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 GLOBAL
EDITION

E-commerce 2014
business, technology, society.
TENTH EDITION

Kenneth C. Laudon • Carol GuercioTraver

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 E-commerce

business, technology, society.

GLOBAL EDITION

TENTH E E IT I E N

Kenneth C. Laudon Carol Guercio Traver

New York University Azimuth Interactive, Inc.

PEARSON

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
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 Complete Listing of Chapter Opening Cases, Insight Features,
E-commercc in Action Cases, and Case Studies

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO E-COMMERCE

Opening Case: Puma Loves Social. Mobile, Omni
Insight on Technology: Will Apps Make the Web Irrelevant?
Insight on Business: Rocket Internet
Insight on Society: Facebook and the Age of Privacy
Case Study: The Pirate Bay: Searching for a Safe Haven

CHAPTER 2 E-COMMERCE INFRASTRUCTURE: THE INTERNET, WEB, AND MOBILE

PLATFORM
Opening Case: Wikitude: Augment My Reality
Insight on Society: Government Surveillance and Regulation of the Internet
Insight on Technology: Is HTML5 Ready for Prime Time?
Insight on Business: Apps for Everything: The App Ecosystem
Case Study: Akamai Technologies: Attempting to Keep Supply Ahead of Demand

CHAPTER 3 BUILDING AN E-COMMERCE PRESENCE: WEB SITES, MOBILE SITES, AND APPS
Opening Case: The Financial Times: A Remodel for 21st Century Publishing Profitability
Insight on Business: Curly Hair and Appillionaires
Insight on Society: Designing for Accessibility
Insight on Technology: Building a Mobile Presence
Case Study: Orbitz Charts Its Mobile Trajectory

CHAPTER 4 E-COMMERCE SECURITY AND PAYMENT SYSTEMS

Opening Case: Europol Takes on Cybercrime with EC3
Insight on Business: We Arc Legion
Insight on Technology: Think Your Smartphone Is Secure?
Insight on Society: Bitcoin
Case Study: Online Payment Marketplace: Goat Rodeo

CHAPTER 5 E-COMMERCE BUSINESS MODELS

Opening Case: Beatguide: Turning a Passion into a Business
Insight on Society: Foursquare: Cheek Your Privacy at the Door
Insight on Business: Crowdfunding Takes Off
Insight on Technology: Battle of the Titans: Music in the Cloud
Case Study: Pandora and the Freemium Business Model

CHAPTER 6 E-COMMERCE MARKETING AND ADVERTISING

Opening Case: InMobi's Global Mobile Ad Network
Insight on Business: Arc the Very Rich Different From You and Me?
Insight on Technology: The Long Tail: Big Hits and Big Misses
Insight on Society: Every Move You Take, Every Click You Make, We'll Be Tracking You
Case Study: Instant Ads: Real-Time Marketing on Exchanges

continued on back inside cover

continued from front inside cover

CHAPTER 7 SOCIAL, MOBILE, AND LOCAL MARKETING

Opening Case: Just Falafel Soars with Social Media
Insight on Technology: Fairmont Hotels: Using Google Analytics to Optimize Social and Mobile Marketing
Insight on Society: Marketing to Children of the Web in the Age of Social Networks
Insight on Business: Mobile Marketing: Land Rover Seeks Engagement on the Small Screen
Case Study: ExchangcHuntcrJumpcr.com: Building a Brand with Social Marketing

CHAPTER 8 ETHICS, LAW, AND E-COMMERCE

Opening Case: The EU Objects to Google's New Privacy Policy
Insight on Technology: Apple and Samsung Fight a Patent Battle Around the Globe
Insight on Business: New Rules Extend EU Taxation of E-commcrcc
Insight on Society: The Internet Drug Bazaar Operates Around the Globe
Case Study: The Google Books Settlement: Is It Fair?

CHAPTER 9 ONLINE MEDIA

Opening Case: Spotify and Deczcr: European Streaming Music Services Spread Around the Globe
Insight on Society: Can Apps and Video Save Newspapers?
Insight on Business: Read All About It: Rival Digital Ncwstands Fight
Insight on Technology: Hollywood and the Internet: Let's Cut a Deal
Case Study: Ncttlix: The Next Blockbuster?

CHAPTER 10 SOCIAL NETWORKS AND COMMUNITIES

Opening Case: Viadco Challenges Linkedln with a Multi-Local Approach
Insight on Society: The Dark Side of Social Networks
Insight on Technology: Faccbook Has Friends
Insight on Business: The Transformation of AOL
Case Study: eBay Evolves

CHAPTER 11 E-COMMERCE RETAILING AND SERVICES

Opening Case: Souq.com: The Amazon of the Middle East
E-Commcrce in Action: Amazon.com
Insight on Technology: Comparison Shopping Around the World
Insight on Business: Private Accommodation Sendees
Insight on Society: Phony Reviews
Case Study: OpcnTablc: Your Reservation is Waiting

CHAPTER 12 B2B E-COMMERCE

Opening Case: Alibaba: China's E-commcrcc Enchanter
Insight on Society: Where's My iPad? Supply Chain Risk and Vulnerability
Insight on Technology: RFID Autoidentification: Giving a Voice to Your Inventory
Insight on Business: Walmart Develops a Private Industrial Network
Case Study: Elcniica: Cooperation, Collaboration, and Community
E-commerce. Business. Technology. Society. Global Edition lOe provides you with an in-
depth introduction to the field of global e-commerce. We focus on concepts that will
help you understand and take advantage of the evolving world of opportunity offered
by e-commerce, which is dramatically altering the way business is conducted and
driving major shifts in the global economy. E-commerce is a global phenomenon
affecting economic and social life throughout the world. The Global Edition is aimed
at students and professionals in the European Union, the Middle East, Asia Pacific,
Australia, and South Africa. Case studies reflect e-commerce firms in these regions,
and figures and tables relate to these regional sources wherever possible.
Just as important as our global orientation, we have tried to create a book that is
thought-provoking and current. We use the most recent data available, and focus on
companies that you arc likely to encounter on a daily basis in your everyday life,
such as Faccbook, Google, TVitter, Amazon, YouTlibe, Pintcrcst and cBay. New Global
Edition cases include PUMA, Wikitudc, Financial Times, Beatgroup, InMobi, Just
Falafcl, Spotify, Dcczcr, Viadeo, Souk, Alibaba, and Rockctlntcrnct, among others.
We also have up-to-date coverage of the key topics in e-commerce today, from privacy
and piracy, to government surveillance, cybcrwar, social, local, and mobile market¬
ing, Internet sales taxes, intellectual property, and more. You will find here the most
up-to-date and comprehensive overview of e-commerce today.
The e-commerce concepts you learn in this book will make you valuable to
potential employers. The e-commerce job market is expanding rapidly. Many employ¬
ers expect new employees to understand the basics of e-commerce, social and mobile
marketing, and how to develop an e-commerce presence. Every industry today is
touched in at least some way by e-commerce. The information and knowledge you
find in this book will be valuable throughout your career, and after reading this book,
we expect that you will be able to participate in, and even lead, management discus¬
sions of e-commerce for your firm.

WHAT'S NEW IN THE TENTH GLOBAL EDITION

New Chapter on Social, Mobile, and Local Marketing

Given the growing importance of social, mobile, and local marketing in e-commerce,
we have written an entirely new chapter devoted to providing an in-depth examina¬
tion of these topics. In this new chapter, you will learn how companies are using
Faccbook, Twitter, and Pintcrcst for social marketing, how to begin a social marketing
campaign and how to measure results for each of these platforms. We provide similar
examination of mobile and local and location-based marketing as well.

3
4 1 Preface

New Infographics
A variety of infographics throughout the book provide a more visual and intuitive
access to concepts and information. Infographics make it easier to sec and remember
patterns and relationships than traditional charts and graphs.

Currency
The 10th edition features all new or updated opening, closing, and "Insight on" cases.
The text, as well as all of the data, figures, and tables in the book, have been updated
through October 2013 with the latest marketing and business intelligence available
from cMarkctcr, Pew Internet & American Life Project, Forrester Research, corn-
Score, Gartner Research, and other industry sources.

What's New in E-commerce 2014

E-commerce today is greatly different from c-conimcrcc only five years ago. The
iPhone was introduced in 2007. The iPad tablet was first introduced in 2010 and has
already gone through several generations! The smartphone and tablet devices have
changed c-commcrcc into a social, local, and mobile experience. The 10th edition
spotlights the following themes and content:

Headlines
• Social, Mobile, Local: We have included an entirely new chapter describing social,
mobile, and local marketing. Content about social networks, the mobile platform
and local c-commcrcc appears throughout the book.
» Social networks such as Faccbook, Twitter, Pintcrcst, and Linkcdln continue
their rapid growth, laying the groundwork for a social network marketing plat¬
form
» The mobile platform composed of smartphoncs and tablet computers takes off
and becomes a major factor in search, marketing, payment, retailing and ser¬
vices, and online content. Mobile device use poses new security and privacy
issues as well.
» Location-based services lead to explosive growth in local advertising and mar¬
keting.
• Online privacy continues to deteriorate, driven by a culture of self-revelation and
powerful technologies for collecting personal information online without the
knowledge or consent of users.
• Internet security risks increase; cyberwarfare becomes a new way of conducting
warfare among nation-states and a national security issue.

Business
• Global e-commerce revenues surge after the recession.
• Internet advertising growth resumes, at a faster rate than traditional advertising.
• Social marketing grows faster than traditional online marketing like search and
display advertising.
 Preface | 5

• E-books take off and expand the market for text, supported by the iPad, Kindle,
Nook, and iPhone.
• Streaming of popular TV shows and movies (Netflix, Amazon, and Hulu.com)
becomes a reality, as Internet distributors and Hollywood and TV producers strike
deals for Web distribution that also protects intellectual property.
• "Free" and "frccmium" business models compete to support digital content.
• New mobile payment platforms emerge to challenge PayPal.
• B2B e-commerce exceeds pre-rcccssion levels as firms become more comfortable
with digital supply chains.

Technology
• Smartphoncs, tablets, and e-book readers, along with associated software applica¬
tions, and coupled with 4G cellular network expansion, fuel rapid growth of the
mobile platform.
• Investment in cloud computing increases, providing the computing infrastructure
for a massive increase in online digital information and e-commerce.
• Cloud-based streaming services for music and video challenge sales of downloads
and physical product.
• Software apps fuel growth in app sales, marketing, and advertising; transforming
software production and distribution.
• Touch interface operating systems dominate mobile devices. Windows 0 intro¬
duced with a touch screen interface, mimicking Apple's iOS and Google Android
smartphones.
• The cost of developing sophisticated Web sites continues to drop due to declining
software and hardware prices and open source software tools.
• Internet and cellular network capacity is challenged by the rapid expansion in
digital traffic generated by mobile devices; the use of bandwidth caps tier-pricing
expands.
• Internet telecommunications carriers support differential pricing to maintain a
stable Internet; opposed by Net neutrality groups pushing non-discriminatory
pricing.

Society
• The mobile, "always on" culture in business and family life continues to grow.
• Congress considers legislation to regulate the use of personal information for
behavioral tracking and targeting consumers online.
• States heat up the pursuit of taxes on Internet sales by Amazon and others.
• Intellectual property issues remain a source of conflict with significant movement
toward resolution in some areas, such as Google's deals with Hollywood and the
publishing industry, and Apple's and Amazon's deals with e-book and magazine
publishers.
6 | Preface

• P2P piracy traffic declines as paid streaming music and video gains ground,
although digital piracy of online content remains a significant threat to Hollywood
and the music industry.
• Governments around the world increase surveillance of Internet users and Web
national security threats; Google continues to tussle with China
sites in response to
and other countries over censorship and security issues.
• Venture capital investing in e-commerce explodes for social, mobile, and local soft¬
ware applications. Crowdfunding becomes a new source of funding for c-com-
mcrcc start-ups.

WELCOME TO THE NEW E-COMMERCE

Since it began in 1995, global electronic commerce has grown from a standing start to
a $1.2 trillion retail, travel, and media business and a $12.4 trillion busincss-to-busi-
ness juggernaut, bringing about enormous change in business firms, markets, and
consumer behavior. Economies and business firms around the globe arc being simi¬
larly affected. During this relatively short time, e-commerce has itself been trans¬
formed from its origin as a mechanism for online retail sales into something much
broader. Today, e-commerce has become the platform for media and new, unique
sendees and capabilities that aren't found in the physical world. There is no physical
world counterpart to Faccbook, TVittter, Google search, or a host of other recent
online innovations from Pinterest and iTuncs to Himblr. Welcome to the new c-com-
mcrcc!
Although c-commcrce today has been impacted by the worldwide economic
recession, in the next five years, e-commcrcc in all of its forms is still projected to
continue growing at high single-digit rates, becoming the fastest growing form of com¬
merce. Just as automobiles, airplanes, and electronics defined the twentieth century,
so will c-commcrcc of all kinds define business and society in the twenty-first cen¬
tury. The rapid movement toward an c-commcrce economy and society is being led
by both established business firms such as Walmart, Ford, IBM, Macy's, and General
Electric, and newer entrepreneurial firms such as Google, Amazon, Apple, Faccbook,
Yahoo, Twitter, YouThbc, and Photobuckct. Students of business and information tech¬
nology need a thorough grounding in electronic commerce in order to be effective
and successful managers in the next decade. This book is written for tomorrow's
managers.
While newer firms such as Faccbook, Tumblr, YouTube, Twitter, Pinterest, Ali¬
baba, and Square have grown explosively in the last two years and grab our attention,
the traditional forms of retail c-commcrcc and services also remain vital and have
proven to be more resilient than traditional retail channels in facing the economic
recession. The experience of these firms from 1995 to the present is also a focus of
this book. The defining characteristic of these firms is that they arc profitable, sus¬
tainable, efficient, and innovative, with powerful brand names. Many of these now-
cxpcricnccd retail and service firms, such as cBav, Amazon, E "Trade, Priceline, and
Expedia, arc survivors of the first era of c-commcrcc, from 1995 to spring 2000. These
surviving firms have evolved their business models, integrated their online and
offline operations, and changed their revenue models to become profitable. Students
 Preface | 7

must understand how to build these kinds of e-commcrce businesses in order to help
the business firms they manage to succeed in the c-commerce era.
It would be foolish to ignore the lessons learned in the early period of c-commcrce.
Like so many technology revolutions in the past— automobiles, electricity, tele¬
phones, television, and biotechnology— there was an explosion of entrepreneurial
efforts, followed by consolidation. By 2005, the survivors of the early period were
moving to establish profitable businesses while maintaining rapid growth in reve¬
nues. In 2013, c-commcrcc is entering a new period of explosive entrenpreneurial
activity focusing on social networks and the mobile digital platform created by smart-
phones and tablet computers. These technologies and social behaviors arc bringing
about extraordinary changes to our personal lives, markets, industries, individual
businesses, and society as a whole. In 2012-2013, the stock values of Apple, Google,
and Amazon hit new highs, along with many start-ups. E-commcrcc is generating
thousands of new jobs for young managers in all fields from marketing to manage¬
ment, entrepreneurial studies, and information systems. Today, c-commcrcc has
moved into the mainstream life of established businesses that have the market brands
and financial muscle required for the long-term deployment of c-commcrcc tech¬
nologies and methods. If you arc working in an established business, chances arc the
firm's c-commcrcc capabilities and Web presence arc important factors for its success.
If you want to start a new business, chances arc vciy good that the knowledge you
learn in this book will be very helpful.

BUSINESS. TECHNOLOGY. SOCIETY.

We believe that in order for business and technology students to really understand
c-commcrce, they must understand the relationships among c-commcrce business
concerns, Internet technology, and the social and legal context of c-commcrcc. These
three themes permeate all aspects of c-commcrcc, and therefore, in each chapter, we
present material that explores the business, technological, and social aspects of that
chapter's main topic.
Given the continued growth and diffusion of c-commcrce, all students— regard¬
less of their major discipline— must also understand the basic economic and business
forces driving c-commcrcc. E-commcrcc has created new electronic markets where
prices arc more transparent, markets arc global, and trading is highly efficient,
though not perfect. E-commcrcc has a direct impact on a firm's relationship with sup¬
pliers, customers, competitors, and partners, as well as how firms market products,
advertise, and use brands. Whether you arc interested in marketing and sales, design,
production, finance, information systems, or logistics, you will need to know how
c-commercc technologies can be used to reduce supply chain costs, increase produc¬
tion efficiency, and tighten the relationship with customers. This text is written to
help you understand the fundamental business issues in c-commcrce.
We spend a considerable amount of effort analyzing the business models and
strategics of "pure-play" online companies and established businesses now employing
"bricks-and-clicks" business models. We explore why e-commcrcc firms fail and the
strategic, financial, marketing, and organizational challenges they face. We also dis¬
cuss how c-commcrcc firms learned from the mistakes of early firms, and how estab-
8 I Preface

lishcd firms arc using e-commerce to succeed. Above all, we attempt to bring a strong
sense of business realism and sensitivity to the often exaggerated descriptions of
e-commerce. As founders of a dot.com company and participants in the e-commerce
revolution, we have learned that the "e" in e-commerce docs not stand for "easy."
The Web and e-commerce have caused a major revolution in marketing and
advertising in the United States. We spend two chapters discussing online marketing
and advertising. Chapter 6 discusses "traditional" online marketing formats like
search engine marketing, display advertising, and e-mail, as well as various Internet
marketing technologies underlying those efforts, and metrics for measuring market¬
ing success. Chapter 7 provides an in-depth examination of social, mobile, and local
marketing, which relics on mobile devices and social networks.
E-commerce is driven by Internet technology. Internet technology, and infor¬
mation technology in general, is perhaps the star of the show. Without the Internet,
e-commerce would be virtually nonexistent. Accordingly, we provide three chapters
specifically on the Internet and e-commerce technology, and in every chapter we
provide continuing coverage by illustrating how the topic of the chapter is being
shaped by new information technologies. For instance, Internet technology drives
developments in security and payment systems, marketing strategics and advertis¬
ing, financial applications, media distribution, business-to-business trade, and retail
e-commerce. We discuss the rapid growth of the mobile digital platform, the emer¬
gence of cloud computing, new open source software tools and applications that
enable Web 2.0, and new types of Internet-based information systems that support
electronic business-to-business markets.
E-commerce is not only about business and technology, however. The third pan
of the equation for understanding e-commerce is society. E-commerce and Internet
technologies have important social consequences that business leaders can ignore
only at their peril. E-commerce has challenged our concepts of privacy, intellectual
property, and even our ideas about national sovereignty and governance. Google,
Facebook, Apple, Amazon, and assorted advertising networks maintain profiles on
millions of shoppers and consumers worldwide. The proliferation of illegally copied
music and videos on the Internet, and the growth of social networking sites often
based on displaying copyrighted materials without permission, arc challenging the
intellectual property rights of record labels, Hollywood studios, and artists. And many
countries— including the United States— arc demanding to control the content of Web
sites displayed within their borders for political and social reasons. Tax authorities in
the United States and Europe arc demanding that e-commerce sites pay sales taxes
just like ordinary brick and mortar stores on mainstrcct. As a result of these chal¬
lenges to existing institutions, e-commerce and the Internet arc the subject of increas¬
ing investigation, litigation, and legislation. Business leaders need to understand
these societal developments, and they cannot afford to assume any longer that the
Internet is borderless, beyond social control and regulation, or a place where market
efficiency is the only consideration. In addition to an entire chapter devoted to the
social and legal implications of e-commerce, each chapter contains material high¬
lighting the social implications of e-commerce.
 Preface | 9

FEATURES AND COVERAGE

Strong Conceptual Foundation The book emphasizes the three major driving forces
behind e-commerce: business development and strategy, technological innovations,
and social controversies and impacts. Each of these driving forces is represented in
every chapter, and together they provide a strong and coherent conceptual frame¬
work for understanding c-commcrce. We analyze c-commcrcc, digital markets, and
e-business firms just as we would ordinary businesses and markets using concepts
from economics, marketing, finance, sociology, philosophy, and information sys¬
tems. We strive to maintain a critical perspective on c-commcrce and avoid industry

hyperbole.
Some of the important concepts from economics and marketing that we use to
explore c-commcrce arc transaction cost, network externalities, information asym¬
metry, social networks, perfect digital markets, segmentation, price dispersion, tar¬
geting, and positioning. Important concepts from the study of information systems
and technologies play an important role in the book, including Internet standards and
protocols, client/server computing, multi-tier server systems, cloud computing,
mobile digital platform and wireless technologies, and public key encryption, among
many others. From the literature on ethics and society, we use important concepts
such as intellectual property, privacy, information rights and rights management,
governance, public health, and welfare.
From the literature on business, we use concepts such as business process design,
return on investment, strategic advantage, industry competitive environment, oli¬

gopoly, and monopoly. We also provide a basic understanding of finance and account¬
ing issues, and extend this through an "E-commcrcc in Action" case that critically
examines the financial statements of Amazon. One of the witticisms that emerged
from the early years of c-commcrcc and that still seems apt is the notion that c-com-
mcrcc changes everything except the rules of business. Businesses still need to make
a profit in order to survive in the long term.

Currency Important new developments happen almost every day in c-commcrce and
the Internet. We try to capture as many of these important new developments in each
annual edition. You will not find a more current book for a course offered for the 2014
academic year. Many other texts arc already six months to a year out of date before
they even reach the printer. This text, in contrast, reflects extensive research through
October 2013, just weeks before the book hits the press.

Real-World Global Business Firm Focus and Cases From Akamai Technologies to
Google, Microsoft, Apple, and Amazon, to Faccbook, Twitter, and Tumblr, to Nctflix,
Pandora, and Elcmica, this book contains hundreds of real-company examples and
over 60 more extensive cases that place coverage in the context of actual dot.com
businesses. You'll find these examples in each chapter, as well as in special features
such as chapter-opening, chapter-closing, and "Insight on" cases. The book takes a
realistic look at the world of c-commcrcc, describing what's working and what isn't,
rather than presenting a rose-colored or purely "academic" viewpoint.
10 I Preface

In-depth Coverage of Marketing and Advertising The text includes two chapters on
marketing and advertising, both traditional online marketing and social, mobile, and
local marketing. Marketing concepts, including market segmentation, personaliza¬
tion, clickstream analysis, bundling of digital goods, long-tail marketing, and dynamic
pricing, arc used throughout the text.

In-depth Coverage of B2B E-commerce We devote an entire chapter to an examina¬

tion of B2B e-commerce. In writing this chapter, we developed a unique and easily
understood classification schema to help students understand this complex arena of
e-commerce. This chapter covers four types of Net marketplaces (c-clistributors,
e-procurement companies, exchanges, and industry consortia) as well as the develop¬
ment of private industrial networks and collaborative commerce.

Current and Future Technology Coverage Internet and related information technolo¬
gies continue to change rapidly. The most important changes fore-commerce include
dramatic price reductions in e-commerce infrastructure (making it much less expen¬
sive to develop sophisticated Web sites), the explosive growth in the mobile platform
such as iPhones, iPads, tablet computers, and expansion in the development of social
technologies, which arc the foundation of online social networks. What was once a
shortage of telecommunications capacity has now turned into a surplus, PC prices
have continued to fall, smartphone and tablet sales have soared, Internet high-speed
broadband connections arc now typical and arc continuing to show double-digit
growth, and wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and cellular broadband arc trans¬
forming how, when, and where people access the Internet. While we thoroughly
discuss the current Internet environment, we devote considerable attention to
describing Web 2.0 and emerging technologies and applications such as the advanced
network infrastructure, fiber optics, wireless Web and 4G technologies, Wi-Fi, IP mul¬
ticasting, and future guaranteed service levels.

Up-to-Date Coverage of the Research Literature This text is well grounded in the
c-commcrce research literature. We have sought to include, where appropriate, refer¬
ences and analysis of the latest c-commcrce research findings, as well as many classic
articles, in all of our chapters. We have drawn especially 011 the disciplines of eco¬
nomics, marketing, and information systems and technologies, as well as law jour¬
nals and broader social science research journals including sociology and psychology.
We do not use references to Wikipedia in this text, for a variety of reasons. Most
colleges do not consider Wikipedia a legitimate or acceptable source for academic
research and instruct their students not to cite it. Material found on Wikipedia may
be out of date, lack coverage, lack critical perspective, and cannot necessarily be
trusted. Our references arc to respected academic journals; industry sources such as
cMarketcr, comScorc, Hitwisc, Nielsen, and Gartner; newspapers such as the New
York Times and Wall Street Journal; and industry publications such as Computerworld
and InformationWeek, among others. Figures and tables sourccd to "authors' estimates"
reflect analysis of data from the U.S. Department of Commerce, estimates from vari¬
ous research firms, historical trends, revenues of major online retailers, consumer
online buying trends, and economic conditions.
 Preface | 11

Special Attention to the Social and Legal Aspects of E-commerce We have paid special
attention throughout the book to the social and legal context of e-commerce. Chapter
8 is devoted to a thorough exploration of four ethical dimensions of e-commerce:
information privacy, intellectual property, governance, and protecting public welfare
on the Internet. We have included an analysis of the latest Federal Trade Commission
and other regulatory and nonprofit research reports, and their likely impact on the
e-commerce environment .
A major theme throughout this chapter, and the remainder of the book, is the
impact of social, mobile, and local commerce on how consumers use the Internet.

Writing That's Fun to Read Unlike some textbooks, we've been told by many students
that this book is actually fun to read and easy to understand. This is not a book writ¬
ten by committee— you won't find a dozen different people listed as authors, co¬

authors, and contributors on the title page. We have a consistent voice and perspective
that carries through the entire text and we believe the book is the better for it.

OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK

The book begins with an introductory chapter that provides an introduction to the
major themes of the book. Chapter 1 defines c-commcrcc, distinguishes between
c-commcrcc and e-business, and defines the different types of c-commcrcc. Chapter
2 traces the historical development of the Internet and thoroughly describes how
today's Internet works. A major focus of this chapter is mobile technology, Web 2.0
applications, and the near-term future Internet that is now under development and
will shape the future of c-commcrcc. Chapter 3 builds on the Internet chapter by
focusing on the steps managers need to follow in order to build an c-commcrcc pres¬
ence. This e-commcrcc infrastructure chapter covers the steps involved in develop¬
ing an c-commcrcc presence; the systems analysis and design process that should be
followed; the major decisions regarding outsourcing site development and/or host¬
ing; and how to choose software, hardware, and other tools that can improve Web site
performance. Chapter 4 focuses on Internet security and payments, building on the
c-commcrce infrastructure discussion of the previous chapter by describing the ways
security can be provided over the Internet. The chapter defines digital information
security, describes the major threats to security, and then discusses both the technol¬
ogy and policy solutions available to business managers seeking to secure their firm's
sites. This chapter concludes with a section on Internet payment systems. We iden¬
tify the stakeholders in payment systems and the various types of online payment
systems (credit cards, alternative online payment systems such as PayPal and Google
Wallet), and the development of mobile payment systems.
The next four chapters focus directly on the business concepts and social-legal
issues that surround the development of c-commcrcc. Chapter 5 introduces and
defines the concepts of business model and revenue model, describes the major
c-commcrcc business and revenue models for both B2C and B2B firms, and introduces
the basic business concepts required throughout the text for understanding c-com-
mcrcc firms including industry structure, value chains, and firm strategy. Chapter 6
focuses on e-commcrce consumer behavior, the Internet audience, and introduces the
12 | Preface

student to the basics of online marketing and branding, including online marketing
technologies and marketing strategies, including traditional browser-based online
marketing technologies and marketing strategies. Topics include the Web site as a
marketing platform, search engine marketing and advertising, display ad marketing,
e-mail campaigns, affiliate and lead generation marketing programs, multichannel
marketing, and various customer retention strategies such as personalization (includ¬
ing interest-based advertising, also known as behavioral targeting) and customer ser¬
vice tools. The chapter also covers other marketing strategies such as pricing and
long-tail marketing. Internet marketing technologies (Web transaction logs, tracking
files, data mining and big data) and CRM arc also explored. The chapter concludes
with a section on understanding the costs and benefits of various types of online mar¬
keting, including a new section on Web analytics software. Chapter 7 is devoted to an
in-depth analysis of social, mobile, and local marketing. Topics include Faccbook, Twit¬
ter, and Pintcrcst marketing platforms, the evolution of mobile marketing away from
browsers and towards in-app marketing, and the growing use of geo-awarc technolo¬
gies to support geo-fencing and in-store geo-marketing. Chapter 8 provides a thorough
introduction to the social and legal environment of e-commcrcc. Here, you will find a
description of the ethical and legal dimensions of c-commcrcc, including a thorough
discussion of the latest developments in personal information privacy, intellectual
property, Internet governance, jurisdiction, and public health and welfare issues such
as pornography, gambling, and health information.
The final four chapters focus on real-world c-commcrcc experiences in retail and
services, online media, auctions, portals, and social networks, and business-to-busi-
ness e-commcrcc. These chapters take a sector approach rather than a conceptual
approach as used in the earlier chapters. E-commcrce is different in each of these
sectors. Chapter 9 explores the world of online content and digital media, and exam¬

ines the enormous changes in online publishing and entertainment industries that
have occurred over the last two years, including streaming movies, e-books, and
online newspapers and magazines. Chapter 10 explores the online world of social
networks, auctions, and portals. Chapter 11 takes a close look at the experience of
firms in the retail marketplace for both goods and services. Chapter 11 also includes
an "E-commcrcc in Action" ease that provides a detailed analysis of the business strat¬
egies and financial operating results of Amazon, which can be used as a model to
analyze other c-commcrcc firms. Additional "E-commcrcc in Action" eases will be
available online at the authors' Web site for the text, www.azimuth-intcractivc.com/
ecommcrcclOc. Chapter 12 explores the world of B2B c-commcrce, describing both
electronic Net marketplaces and the less-heralded, but very large arena of private
industrial networks and the movement toward collaborative commerce.
 Preface I 13

PEDAGOGY AND CHAPTER OUTLINE

The book's pedagogy emphasizes student cognitive awareness and the ability to ana¬
lyze, synthesize, and evaluate e-commcrcc businesses. While there is a strong data
and conceptual foundation to the book, we seek to engage student interest with lively
writing about e-commerce businesses and the transformation of business models at
traditional firms.
Each chapter contains a number of elements designed to make learning easy as
well as interesting.

Learning Objectives A list of learning objectives that highlights the key concepts in
the chapter guides student study.

Chapter-Opening Cases Each chapter opens with a story about a leading e-commerce
company that relates the key objectives of the chapter to a real-life e-commerce busi¬
ness venture. The cases focus specifically on global aspects of e-commerce and com¬
panies with a presence in Europe, the Middle East,
Africa, Asia and/or Australia.

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 Preface 15

Chapter- Closing Case Studies Each chapter

concludes with a robust case study based 011
a real-world organization. These cases help
students synthesize chapter concepts and
apply this knowledge to concrete prob¬ ca
lems and scenarios such as evaluating
nd
'inn
'uo
Pandora's freemium business model, '-,r<hv
Exchange HunterJumper's efforts to
build a brand, and the fairness of the
Google Books settlement.

Chapter- Ending Pedagogy Each chap¬

ter contains extensive cnd-of-chaptcr

materials designed to reinforce the

learning objectives of the chapter.

Key Concepts Keyed to thelearn¬ PANDORA

ing objectives, Key Concepts pres¬

ent the key points of the chapter

to aid student study.

Review Questions Thought-provok¬

ing questions prompt students to
demonstrate their comprehension and
apply chapter concepts to management problem
solving.

Projects At the end of each chapter arc a number of projects that encourage
students to apply chapter concepts and to use higher level evaluation skills.
Many make use of the Internet and require students to present their findings in
an oral or electronic presentation or written report. For instance, students arc
asked to evaluate publicly available information about a company's financials
at the SEC Web site, assess payment system options for companies across inter¬
national boundaries, or search for the top 10 cookies on their own computer
and the sites they arc from.

Web Resources Web resources that can extend students' knowledge of each
chapter with projects, exercises, and additional content arc available at
www.azimuth-interactivc.com/ccommcrcelOc. The Web site contains the
following content provided by the authors:
• Additional projects, exercises, and tutorials
• Information 011 how to build a business plan and revenue models
• Essays 011 careers in e-commerce
16 | Preface

SUPPORT PACKAGE
The following supplementary materials are available to qualified instructors through
the Online Instructor Resource Center. Contact your Pearson sales representative for
information about how to access them.

• Instructor's Manual with solutions This comprehensive manual pulls together

a wide variety of teaching tools so that instructors can use the text easily and effec¬
tively. Each chapter contains an overview of key topics, a recap of the key learning
objectives, additional topics for class discussion and debate, lecture tips, discussion
of the chapter-ending case, and answers to the Case Study Questions, Review
Questions, and Student Projects.
• Test Bank For quick test preparation, the author-created Test Bank contains mul¬
tiple-choice, true/ false, and short-essay questions that focus both on content and
the development of critical/creative thinking about the issues evoked by the chap¬
ter. The Test Bank is available in Microsoft Word and TcstGcn format.
The TcstGcn is also available in WcbCT and BlackBoard-ready format. TcstGcn
allows instructors to view, edit, and add questions.
• PowerPoint lecture presentation slides These slides illustrate key points,
tables, and figures from the text in lecture-note format. The slides can be easily
convened to transparencies or viewed electronically in the classroom. The slides
also include additional questions for the opening cases and the "Insight on"
vignettes throughout the book. These questions arc very useful for in-class discus¬
sions, or quizzes.
• Learning Tracks These additional essays, created by the authors, provide instruc¬
tors and students with more in-depth content on selected topics in c-commcrcc.

Chapter I
1.1 Global E-commcrcc Europe
1.2 Global E-commcrcc Latin America
1.3 Global E-commcrcc China

Chapter 6
6.1 Basic Marketing Concepts
6.2 Consumer Behavior: Cultural, Social, and Psychological Background Fac¬
tors
6.3 Social Media Marketing - Blogging

• Video Cases The authors have created a collection of video case studies that inte¬
grate short videos, supporting case study material, and case study questions. Video
cases can be used in class to promote discussion or as written assignments.
Chapter I
1.1 The Future of E-commcrcc

Chapter 2
2.1 Google Data Center Efficiency Best Practices
2.2 NBA: Competing on Global Delivery
 Preface I 17

Chapter 3
3.1 ESPN Goes to extreme Scale
3.2 Data Warehousing at REI: Understanding the Customer

Chapter 4
4.1 Cyberespionage: The Chinese Threat
4.2 Stuxnet and Cyberwarfare
4.3 IBM Zone Trusted Information Channel (ZTIC)
4.4 Open ID and Web Security

Chapter 5
5.1 Deals Galore at Groupon

Chapter (»

6.1 Nielsen Online Campaign Ratings

Chapter 7
7.1 The Power of Like

Chapter 8
8.1 Faccbook Privacy
8.2 What Net Neutrality Means for You
8.3 Lawrence Lcssig on Net Neutrality

Chapter 9
9.1 YouTube's 7th Birthday

Chapter 10
10.1 Mint Returns for Goodwill's cBay Auctions of Thrift-Store Finds

Chapter II
11.1 Etsy: A Marketplace and a Community

Chapter 12
12.1 Ford AutoXchange B2B Marketplace

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Pearson Education sought the advice of many excellent reviewers, all of whom
strongly influenced the organization and substance of this book. The following indi¬
viduals provided extremely useful evaluations of this and previous editions of the
text:
18 Preface

Dcniz Aksen, Kog University (Istanbul) Sharon Hcckcl, St. Charles Community
Carrie Andersen, Madison Area College
Technical College David Hitc, Virginia Intermont College
Dr. Shirley A. Becker, Northern Arizona Gus Jabbour, Gcotgc Mason University
University Ellen Kraft, Georgian Court University
Prasad Bingi, Indiana-Purdue University, Gillican Lee, Lander University
Fort Wayne
Zoonky Lee, University of Nebraska,
Christine Barnes, Lakeland Community Lincoln
College Andre Lcmaylleux, Boston University,
Cliff Butler, North Seattle Community Brussels
College Haim Lcvkowitz, University of
Joanna Broder, University of Arizona Massachusetts, Lowell
James Buchan, College of the Ozarks Yair Levy, Nova Southeastern University
Ashley Bush, Florida State University Richard Lucic, Duke University
Mark Choman, Luzerne City Community John Mcndonca, Purdue University
College Dr. Abdulrahman Mirza, DePaul
Andrew Ciganck, Jacksonville State University
University Kent Palmer, MacMurray College
Daniel Connolly, University of Denver Karen Palumbo, University of St. Francis
Tom Critzer, Miami University
Wayne Pauli, Dakota State University
Dursan Delen, Oklahoma State Jamie Pinchot, Thicl College
University
Kai Pommerenkc, University of
Abhijit Deshmukh, University of California at Santa Cruz
Massachusetts
Barry Quinn, University of Ulster,
Brian L. Dos Santos, University of Northern Ireland
Louisville
Michelle Ramim, Nova Southeastern
Robert Drcvs, University of Notre Dame
University
Akram El-Tannir, Hariri Canadian Jay Rhcc, San Jose State University
University, Lebanon
Jorge Romero, Towson University
Kimberly Furumo, University of Hawaii John Sagi, Anne Arundel Community
at Hilo
College
John H. Gcrdes, University of California,
Patricia Sendall, Merrimack College
Riverside
Dr. Carlos Scrrao, ISCTE/DCTI, Portugal
Philip Gordon, University of California at
Nccrja Sethi, Nanyang Business School,
Berkeley
Singapore
Allan Grcenbcrg, Brooklyn College
Amber Settle, DePaul CTI
Bin Gu, University of Texas at Austin
Vivek Shah, Texas State University-San
Peter Haried, University of Wisconsin- La
Marcos
Crosse
Scung Jac Shin, Mississippi State
Shcrri Harms, University of Nebraska at
University
Kearney
 Preface I 19

Sumit Sircar, University of Texas at Andrea Wachtcr, Point Park University

Arlington
Hongjun Song, University of Memphis
Pamela Specht, University of Nebraska at Biao Wang, Boston University
Omaha
Esther Swilley, Kansas State University
Tony Townsend, Iowa State University
Bill Troy, University of New Hampshire
Susan VandeVen, Southern Polytechnic
State University
Hicp Van Dong, Madison Area Technical
College
And Michael Van Hilst, Nova
Southeastern University
Mary Vitrano, Palm Beach Community
College
Catherine Wallace, Massey University,
New Zealand
Haibo Wang, Texas A&M International
University
Harry Washington, Lincoln University
Rolf Wigand, University of Arkansas at
Little Rock
Erin Wilkinson, Johnson & Wales
University
Alice Wilson, Cedar Crest College
Dezlii Wu, Southern Utah University
Gene Ycllc, SUNY Institute of Technology
David Zolzcr. Northwestern State
University

We would like to thank cMarkctcr, Inc. and David Iankelevich for their permission to
include data and figures from their research reports in our text. cMarkctcr is one of
the leading independent sources for statistics, trend data, and original analysis cover¬
ing many topics related to the Internet, e-business, and emerging technologies. cMar¬
kctcr aggregates e-business data from multiple sources worldwide.
In addition, we would like to thank all those at Pearson who have worked so hard
to make sure this book is the very best it can be. We want to thank Bob Horan, Execu¬

tive Editor of the Pearson MIS list, and Karalyn Holland, Senior Production Project
Manager, for their support; Judy Lcalc for overseeing production of this project; and
DcPinho Design for the outstanding cover design. Very special thanks to Robin Pick¬
ering, Megan Miller, and Will Anderson at Azimuth Interactive, Inc., for all their hard
work on the production of, and supplements for, this book.
A special thanks also to Susan Hartman, Executive Editor for the first and second
editions and to Frank Ruggircllo, Publisher at Addison-Wcslcy when we began this
project, and now Vice President and Editorial Director at Bcnjamin-Cummings.
Finally, last but not least, we would like to thank our family and friends, without
whose support this book would not have been possible.
Kenneth C. Laudon
Carol Guercio D'aver
 CmirÿgEfflast

© CosjiirsÿSmÿrt
Brief Contents

1 INTRODUCTION TO E-COMMERCE 42

2 E-COMMERCE INFRASTRUCTURE: THE INTERNET, WEB, AND MOBILE PLATFORM 94

3 BUILDING AN E-COMMERCE PRESENCE: WEB SITES, MOBILE SITES, AND APPS 170

4 E-COMMERCE SECURITY AND PAYMENT SYSTEMS 232

5 E-COMMERCE BUSINESS MODELS 312

6 E-COMMERCE MARKETING AND ADVERTISING 364

7 SOCIAL, MOBILE, AND LOCAL MARKETING 450

8 ETHICS, LAW, AND E-COMMERCE 522

9 ONLINE MEDIA 600

10 SOCIAL NETWORKS AND COMMUNITIES 666

11 E-COMMERCE RETAILING AND SERVICES 720

12 B2B E-COMMERCE 784

21
& Oÿjr-'S.sS fna'i

umrs&Smmf
Contents

ÿ INTRODUCTION TO E-COMMERCE ~42

Learning Objectives 42

Puma Loves Social, Mobile, Omni 43

1.1 E-commerce: The Revolution Is Just Beginning 46

The First 30 Seconds 49
What Is E-commerce? 50

The Difference Between E-commerce and E-business 50

Why Study E-commerce? 51
Eight Unique Features of E-commerce Technology 52
Ubiquity 52
Global Reach 53
Universal Standards 54
Richness 54
Interactivity 55
Information Density 55
Personalization/Customization 55
Social Technology: User Content Generation and Social Networking 56
Web 2.0: Play My Version 56
TVpcs of E-commerce 59
Busincss-to-Consumcr (B2C) E-commerce 59
Business-to-Business (B2B) E-commerce 60
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) E-commerce 60
Social E-commerce 61
Mobile E-commerce (M-commercc) 62
Local E-commerce 62
Growth of the Internet, Web, and Mobile Platform 62
Origins and Growth of E-commerce 64
Insight on Technology: Will Apps Make the Web Irrelevant? 66

1.2 E-commerce: A Brief History 68

E-commerce 1995-2000: Invention 68

23
24 | Contents

E-commcrcc 2001-2006: Consolidation 71

E-commcrcc 2007— Present: Reinvention 72
Assessing E-commcrcc: Successes, Surprises, and Failures 72

Insight on Business: Rocket Internet 73

Predictions for the Future: More Surprises 77

Understanding E-commerce: Organizing Themes 80

Technology: Infrastructure 80
Business: Basic Concepts 82
Society: Taming the Juggernaut 82
Insight on Society: Facebook and the Age of Privacy 83
Academic Disciplines Concerned with E-commcrcc 85
Technical Approaches 85
Behavioral Approaches 85

1.4 Case Study: The Pirate Bay: Searching for a Safe Haven 86

1.5 Review 89
Key Concepts 89
Questions 92
Projects 93

E-COMMERCE INFRASTRUCTURE: THE INTERNET, WEB, AND MOBILE PLATFORM 94

Learning Objectives 94

Wikitude:Augment My Reality 95

2.1 The Internet: Technology Background 98

The Evolution of the Internet: 1961— the Present 100
The Internet: Key Technology Concepts 101
Packet Switching 101
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) 106
IP Addresses 106
Domain Names, DNS, and URLs 108
Client/Server Computing 109
The New Client: the Mobile Platform 111
The Internet "Cloud Computing" Model: Software and Hardware as a
Service 112
Other Internet Protocols and Utility Programs 113
Internet Protocols: HTTP E-mail Protocols, FTP, Tblnct, and SSL/TLS 113
Utility Programs: Ping and Tracert 114
 Contents | 25

2.2 The Internet Today 115

The Internet Backbone 117
Internet Exchange Points 118
Campus Area Networks 118
Internet Service Providers 120
Intranets 122
Who Governs the Internet? 122

2.3 The Future Internet Infrastructure 124

Limitations of the Current Internet 124
Insight on Society: Government Regulation and Surveillance of the
Internet 125
The Internet2® Project 128
The First Mile and the Last Mile 130
Fiber Optics and the Bandwidth Explosion in the First Mile 130
The Last Mile: Mobile Internet Access 131
The Future Internet 135
Latency Solutions 135
Guaranteed Service Levels and Lower Error Rates 135
Declining Costs 135
The Internet of Tilings 136

2.4 The Web 136

Hypertext 137
Markup Languages 138
HypcrTfcxt Markup Language (HTML) 138
extensible Markup Language (XML) 140
Insight on Technology: Is HTML5 Ready for Prime Time ? 141
Web Servers and Clients 143
Web Browsers 145

2.5 The Internet and the Web: Features and Sendees 146
E-mail 146
Instant Messaging 1 46
Search Engines 147
Online Forums and Chat 149
Streaming Media 150
Cookies 150
Web 2.0 Features and Services 151
Online Social Networks 1 51
Blogs 151
Really Simple Syndication (RSS) 152
Podcasting 152
26 Contents

Wikis 152
Music and Video Services 153
Internet Telephony 154
Video Conferencing, Video Chatting, and Telepresence 154
Online Software and Web Services: Web Apps, Widgets, and Gadgets 155
Intelligent Personal Assistants 155

2.6 Mobile Apps: The Next Big Thing Is Here 156

Insight on Business: Apps for Everything: The App Ecosystem 15 7
Platforms for Mobile Application Development 159
App Marketplaces 159

2.7 Case Study: Akamai Technologies: Attempting to Keep Supply Ahead of

Demand 160

2.8 Review 164

Key Concepts 164

Questions 168
Projects 169

BUILDING AN E-COMMERCE PRESENCE: WEB SITES, MOBILE SITES, AND APPS 170

Learning Objectives 170

The Financial Times: A Remodel for 21st Century Publishing Profitability 17 1

3.1 Imagine Your E-commerce Presence 174

What's the Idea? (The Visioning Process) 174
Where's the Money: Business and Revenue Model 174
Who and Where is the Target Audience 175
What Is the Ballpark? Characterize the Marketplace 176
Where's the Content Coming From? 176
Know Yourself: Conduct a SWOT Analysis 177
Develop an E-commerce Presence Map 178
Develop a Timeline: Milestones 179
How Much Will This Cost? 179

3.2 Building an Ercommerce Presence: A Systematic Approach 180

Planning: The Systems Development Life Cycle 182
Systems Analysis/Planning: Identify Business Objectives, System Functionality,
and Information Requirements 182
System Design: Hardware and Software Platforms 184
Building the System: In-housc Versus Outsourcing 184
Build Your Own versus Outsourcing 184
Another random document with
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 INTESTINAL INDIGESTION AND
OBSTRUCTION IN BIRDS.

Causes: Age, debility, atony, matting of feathers, dry or indigestible food, lack of
water, diseased oviducts, sand or gravel, lack of pebbles or power in gizzard.
Lesions: masses of egg, uric acid, or fæces in cloaca, implicating colon and cæca.
Symptoms: dullness, stupor, vertigo, staggering, erect plumage, trailing wings and
tail, bulging anus, covered with matted feathers, impaction felt by finger.
Treatment: extract mass, castor oil, laudanum, chalk, bismuth, pepper,
demulcents, phenol, exercise, silage, green food, pebbles.

Causes. These resemble those already noted for the dog. Old age,
debility, and atony of the bowel, the matting together of feathers
across the anus, dry feeding, indigestible food, scarcity of water, and
lack of exercise are especially to be noted. Malformations or other
changes lead to obstruction of the cloaca, and of defecation. Sand
and gravel passing from an atonic gizzard accumulate in the small
intestine or in the cæca distending them to great excess. Imperfect
trituration in the gizzard, from lack of pebbles, may prove a factor in
stoneless prairies.
Lesions. The most common seat of obstruction is at the cloaca, and
the impacted matter may be yellow partaking of the nature of yolk of
egg, or it may consist of feculent matters and uric acid in various
proportions, white, hard and fœtid. As in the dog this distension may
be continued forward blocking the colon and cæca as well. Lucet
mentions a case in which the impacted mass measured seven inches
long, and eight in circumference at its posterior and larger end.
Symptoms. The bird is dull, sluggish, stupid, giddy or unsteady on
its limbs, with feathers erect, wings, tail and head pendent and loses
flesh rapidly. Often a felted mass of feathers and fæces cover the
anus. In its absence there appears the rounded swelling or on
manipulation the impacted cloaca or rectum can be felt firm and
resistant.
Treatment. Soften and remove the external mass of fæces by the
aid of tepid water, clip off the feathers, which would tend to restore
it, then by the oiled finger and warm water injections break up and
extract the contents of cloaca and rectum. If impaction remains
farther forward give a teaspoonful of castor oil. If diarrhœa has
already set in, give 5 drops laudanum, and mix chalk or bismuth and
pepper in a mush to be fed to the patient. Injections of slippery elm
containing a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in the pint will prove useful.
The bird should be allowed plenty of exercise, its grain being fed
on a floor covered lightly with straw to encourage scratching, and
silage or green food should be allowed. On the prairies where pebbles
cannot be secured, imported gravel or vitrified brick broken into
small pieces should be allowed.
 COLIC IN SOLIPEDS FROM VERMINOUS
EMBOLISM. INTESTINAL CONGESTION.
Definition. Causes: presence of sclerostoma in arteries, form, habit, nature,
immature, biology, life in bowel, in submucosa, in arteries, outside the mammal,
pathogenesis, blood-sucking, verminous cysts, verminous aneurisms, seats of
latter, coagula, embolism, stagnation of blood, œdema and thickening of intestine,
mesentery, fermentations, tympany, infective inflammations, blood extravasations,
infection of liver and spleen. Symptoms: sudden attack, violent colics, reckless
movements, frequent defecation followed by its arrest, palsy of peristaltic
movement, of pain, prostration. Course: two to twenty-four hours, death from
indigestion, tympany, obstruction, hemorrhage, poisoning, recovery, sequelæ,
laminitis, intestinal catarrh or atony, debility. Treatment: aneurism worms beyond
reach, treat lesions, venesection, anodynes, stimulants of peristalsis, antiseptics,
compresses, sinapisms. Prevention: expel intestinal worms, exclude embryos,
tartar emetic, iron sulphate, arsenic, phenol, pure water, occasional vermifuges.
Definition. Congestion and spasms of the intestines in connection
with blocking (thrombus or embolism) of the mesenteric arteries,
and verminous aneurism.
Causes. The essential cause is the migration of the sclerostoma
equinum (strongylus armatus, Rud.) into the mesenteric arteries in
its agamous condition. It seems appropriate therefore to here notice
the life history of this parasite.
The sclerostoma equinum (strongylus armatus) is one of the
common pin worms of the horse. It is distinguished by its dull gray
or reddish brown body, thickest at the cephalic end and tapering off
toward the caudal, but ending in a blunt point; by the round, open
mouth furnished with several firm chitinous rings, of which the outer
bears six short symmetrically arranged papillæ, an intermediate row
of rounded blunt tooth-like projections, and the innermost a row of
fine, closely aggregated and very sharply pointed teeth for
penetration of the mucosa. Male ¾ to 1½ inches long, with caudal
membranous alæ in two lateral lobes, joined by a rudimentary
central lobe: two delicate spicula. Female ¾ to 2 inches long, blunt
pointed tail, vulva in posterior half of the body. Eggs ovoid with
slightly raised ring around the centre: oviparous.
 Habitats. They are found in solipeds in two stages of existence, the
mature worms in the cæcum and colon, and the immature in the
same organs encapsuled in little pellets of manure, and in cysts in the
mucosa but also apart in the arterial system especially in the anterior
mesenteric artery and other gastric or intestinal trunks.
The mature sclerostomata are found attached to the mucosa of
the large intestine into which the head is sunk for the purpose of
sucking the blood, and they may be gray, brown or red according to
the quantity of blood which they have imbibed. The author has found
them in little hernial sacs of the mucosa hanging from the peritoneal
surface.
The sexually immature sclerostomata are found in little pill-
like masses of ingesta in the large intestines and from which they
project part of the body through a narrow opening. Another habitat
is in cysts of the mucosa of the cæcum and colon and less frequently
of the small intestine, individual cysts varying in size from a pin’s
head to a hazel nut, and containing the young worm rolled upon
itself, and varying in size but always less than the intestinal worm
and always asexual. In some cases the cyst is found empty but with a
small opening toward the lumen of the bowel showing the means of
escape of the parasite. A third habitat of the immature worm is in the
blood-vessels, especially the posterior aorta and its divisions, and
still more constantly the anterior and other mesenteric arteries.
Biology. The ova of the sclerostoma are segmented in the oviduct
but are hatched out after they have been laid. The hatching may be
effected in the intestine or in manure or water external to the body.
When hatched out in the intestine they may pass out at once with the
manure or they may envelop themselves in pellets of the finer ingesta
and remain for a time in the bowel and finally pass out in this
condition. Baillet has traced their development out of the body. In a
watery or damp medium they are hatched out in a few days as a
cylindroid worm ¼ to ⅓ mm. long, thick in front and with a filiform
tail. In moist environment but especially in damp manure they grow
to 1 mm. or 1.5 mm. and continue for months in this condition, but
remain small and asexual, until taken in, in the drink or green food
of the soliped. Reaching the intestine and especially the cæcum and
colon they bore their way into the mucosa and encyst themselves, or
if they happen to perforate a blood-vessel they make a habitat of that.
In the cyst, development proceeds and when it has reached a certain
stage the worm once more bores its way through the mucosa and
reaching the intestine becomes sexually mature.
In this last migration the young worm is liable to perforate a
blood-vessel in which case it is destined to a period of existence in
the blood. It may, however, have blundered upon a blood-vessel at an
earlier stage when seeking a temporary home in the mucous
membrane, so that the sclerostomata of aneurisms may be derived
from two separate sources. In the blood-vessels the parasite attains a
length of 1 to 8 lines, whereas in the mucous cysts it does not exceed
3½ lines. Yet Neumann holds that after leaving the blood-vessels
they may again encyst themselves in the mucosa before escaping into
the intestine.
Several moultings take place in the asexual condition.
Other views have been advanced as to the development of the
sclerostomata. Colin believed that the ova deposited in the ducts of
the mucous glands and in the perforations made by the parasite in
blood-sucking, hatched in this situation and the embryo at once
encysted itself in the mucosa.
Leuckart imagines that the embryo found in the fæces or in water
outside the body of the soliped, should pass through an intermediate
host before it can return to gain sexual maturity in the horse. But no
evidence of the existence of such intermediate host is furnished, and
the encysted intestinal worms show no indication of a special
development which would have been accomplished in such host.
Willach holds to a hermaphrodite stage passed in the intestine of
the soliped. He found in the bowel small worms apparently related to
the sclerostomata by the appearance of the head and the caudal
membrane, but not exceeding three to five lines in length. Some were
evidently females and contained not only eggs with soft shells, but in
one case embryos. Others had the caudal membrane of the male, yet
contained also a few eggs. There is no vulva and the embryos escape
by rupture of the oviducts. These embryos he supposes are developed
in the same host into the familiar mature sclerostomata.
Whatever may be said of those alleged modes, the first described
series of changes and migrations may be taken as the usual and
regular method of development.
 Pathogenesis. Lesions. These embrace perforations of the
mucosa, cysts, aneurisms, embolisms and congestions.
Irritation of the mucosa. The adult worms, like so many
leeches are continually biting and sucking blood from the mucosa
and when present in large numbers, hundreds, thousands, or a
million create an aggregate of irritation which may determine violent
indigestions and congestions.
Verminous Cysts. These are like a pin’s head, a pea or hazel nut,
containing the asexual worm in a mass of purulent debris, or if
empty, presenting a small orifice where it made its exit.
Verminous Aneurisms. These are perhaps the most important
lesions caused by the sclerostome as they are the steppingstone to
the dangerous embolisms, and too often fatal colics and congestions
of the intestines. They are very common in some localities, and rare
in others following the distribution of the sclerostomata. Bollinger
found them in 90 to 94 per cent. of adult horses, and Ellenberger in
84 out of 85 horses dissected. They are found in all ages from six
months up, and are nearly always in the short, stubby trunk of the
anterior mesenteric artery. Often two or three exist in the same
animal, the whole length of the posterior aorta showing patches of
disease, exudations, neoplastic elevations alternating with
depressions, and aneurisms and thrombosis in its different branches.
In 100 horses Bollinger found 168 aneurisms, 153 in the anterior
mesenteric, and its divisions, 4 in the cœliac axis and its divisions, 3
in the hepatic artery, 3 in the posterior mesenteric artery, 3 in the
renal arteries and 2 in the posterior aorta.
The special predisposition of the anterior mesenteric artery is
variously accounted for: 1st. There is the obvious fact that its
branches are distributed to the cæcum and double colon, the home of
the mature parasite, and to the small intestines which are first
reached by the young parasites that are taken in with the water and
the food. These are therefore most likely to get into the branches of
this vessel and to follow them up toward its origin. 2nd. The anterior
mesenteric artery distributes its branches to the small intestines the
most motile portion of the intestinal tract, and the cæcum and colon
the most heavily loaded with solid ingesta, it is therefore the most
subject to traction, and distensions, and the more so that the parent
trunk is extremely short and the divisions pass in all directions and
to a large extent at right angles, so that there is a dragging of the
walls apart as well as an obstruction to the blood flow and an
increase of internal tension. The distension, laceration, inflammation
and softening of the internal coat have accordingly been regarded as
the starting point of an endarteritis upon which the parasites have
been implanted as a further cause of trouble. We must not forget,
however, that the sharp circle of teeth of the parasite, by which it
fixes itself on the intima of the vessel are quite enough to produce
initial endarteritis, without any assistance from distension, traction
or laceration.
The irritation of the intima from whatever cause determines here
as elsewhere exudation, and coagulation, and the inflamed walls
losing their tone yield more and more readily to the internal tension.
Sometimes the coagulum lines the aneurism or vessel all round,
leaving a narrow central passage through which the blood still flows;
in other cases the clot extends into the adjacent smaller vessels,
completely blocking them and disturbing circulation and innervation
in the parts which they supply. As a rule the parasites are found in
galleries hollowed out in the clot, and heads or tails may be seen to
project into the circulating blood. Sometimes they are found
imbedded in the arterial coat, or in an adjacent small abscess. The
formation of aneurisms in the other arterial trunks may follow the
same method.
Embolisms. These come very naturally from the formation of
thrombi in the various arteries. The coagulum determined by the
presence of the worms, tends to undergo retrogressive changes
notably fatty degeneration, to which germs brought on the worms or
in their alimentary canals contribute. This together with the
movements of the parasites tends to break up the mass, and minute
portions are washed on into the different smaller vessels. Soon these
reach divisions which are too small to admit them, which are
accordingly occluded and the circulation through them abolished.
The presence of microbes as well as fibrine contributes to cause
further coagulation, more absolute embolism and arrest of the
circulation.
It is further alleged that the sexual instinct in the summer months
(May to August) leads the worms to leave the aneurisms, to pass
through the smaller divisions to the cæcum or colon where alone full
sexual evolution is possible. In these migrations they cause the
thrombosis of the smaller trunks and determine the verminous
congestions of the bowels which are especially common in these
months.
Disturbances of the Intestinal Circulation. As these usually
occur in the lines of distribution of the anterior mesenteric artery a
knowledge of its divisions and their destination and anastomosis, is
essential to an intelligent understanding of the pathogenesis and
lesions. As first pointed out by Lecoq the anterior mesenteric artery
is divided into three primary bundles: (a) a left of 15 to 20 trunks
which are destined to the small intestine; (b) a right which gives off
cæcal branches, one to the double colon, and one to the ilium to
anastomose with the last trunk of the left bundle; and (c) an anterior
which gives one branch to the second division of the double colon
and anastomosis with the colic branch of the right bundle at the
pelvic flexure; and a second branch to the floating colon to
anastomose with the posterior mesenteric artery.
The divisions of the left bundle anastomose so freely with each
other in the mesentery and immediately above the intestine that the
blocking of any one branch cannot entirely arrest the circulation in
the corresponding part of the intestine. It may however produce a
partial local stagnation in the vessels of a short loop of intestine,
resulting in œdematous infiltration and thickening with resulting
induration and stricture of the gut. Chronic and permanent lesions
are produced by such blocking, but only rarely acutely fatal ones.
Acute and fatal congestive lesions of the small intestine from
verminous embolism, occur only when several adjacent divisions of
the artery are blocked at once, and this is a rare occurrence.
The right bundle of branches furnishes the only two arteries which
are supplied to the cæcum and the only artery furnished to the first
half of the double colon. The ileo-cæcal branch is less involved, first,
because being less dependent and smaller, it is less likely to receive
an embolus, and, second, because any lack of blood supply is
counterbalanced by the free anastomosis with the last iliac division
of the left bundle. When the embolus blocks the undivided trunk of
the right bundle this same principle comes into play, the free supply
of blood from the posterior branch of the left bundle supplying blood
through its anastomosis with the iliac and cæcal branches of the
right.
But when the emboli are lower down, in the cæcal branches of the
right bundle, or in these and the colic branch, arrest of the
circulation in the intestinal walls ensues, followed by paresis, passive
congestion and hemorrhage. The cæcum and double colon thus
become the seats of the grave and fatal lesions of verminous
embolism.
The resulting lesions are to be variously accounted for. The
stagnation of blood in the vessels below the embolus, determines a
speedy exhaustion of its oxygen and increase of its carbon dioxide, so
that it is rendered unfit to maintain the normal nutrition and
functions of the part, and the capillary and intestinal walls are alike
struck with atony or paresis. The blood filters into the stagnant
vessels slowly from adjacent anastomosing trunks, and the liquor
sauguinis exudes into the substance of the tissues and lumen of the
intestine, leaving behind the greater part of the blood globules so
that the stagnant blood is rendered more and more abnormal in
composition. The walls of the capillaries soon lose their cohesion as
well as their contractility, and giving way at different points, allow
the escape of blood into the tissues, bowels and peritoneal cavity. It
has been further claimed that the emboli already infected and in
process of degeneration communicate this to the walls of the vessels
and to the stagnant blood, hastening the process of degeneration and
rupture.
Another series of circulatory disorders are liable to take place. The
blocking of the vessels of the right bundle, tends to increase the
blood pressure in the left bundle and the anterior one, and thus to
determine congestions, paresis and inflammations in the small
intestines, the second division of the double colon and the floating
colon. The resulting inflammation and increased vascular tension
may lead indirectly to implications of the brain and lung.
Extravasations so extensive as to appear like blood clots may be
present between the layers of the mesentery or in the mucosa and
submucosa, and blood, liquid or coagulated, may have accumulated
in the abdominal cavity. Blood effusion into the intestine gives a dark
red coloration to the contents which are further mixed with distinct
clots.
 The atonic bowels are always the seat of extensive fermentations
and tympany. The microbes engaged in these fermentations and
their toxins, are accountable for toxic changes occurring in the locally
diseased parts and in distant organs. To this may be attributed the
congestion and softening of the liver and the engorgements and
hemorrhagic centres in the spleen.
Symptoms. An animal, perhaps known to harbor the sclerostoma
equinum, is suddenly attacked with violent and persistent colic. He
trembles, paws, moves his hind feet uneasily, kicks the abdomen,
throws anxious looks at the flanks, crouches, lies down, rolls, gets up,
and at once gets down again. The intensity of the suffering rapidly
increases, the face is drawn and pinched, the eye is extremely
anxious, the patient no longer lies down, but throws himself down
reckless of consequences, when down he is not quiet for an instant,
but now on his breast, then on his side, then on his back, the limbs
struggling and jerked violently, the head turned first to one side and
then to the other, he is a picture of extreme agony. If made to walk
the same indications continue; he walks with head down and limbs
semiflexed ready to drop at any moment, and often he will drop
suddenly in spite of every effort to keep him on his feet. The pulse is
at first strong and full, but as extensive effusion takes place into the
bowels or abdomen, or as the animal is poisoned by toxins, it
becomes small, weak, and it may be imperceptible. Breathing is
quick and catching, and the mucous membranes are dark red.
Sweating which shows first about the elbows or flanks or back of the
ears finally becomes general, the surface cold and the limbs
especially so. Fæces may be passed at first, a few dry balls at a time
from the floating colon or rectum, but soon they are suppressed
entirely. Some patients strain frequently to micturate but pass little
at a time.
In some instances the acute pain seems to suddenly cease, but
there is no general improvement, the patient stands with head
depressed, eyes sunken and expressionless, ears lopped, cold
perspiration, chilly limbs, unsteady gait and imperceptible pulse. It
implies merely a paralysis of the affected bowels in connection with
the extensive congestion and extravasation.
Course. Duration. The more acute cases reach their acme with
great rapidity, death may occur after two hours illness, and in other
cases it may be delayed ten or even twenty-four hours. It may be
caused by indigestion and tympany, by volvulus or invagination, by
excessive hemorrhage, or by poisoning with toxic matters.
Recovery occurs when the vessel blocked is an unimportant one as
a branch of the left bundle so that circulation may be reëstablished
from collateral trunks; or when a more important trunk has been but
partially blocked, and after a time it either clears itself, or collateral
circulation comes in with sufficient compensation. There is a more or
less rapid disappearance of the colics and other symptoms, a free
passage of urine, the rejection of fæces, it may be in a liquid, semi-
liquid or sanguineous condition, yet enough to indicate the
restoration of intestinal tone. The patient begins to pick morsels of
food and soon acquires his former appetite.
In some instances, however, the recovery is not complete. Trasbot
has noted a case of laminitis occurring within fifteen hours after the
improvement, and in other cases there remain chronic debility and
catarrh of the intestines. The appetite remains poor, there are
occasional colics, the bowels are irregular, loose or costive, and the
fæces are dry, glossy and covered with mucus. The back is arched,
the belly tucked up, strength and vigor are both lacking, and the
patient spends much time in the recumbent position.
Complications of various kinds may follow as in other diseases of
the intestines. After even the best recoveries, a relapse is always to be
apprehended as the original cause remains and the animal is liable to
be cut off at any time.
Treatment. This is very unsatisfactory as the original source of
trouble, the worms, being in the blood-vessels, cannot be reached by
vermifuges that would be harmless to the host, and clots blocking the
smaller intestinal vessels, cannot be dissolved and removed.
Moreover, although we could compass the death of the worms in the
aneurisms, we would leave their dead bodies as sources of septic
change, blood coagulation and embolism.
A certain number of cases, however, are not necessarily fatal, and
the worms of the blood-vessels have not an indefinite period of life,
so that there is some encouragement for both therapeutic and
preventive treatment. During the attack we must be content to treat
symptoms. French veterinarians still trust largely to general
bleeding, adopted at the very outset and to the extent of 6 to 10
quarts. It will temporarily lessen the vascular tension, more
permanently dilute the blood, and calm nervous excitement, and in
the most violent cases, as a kind of forlorn hope, it might be tried
with the view of tiding over the acute stage until a freer collateral
circulation could be established.
The use of anodynes will be more generally acceptable to American
practitioners. Two to four grains of sulphate of morphia or codeine
may be given hypodermically in combination with 1½ gr. eserin, 7
grs. barium chloride, or 2 grs. pilocarpin, to secure a speedy
movement of the bowels.
To counteract intestinal fermentation perhaps no better agent can
be got than chloral hydrate, ½ oz. of which may be given by the
mouth in water, and ½ oz. more by the rectum.
Wet compresses to the abdomen, or fomentations with water
rather hotter than the hand can bear or even the application of
mustard is sometimes useful as a soothing or derivative agent.
In the absence of morphia or chloral, laudanum, ether,
chloroform, camphor or assafœtida have been recommended.
It is important to keep the patient on a soft, littered floor to
prevent injury from his throwing himself down, and walking him
around may be resorted to for the same purpose.
Prevention. After a non-fatal attack and in every case in which a
horse is found to harbor the sclerostoma equinum in quantity,
measures should be taken to expel those present in the bowels and to
prevent the entry of embryos. The infested horse may be purged and
put on two drachms each of tartar emetic and sulphate of iron every
morning in a handful of feed half an hour before the first meal. After
six doses he may take a second active purgative. In case of need the
addition of 6 grains arsenious acid and a drachm of carbolic acid to
each dose will render them much more effective. All water must be
withheld that comes from streams running by farm-yards, from
ponds or open wells in barn-yards, from uncovered cisterns and from
any source which receives drainage or leaching from land occupied
by solipeds or spread with their manure.
A course of vermifuge medicine should be given at intervals of two
or three months to get rid of the worms which have passed in the
interval from the cysts of the colon, into the intestine.
 NON-VERMINOUS INTESTINAL
CONGESTION IN SOLIPEDS.
Causes: sudden changes to green food, or leguminous fodder, newly harvested
fodder, frosted food, iced water, microbian infection, toxin poisoning, intestinal
fermentations, experiments, volvulus, invagination, strangulation, compression,
atony. Symptoms: as in verminous aneurisms. Diagnosis: absence of worms,
presence of other causes. Treatment.
Causes. Acute intestinal congestion apart from verminous
aneurisms is ascribed to a variety of causes. Sudden changes of food
especially to green food, in spring, or to some of the leguminous
fodder plants (alfalfa, cowpea, clover, tares, vetches), newly
harvested grain or hay, fodders covered with hoarfrost, iced water,
and microbian infection or poisoning with toxins or other irritant
products of intestinal fermentations. Experimentally the injection
into the circulation of pyogenic toxins and putrid matters has
determined intestinal congestion and hemorrhage. In the same way
musty hay or grain have proved the occasion of these attacks. Finally
mechanical blocking of the circulation of the intestine as by volvulus,
invagination, strangulated hernia, or even compression by bulky
food has seemed to operate in this way.
It ought to be borne in mind that the habitual microbes of the
healthy bowel may become pathogenic when brought in contact with
a mucosa which is the seat of irritation, atony or any condition of
debility.
Symptoms and Lesions. The verminous aneurisms and thrombosis
aside, the symptoms and lesions of this form of congestion so closely
resemble those of the verminous affection that it seems needless to
repeat them.
Diagnosis is difficult but the absence of worms in the affected
animals and their fellows, and the presence of some one of the other
recognized causes may lead to a fair conclusion.
Treatment of the affection is more hopeful than in the verminous
affection, and may be conducted on the same general lines.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS (CROUPOUS)
ENTERITIS IN SOLIPEDS.
Definition. Causes: As in ordinary enteritis, with added infections or toxins.
Symptoms: As in enteritis, nervous symptoms, diarrhœa. Lesions: Congested
mucosa, whitish or grayish false membranes, in patches or tubular casts, granular,
mucous, albuminoid, fibrinous. Diagnosis: False membranes in stools. Treatment:
Glauber salts, calomel, alkaline carbonates or tartrates, oils, antiferments,
demulcents, careful diet, bitters.
Definition. An inflammatory affection of the bowels characterized
by the ejection with the fæces of false membranes.
Causes. It has been long attributed to the causes which produce
other forms of enteritis and indigestions, as youth, rich stimulating
feeding, sudden change to green food in spring, sudden chills, over-
fatigue, confinement indoors, and prolonged costiveness. In man it is
found as a sequel of infectious diseases (pneumonia, pyæmia), in
Bright’s disease, cirrhosis of the liver and cancer, and in poisoning by
lead, mercury or arsenic (Osler). Cadeac, who found great numbers
of streptococci in the false membranes in animals, is certain it is a
microbian disease, and this is doubtless true, if qualified by the
statement that the microbe as is so often the case with other
intestinal affections, requires an occasion in the form of a diseased or
debilitated condition of the mucosa to enable it to become
pathogenic. The disease is not known to propagate itself indefinitely
or without such a predisposing occasion.
Symptoms. There are dullness, prostration, langor, hyperthermia,
accelerated pulse, and colics which may be slight or very severe. In
some cases nervous symptoms have been observed, such as
irritability or stupor and somnolence with icterus and fœtid stools.
The fæces are usually semi-liquid, implying an excessive liquid
secretion as well as the exudation of the membranous matter.
Lesions. There is a pink congestion of the intestinal mucosa more
or less generally distributed. Whitish false membranes cover patches
chiefly on the terminal portion of the small intestine, but frequently
also on the cæcum and colon, covering an especially red and angry
mucosa. They may occur as simple patches, as ribbon shaped pieces,
or as hollow cylinders lining the entire circumference of the
intestine. They appear as if fibrillated, but contain abundance of
granular matter and seem to be composed mainly of mucus with
albuminoid matter and probably a little fibrine. The deeper layers, in
contact with the inflamed surface are soft and gelatinoid. It is alleged
that coexisting wounds on other parts of the body become covered by
a soft pultaceous false membrane.
Diagnosis is based on the presence of the false membranes of a
considerable thickness, so that they can be distinguished from the
film of mucus which covers the fæcal balls in constipation or enteric
catarrh.
Treatment. Facilitate the secretion from the mucosa, and the
separation of the false membrane by giving 1 lb. Glauber salts, or give
this agent in doses of 5 or 6 ozs. per day. Calomel 1 dr. may be used
instead and has the additional advantage of acting as a disinfectant.
The alkaline carbonates or tartrates or even olive or castor oil may be
used as substitutes. Antiferments like salol, naphthol, salicylic acid,
and salicylate of soda have been prescribed to check the
multiplication of the germ. Flaxseed tea, elm bark, and other
mucilaginous agents may also be given. An easily digestible and
laxative diet and a course of bitters may follow.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS (CROUPOUS)
ENTERITIS IN CATTLE.

Causes: as in solipeds, youth, overfeeding, plethora, dietetic blunders,

temperament, over-exertion, chill when heated, gestation, foul water, irritants,
drastics, infections. Symptoms: as in enteritis with false membranes,
complications. Duration. Lesions: false membranes, extent, color, structure,
composition, congested mucosa. Treatment: Glauber and other salts, pilocarpin,
potassium iodide, antiseptics, sulphites, sulphides, borax, bismuth, naphthol,
creolin, muriatic acid, bitters.

Causes. The same causes are quoted as in solipeds, youth, extra

high condition, rich feeding, sudden change to the green food of
spring, climatic vicissitudes of the same season, a sanguineous
(Reynal) or lymphatic (Friedberger and Fröhner) temperament,
overwork, exhausting travel, suppressed perspiration, gestation,
plethora, foul drinking water, special irritant plants (chicory,
Huzard), and drastic purgatives. Cadeac suggests bacteria, quoting
instances of a fifth or a fourth of a herd suffering at once. The same
would come from any other cause acting on the whole herd and it
seems probable that a microbian factor is present but can find
occasion for its pathogenesis only in given morbid conditions of the
mucous membrane. This would explain the failure of the affection to
propagate itself like a plague, and at the same time its tendency to
manifest itself extensively in given herds with a common
predisposing condition.
Symptoms. There are indications of enteric inflammation and
fever, rigors, slight hyperthermia, drying up of the milk secretion,
impaired or suspended appetite and rumination, constipation, colicy
pains, increasing dullness and prostration. As the disease advances
the excrements become soft, pultaceous or watery, with floating hard
baked pieces, dark and even glistening on the surface and more or
less false membranes. These are sometimes stained with blood,
which may also be mingled with the liquid debris. As in solipeds
these membranes constitute the only true diagnostic symptom. They
may appear as shreds, bands or complete cylindroid casts of the
intestine.
Other complications, like pseudomembranous exudate on wounds,
abortions and profound weakness are sometimes noted. The disease
may last eight days before ending in recovery. When death takes
place it is about the fourth or sixth day.
Lesions. The false membranes are found on the ilium and colon, in
thin films or in thick masses, or tubular casts. In extreme cases the
membrane has covered an extent of 24 feet in length, and if recent it
is soft and friable. If older it may be firm, consistent and yellow or
stained by the blood or ingesta. As in solipeds it shows a reticulated
network and a fine granular structure, and is composed mainly of
inspissated mucus with albuminoids and fibrine. The exudate covers
a surface of extreme redness, with points of darker blood-staining
and even abrasion or ulceration. The surrounding mucosa is also
congested, the villi hypertrophied, the mucous follicles swollen.
Treatment. In the early stages a laxative of soda sulphate is of
especial value in depleting from the inflamed mucosa, liquefying the
secretions and dissolving and loosening the false membranes. Epsom
salts, cream of tartar, Rochelle salts, calomel, and pilocarpin are
more or less valuable substitutes. Iodide of potassium is most
valuable in dissolving the exudate and acting as a microbicide (dose
3–4 drs.).
Other alkaline salts may be substituted or as antiseptics the
sulphites, hyposulphites, or sulphides of potash or soda. Borax,
bismuth, naphthol and creolin have also been recommended.
Enemata of warm water are desirable.
In very adynamic conditions, muriatic acid (½ dr. doses) may be
given with vegetable bitters and the same may be allowed during
convalescence.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS (CROUPOUS)
ENTERITIS IN SHEEP.
Causes: As in cattle, draughts in folds, overfeeding. Symptoms: fever,
inappetence, weakness of hind parts, diarrhœa, tenesmus, false membranes, blood
in stools, tympany. Treatment: change diet of dam, exercise, Glauber salts,
potassium iodide, bismuth, flaxseed, elm bark, mallow, gum, carminatives, bitters,
antiseptics.
Causes. The same causes are claimed as for cattle. Clavel
attributed it to too rich milk, and exposure to cold draughts, in
folded lambs.
Symptoms. To the general symptoms of fever are added refusal of
the teat, weakness or paresis of the hind limbs, looseness of the
bowels and the ejection of false membranes with an unusual amount
of straining. The dejections may be watery and mixed with blood. In
some cases defecation is suppressed, the intestines being blocked by
the membranes, and then acute indigestion and fatal tympany may
follow.
The pathological anatomy and lesions resemble those seen in the
ox.
Treatment. Change the diet of the ewe, and allow more outdoor
exercise. Give the lamb Glauber salts (½ to 1 oz.) with potassium
iodide (10 grs.), and bismuth (1 dr.). Decoctions of flaxseed, or
solutions of elm bark, mallow or gum arabic are desirable, and
infusions of aromatic plants or oils of peppermint, anise, or fennel
may be added with quinia. As in the other animals such antiseptics
as salol, naphthol, naphthalin, boric acid, or salicylate of soda may be
administered.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS (CROUPOUS)
ENTERITIS IN DOGS.
Complication of other diseases like distemper. Symptoms: fever, retching,
vomiting, tense, tender, tympanitic abdomen, irregular bowels, false membranes.
Lesions: stomach empty, congested, croupous exudate, extravasations. Treatment:
sodium sulphate, boric acid, sodium salicylate, salol, bismuth, by mouth or enema,
strychnia, vermifuges.
In dogs the formation of false membranes on the intestinal mucosa
seems to have less of an individual character, and is found associated
with other affections, like canine distemper and parasitism. In the
absence, however, of accurate knowledge of the specific cause of
croupous enteritis in other animals it seems permissible for the
present, to arrange the whole in one class characterized by the
presence of false membranes.
Symptoms. Along with the general symptoms of fever and the
special ones of the existing specific disease there is more or less
disturbance of the digestive organs, anorexia, vomiting, tense,
tender, perhaps tympanitic abdomen, irregularity of the bowels and
the passage of the false membranes. A morose disposition and
tendency to snap has been noticed by Röll.
Lesions. The stomach is empty with red or dark mottled mucosa,
the intestinal mucosa is congested covered with a layer of
mucopurulent exudate, and at intervals patches of false membranes
which are also found in shreds floating in the glairy contents. The
exudates are of a yellowish gray color, more or less streaked with
blood, and the mucosa infiltrated, swollen, highly congested and with
spots of extravasation of blood.
Treatment. Small doses (1 to 2 drachms) of sulphate of soda may
be given by the mouth, or boric acid (1 scruple), salicylate of soda (10
grains), salol (5 grains), or bismuth nitrate (½ drachm). Injections of
boric acid, borax, sodium hyposulphite, or even Glauber salts prove
useful, and powdered nux vomica (1 grain twice daily) may be added.
In case of intestinal parasites vermifuges must be resorted to.
 PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS (CROUPOUS)
ENTERITIS IN BIRDS.
In pigeons: Ærobic, non-motile bacillus, in lesions, membrane and internal
organs, pathogenesis, in chickens pathogenesis differs, also in man, parts attacked,
exudate, other symptoms, mortality early and late in outbreak, American form,
pathogenesis to rabbits and Guinea-pigs. Prevention: Avoidance of infection,
quarantine of birds, separation of sick, disinfection, accidental bearers of infection,
pigeons, buzzards, carrion crows, dogs, men, cleanliness. Treatment: Locally
antiseptics, phenol, boric acid, generally, phenol.
This has been especially seen in pigeons in which it has been
studied by Löffler, Cornil and Megnin, and Babes and Puscarin.
Löffler found an ærobic, non-motile, non-liquefying bacillus in the
false membranes, inflamed tissues, liver, lungs and blood, even in
the leucocytes. It formed irregular masses, and grew in nutrient
gelatine, blood serum and potato. It proved pathogenic to pigeons,
linnets, rabbits and mice, but not to hens, Guinea-pigs, rats or dogs.
Chickens, however, suffer from an acute diphtheritic affection caused
by a nearly allied bacillus, and it remains to be seen whether the
varying pathogenesis may not be due to the habit of long continued
growth in a particular genus and an acquired unfitness for growing
in the other. The pathogenesis is also different from the bacillus of
diphtheria of man, and the two diseases are not usually inter-
communicable, in spite of the fact that in rare instances infection has
appeared to have taken place from man to birds.
In pigeons and fowls the upper parts of the air passages and
digestive tract are mainly involved, the tongue, fauces, corners of the
mouth, nares, larynx, and conjunctiva. The bowels suffer less
frequently and mostly concurrently with the mouth, nose and throat.
The mucosa is deeply congested and in part covered by a yellowish
exudate which may accumulate in masses, and dry into a firm
substance. The disease affects particularly high bred birds, kept in
close warm houses, and is often imported by prize animals returned
from a show. There may be dullness, listlessness, sunken head,
trailing wings and tail, erect plumage, diarrhœa, and, if the nose and
throat are affected, a modification of the voice as in roup. Death may