded that objection. There have been some young
men of 21 and 22 who have come in, but the average has been above 30, and it is
astonishing that it is the men above 30 who make the best time on examination,
who show a facility to get through work quickly.
He goes on to say:
Yet about two-thirds of the appointees had a common-school education; had not
even an academic education.
Thereupon the chairman of the committee asked:
Is it from that you get the value of the element of experience and natural force
that I spoke of?
Mr. Burt. Yes, sir; it shows itself there apart from the question of elaborate
education.
Of course these examinations must be proper; of course they must
be regulated upon common-sense principles; of course they must be
conducted to test the fitness of the men who are to be appointed to
particular offices. You have tests everywhere. To-day the law requires
that there shall be a test of examination in the various Departments
here in Washington. They are pass examinations; they are imperfect;
they are insufficient; they are not thorough. Mr. Graves himself says
that the only examination in his case was that the superior in the
Department looked over his shoulder while he was writing and said,
“I think you will pass.” That was when he entered the service twenty-
odd years ago.
If you have examinations why not have competitive examinations?
If you have private pass examinations, why not have open
examinations? If examinations are made in the Departments by
subordinates of the Departments, why not have them made by
responsible examiners amenable to the authority of the President
under a system devised by the best intelligence that can be supplied?
I hear the system of competitive examination spoken of as if it
were something extraordinary. Within the last fifteen years it has
gotten to be a custom that I might almost say is universal that when a
member of Congress has the right to appoint a cadet to West Point or
to the Naval Academy he asks his constituents to compete for it.
Formerly it was never done; it was looked on as the mere perquisite
of a member of Congress. I appointed a gentleman to West Point who
graduated at the head of his class, and now is the active and vigorous
spirit of the Military Academy. I appointed him simply upon my own
personal examination and knowledge. It would not be done now; it
could not be done now; the public sentiment is against it. The public
sentiment of the district that I then represented would not permit it;
but open competitive examinations are demanded, and everybody
having the requisite qualifications of age and health and vigor can
compete for the appointment.
Why not apply that system to the Executive Departments of this
Government? What earthly reason can there be why when you desire
to appoint the best and fittest man for the place that is vacant he
should not subject himself to the competition of other people who
desire to have that place? Of course, as I said before, this all goes
upon the basis that there shall be reasonable examinations and
reasonable competition.
Nor are there any aristocratical tendencies about this system, as I
have heard suggested; for while it does not in any wise create an
official caste it does in words and in effect, open up the possibility of
the public service to the poorest and the humblest and least
influential in the land.
Mr. President, I desire to say only one word further. I have spoken
to-day under great disadvantage, and perhaps I may have omitted
things that I shall desire in the course of this discussion to lay before
the Senate.
But I desire, Mr. President, to follow out for one moment the line
of thought which I indicated when I said that I believed this system
would be of great advantage to the country, and that to me it was no
objection, that I believed it would be of great advantage to the
Democratic party. The suggestion has been made here that it might
be better to lay this matter over until after another election, and that
the mutations of parties might fill, under the old system, the various
Departments with members of the faith to which I belong. Aye, Mr.
President, but the next Presidential election may not have that result,
and it will not have the result, in my honest conviction, unless we do
two things: First, respond to the demands which the people make
upon the Democratic party now in its condition of probation; and,
second, disarm that great body of officials who as disciplined armies
go forth to control the Presidential elections.
I believe, and I am only excused from making this remark because
of what I have heard publicly and in private conversation upon the
floor of the Senate—I believe if we argue this question upon the lower
plane of mere partisan advantage we Democrats ought to support the
measure. It has been said that this abandonment of the spoils system
will retain in office the appointees of the Republican party. I conceal
nothing; I state it in my place in Senate, and before my fellow-
Senators who are of the other persuasion, I do not think it. There is
no proposition to extend the term of office where it is now fixed, nor
in any wise limit the constitutional power of removal from office. The
proposition is simply and only that where a new appointment shall
be made the element of fitness shall be decisive. Can any Democrat
object to that?
How many Democrats are there in office now? How many will
there ever be under the spoils system? The Republicans have
possession of the Government for two years and more. How many
Democrats will be put in office during that time, except on the merit
system? Not one. But if this system be fairly inaugurated and
administered within one year there will be fifty where now there is
one.
It has been said that the abandonment of the spoils system will
exclude Democrats from office when the day of our victory shall
come. I do not think it. On the contrary, I believe that the adoption of
this policy as our party creed will hasten the day of the victory of our
party and its adoption as a law will under any administration fill
many offices with Democrats. I think it will bring to our aid very
many men not hitherto of our political faith who believe this reform a
vital question in our politics. I think it will disarm and disorganize
and neutralize the trained bands of office-holders who have wrested
from us, as I have said, at least two Presidential elections. And
finally, repudiating utterly, as I do, that the animating spirit of the
Democratic party is the love of spoils, and that its cohesive principle
is that of public plunder—repudiating, I say, that doctrine, I think the
Democrats throughout this land—I know that in my own State they
can—will stand the test of any examination, and in a fair field will not
come out second best.
Who shall do them the discredit, who shall do this party, now
numbering at least half the people of this country, the discredit to say
that they can not stand the test of merit for official position and
promotion with any equal number of men in any party of the
country.
I have detained the Senate much too long, and yet I must add that
the very best aid to any system of reforming the service is in the most
rigid application of the democratic theory of the Federal Constitution
and Government; that its powers are all granted; that the subjects on
which it can act are very limited; that it should refrain from enlarging
its jurisdiction, or even exercising admitted but unnecessary powers;
that it should scrupulously avoid “undue administration.” Add to this
the election by the people to local Federal offices, and there will be
little necessity and little room for other methods.
The Presiding Officer. The pending question is on the

amendment of the Senator from Massachusetts [Mr. Hoar] to the
amendment of the Senator from Iowa [Mr. Allison].
Mr. Pendleton. The Senator from Iowa is not in his place at this
moment, but gave me authority to withdraw his amendment.
The Presiding Officer. If there be no objection, it will be
considered as withdrawn for the time being.
Mr. Pendleton. I now move to strike out lines 22 and 23 of
section 2, as follows:
Third. That original entrance to the public service aforesaid shall be at the grade,
and appointments thereto.
And to insert in lieu thereof “appointments to the public service
aforesaid;” so as to read:
Appointments to the public service aforesaid in the Departments at Washington,
shall be apportioned, as nearly as practicable, among the several States and
Territories and the District of Columbia, upon the basis of population as
ascertained at the last preceding census.
This amendment has been discussed, and I do not care to detain
the Senate in the further discussion of it. It opens up the public
service in all its grades to competition, not only from those within
but those outside of the Departments. The objections to the provision
that entrance shall be at the lowest grade, and higher places shall be
filled by promotions only, are so strong that I desire to perfect the
bill by striking out this clause at this time. At the proper time I shall
move to strike out the clause in relation to promotion, if it shall seem
necessary to accomplish my purpose. I wish entrance to the public
service to be open at all grades to every one whether he may be now
in office or not.
The amendment was adopted.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SENATE AND
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.
Speech of Hon. John J. Ingalls, of Kansas, in the Senate of the
United States, Friday, March 26, 1886.
The Senate having under consideration the resolutions reported by
Mr. Edmunds from the Committee on the Judiciary, relative to the
refusal of the Attorney-General to furnish copies of certain papers—
Mr. Ingalls said:
Mr. President: Contemporaneous construction of the
Constitution, fortified by long usage and acquiescence, undisturbed
for more than seventy-five years, has to my mind incontestably and
impregnably established two fundamental propositions: first, that
under the Constitution of the United States the power to appoint
includes the power to remove, and that both these powers are vested
in the President of the United States, subject only to the power of the
Senate to negative in cases of appointment; and, second, that where
the tenure of an office is not fixed by the Constitution it is held at the
pleasure of the Executive.
I therefore take up this argument where the opposition leave it: I
begin where they close. I concede all that they demand as to the
constitutional power of the Executive upon the subject of
appointments to office. If it shall appear that the report of the
Committee on the Judiciary is inconsistent with these declarations,
that the report and the resolutions to which we are now asked to give
our assent in any manner impair or infringe upon, or are in
derogation of these admitted high executive prerogatives, then I shall
submit to condemnation, for my signature is appended to that
report.
So far as I have been able to unravel and disentangle the
complicated array of argument by which it has been attempted to
destroy the force and effect of the report of the Committee on the
Judiciary, I understand that the objections are practically four:
First, that by the action of the majority of the Senate an attempt is
made to invade the prerogative of the president by demanding his
reasons for the suspensions from office that he has made. To that I
interpose upon the threshold and in the vestibule of this argument
an absolute contradiction and denial.
The President of the United States in the message that he
voluntarily, of his own motion, sent down to this body, starts out
with an absolutely unfounded imputation upon the position of the
majority. He says that the Senate has been from time to time, in
various ways, through committees of the body and by personal
importunity, appealing to the Executive to give his reasons for the
suspension of officials that have been reported to this body with the
designation of others to fill the places thus to be rendered vacant.
Sir, I deny it, and I now challenge from any supporter or adherent
of the administration the exhibition of a word, or syllable, or
justifiable inference upon which that allegation, so often repeated
with so much variety of iteration, can be properly or justly founded.
The effort has been ingeniously made to shift the issue, to darken
council by words without wisdom, and to make it appear that there
has been a deliberate purpose and intention on the part of the Senate
to interfere with the recognized prerogatives of the Executive by
demanding his reasons for suspension; and unless I hear some
Senator while this debate is now proceeding and while I invite the
statement—unless I hear something said in support of that averment,
which I deny, and which I affirm has been made for the purpose of
clouding this controversy in popular estimation, I shall assume that
my denial is not to be met.
Again, sir, it has been alleged in debate, in the public press, by
intimation and declaration, and it has been the basis of many studied
arguments in this Chamber that there had been demands by the
Senate upon the executive for private papers in the cases sent down
for consideration. I deny it. I contradict that statement by an appeal
to the record; and before that great tribunal by whom this issue is to
be tried and determined, I allege that that averment is without
foundation. There has never been in form or in substance, directly or
indirectly, expressly or remotely, any demand made by any
committee of this body upon the Executive or upon the head of any
Department for the production of private papers; and I shall be glad
in the front of my explicit denial and contradiction if some one of the
advocates, some one of the champions of the administration, will
point out, before this controversy is concluded, when, where, and
how there has been any demand made by the Senate upon the
President of the United States or upon any head of a Department for
the production of private papers.
That issue was brought in here by the administration. It is said
that a guilty conscience needs no accuser. We have been told of those
who “fear in every bush an officer.” Sir, it was the interior
consciousness of the administration out of which was evolved this
phantasy, this farcical allegation, that there was an attempt on the
part of the Senate to compel the production of private unofficial
papers and communications in the possession of the President of the
United States. No Senator doubts that the President occupies an
absolutely independent position, and none would desire under any
circumstances to interfere with his admitted prerogatives.
I shall strip this controversy of its fallacious incidents. I shall clear
away the undergrowth of misrepresentation, sophistry, and false
pretenses, that has hitherto obstructed the pathway of our
consideration of the real issues that are involved in this contention.
With my consent it shall not hereafter be averred before the popular
tribunal that is ultimately to decide this question that there has been
an indefensible and insolent attempt to impair the constitutional
prerogatives of the President of the United States.
Another allegation has been that while this controversy has
proceeded the Senate has been inactive, interposing partisan
objections to the transaction of executive business, to prevent the
execution of his high trusts by the President of the United States. I
yesterday had compiled from the records of the executive office, for
the purpose of showing what has been done in this particular, a
statement, public under our rules, which shows that from the 25th of
January, 1886, to the date of the last executive session there had
been confirmed by the Senate four hundred and ninety-three
nominations of officers sent down by the President. Never in any
single instance where there has been a vacancy, occurring by
resignation, expiration of term or proper removal upon which we
could properly act, has there been an instant of delay. The Senate has
not inquired whether the nominee was a Democrat or Republican,
but has proceeded vigorously, industriously and steadfastly in the
performance of its constitutional duties, and if there has been
inaction or non-action upon nominations, I shall show before I
conclude my remarks that it has been invited by the administration.
Again, it has been alleged that the action of the majority of the
Senate is instigated by the purpose of keeping Republicans in office;
that we are moved by partisan considerations to thwart by all means
in our power the efforts of the Executive to transfer the official
patronage of the Government to the party that was placed in power
by the votes of a majority of the people. I am not authorized to speak
for others, but for myself and for those who have accredited me here,
I cannot submit with patience to such an intolerable accusation.
Mr. President, the Republicans of Kansas are Republicans. They
are neither afraid to be so classified nor ashamed to be thus
described. They do not covet any qualifying or palliative epithets.
Their attitude is neither apologetic nor defensive. They have an
unconquerable pride in their political achievements, in the history
they have made, in the triumphs they have won. For twenty-five
years they have stood upon the skirmish line, neither asking nor
giving quarter. They are Republicans not by inheritance, not by
tradition, not by accident, but from conviction; and they are as
steadfast in defeat as in victory. They are partisans, intrepid,
undaunted, uncompromising, and they can give reasons for the faith
that is in them.
They believe and I believe that for the past quarter of a century
upon every vital issue before the American people, secession, slavery,
coercion, the public credit, honest elections, universal freedom, and
the protection of American labor, they have always been right and
that their opponents have always been wrong; and, while they
concede unreservedly patriotism and sincerity to their adversaries,
temporary repulse has not convinced them that they were in error.
There is neither defection nor dismay in their columns. They are
ready, they are impatient to renew the battle. Animated by such
impulses, it is not singular that they should feel that no Republican
can hold an appointive office under a Democratic administration
without either sacrificing his convictions or forfeiting his self-
respect.
Accordingly, sir, when a little more than a year ago a Democratic
administration was inaugurated, those who were in public station
began with one consent to make excuse to retire to private life. They
did not stand upon the order of their going; they trampled upon each
other in a tumultuous and somewhat indecent haste to get out of
office. There was no craven cry for mercy; no mercenary camp-
follower fled for shelter to the bomb-proofs of the tenure-of-office
act; no sutler crawled behind the fragile breastworks of civil-service
reform for protection. They lost their baggage, but they retained their
colors, their arms, their ammunition, and their camp equipage, and
marched off the field with the honors of war. If at the expiration of
one year a few yet remain in office, rari nantes in gurgite vasto, it is
because the victors have been unable to agree among themselves or
been unable to discover among their own numbers competent and
qualified successors.
Mr. President, candor compels me to say that the Democracy of
that State share the same temper and spirit. From 1854, when the
Territory was organized, down to the 29th of January, 1861, when
the State was admitted, if there was a Republican holding any
appointive office it was an inadvertence; and if from 1861 down to
1885 there was a Democrat holding an official position requiring
confirmation by the Senate, it was an oversight; it escaped the
somewhat vigilant scrutiny of my colleague and myself and those
who preceded us here.
Therefore, Mr. President, I am not of those who believe in non-
partisanship in politics; and I should be recreant to the high trust
confided in me were I to refrain from declaring my conviction that
political parties, energetic, vigorous, and well defined, are
indispensable to the success of free popular governments. Wherever
the life of States is freest and most irrepressible, there party spirit is
most active and aggressive. It is by the conflict and collision of
political parties that the latent and richest powers of the State are
made manifest; and those whom I represent have no sympathy with
the dogma that it reflects glory upon a statesman to affect
independence of his party, or that it is an indication of virtue in a
citizen to belong to no political organization.
Political parties are social groups in the nation, allied by common
purposes and kindred aspirations for the accomplishment of
beneficial results. When parties perish this Government will expire,
for we all understand that in this country the only government is the
party in power. Here is no dynasty, no ruling family, nothing
corresponding to the functions of government under other systems
except the party that is for the time being intrusted by the votes of a
majority of the people with the execution of their will. And, sir, when
a majority of the people declare that there shall be a change of
administration, it is necessarily implied that there shall be a change
of those agencies through which alone political administration can be
made effectual. It is useless to juggle and palter about this matter. A
change of administration is a change of policies and methods, and
the Chief Magistrate is entitled to the co-operation of agents and
ministers who are in sympathy with his opinions and the doctrines
which he is chosen to enforce and maintain.
Sir, unless the President of the United States is to be a mummy
swathed in the cerements of the grave, he must have powers
commensurate with his duties. He is charged to “take care that the
laws be faithfully executed,” and unless he has the power to select the
agencies through which the laws are administered, through which
the revenues are collected and disbursed, the post-offices conducted,
the Indians supported and controlled, the glory and honor of the
nation maintained, that duty imposed upon him by the Constitution
is an idle phrase; it means nothing; it is an empty formula. Charged
with these great duties, liable to impeachment if they are not
properly performed, how can it be claimed with justice that there
shall be an interpolation of novel doctrines of reform, under which
while the chief is still to be held responsible, he shall be deprived of
all the agencies and ministrations under the Constitution by which
they can alone be so administered, in sympathy with him and the
policy that he represents.
Therefore, sir, I am confident that when it was ascertained in
November, 1884, that a change of the political majority in this
country had been registered, there was a general faith and conviction
that a change of official holdings would follow. The Democratic party
desired it; the Republican party expected it, and would have been
content; and had it been done the people at large would have said
with one accord, amen. But this generation has witnessed the genesis
of a new political gospel; a novel organization has appeared upon
earth; a new school of political philosophers who announce that non-
partisanship is the panacea for all the evils that afflict the Republic.
Having no avowed opinions upon the great topics of the hour, they
feebly decry the corruptions of the American system, and peevishly
and irritably declare that the Government is degenerate and

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Dietary Lipids for Healthy Brain

Function 1st Edition Leray

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Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1

Chapter 2 Brain development ...................................................................... 7

Chapter 3 Cognitive development ............................................................ 27

Chapter 4 Cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease......................... 45

4.2.2 Vitamin A and carotenoids ................................................... 68

Chapter 5 Other neurological diseases .................................................... 95

Chapter 6 Mental disorders...................................................................... 123

6.1.4 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder............................ 150

Chapter 7 Annexes ..................................................................................... 197

7.9.6 Wechsler intelligence test..................................................... 222

Knowledge facilitates better insights, answers, and medical treat-

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describe accurately the fatty acid composition of several lipid fractions

an improvement of learning capacities in young rats born from these

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A confirmation of this hypothesis was reported in 1990 among low-

language development in children aged 18 months or 4 years (Makrides

worst results on visual acuity and IQ based on verbal expression are

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if it is recalled that arachidonic acid is a key component of cell membranes,

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by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). Notably, PISA,

The Presiding Officer. The pending question is on the

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