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Textbook Ecotoxicology and Genotoxicology Non Traditional Terrestrial Models 1St Edition Marcelo L Larramendy Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-FP001
Issues in Toxicology
Series Editors:
Diana Anderson, University of Bradford, UK
Michael D. Waters, Michael Waters Consulting, USA
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-FP001
Editorial Advisor:
Alok Dhawan, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
Ecotoxicology and
Genotoxicology
Non-traditional Terrestrial Models
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-FP001
Edited by
Marcelo L. Larramendy
National University of La Plata, Argentina
Email: marcelo.larramendy@gmail.com
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-FP001 View Online
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for
private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not
be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior
permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in the
case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by
the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning
reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of
Chemistry at the address printed on this page.
Whilst this material has been produced with all due care, The Royal Society of
Chemistry cannot be held responsible or liable for its accuracy and completeness, nor for
any consequences arising from any errors or the use of the information contained in
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of reliance upon this material.
Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY, UK
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-FP007
Preface
vii
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viii Preface
Preface ix
Invertebrate and vertebrate animal models have been used for decades in
acute and chronic toxicity tests for hazard identification. They can be very
efficient screening systems that have a major role to play in toxicity research,
because certain aspects of their biology, physiology and genetic character-
istics make them suitable models in ecotoxicological and genotoxicological
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-FP007
studies.
These two books intend to provide an overview of the use of non-
conventional, locally available, invertebrate and vertebrate species as
experimental models for the study of different toxicological aspects induced
by environmental pollutants in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
Volume One, Ecotoxicology and Genotoxicology: Non-traditional Aquatic
Models includes examples of the use of aquatic species or aquatic stages of
terrestrial species and Volume Two, Ecotoxicology and Genotoxicology: Non-
traditional Terrestrial Models, is committed to terrestrial non-conventional
animal models.
Both volumes aim to shed some light on the matter, whilst offering
relevant tools for evaluating risk and to provide a framework for practical
discussions. These will foster decisions and actions required to reduce
environmental health risk against environmental factors. This piece of work
has been systematized for the sake of clarity, presenting some real-life
examples and extending concepts (of hazardous factors) to living species
that may stimulate new research ideas and trends in the relevant fields.
Available information has been compiled from a diversity of sources,
trying to achieve a representative global and geographical balance, as far as
possible, whilst at the same time aiming at high-quality studies. We believe
that this piece of work is unique in this sense.
Many researchers from different parts of the world have contributed to the
publication of this book. Given the fast pace of new scientific publications
shedding more light on the matter, these books will probably be outdated
very soon. We regard this as a positive and healthy fact. We hope that these
books will meet the expectations and needs of all those interested in the
environmental risk assessment field of study by the use of widely available
species worldwide. Finally, we also hope that the examples included in the
different chapters of these books will awaken the ability to search for new
organisms in local and regional ecosystems to pursue further studies in
ecotoxicology and genotoxicology. If our wishes are granted, we shall be
happy to oblige and edit the next edition of this series.
Contents
2.1 Introduction 31
xi
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xii Contents
Landscapes 35
2.3 Status Quo and Developments of Risk Assessment
for In-soil Organisms 35
2.3.1 Status Quo 35
2.3.2 Transition 36
2.3.3 New Developments 37
2.3.4 Challenges 38
2.3.5 Future Demands 39
2.4 Methodologies for Multispecies Tests in Soil 40
2.4.1 Ontology and History of Test Systems 40
2.4.2 Methodological Challenges of Multispecies
Tests 43
2.5 Exposure of Soil Organisms Resulting From the
Fate of Pesticides 46
2.6 Calibration of Soil Risk Assessment Using
Semi-field Studies as Surrogate Reference Tiers 48
2.6.1 Specific Protection Goals 48
2.6.2 Derivation of Assessment Factors 49
2.6.3 TME as Surrogate Reference Tier 50
2.7 Conclusions 51
References 51
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Experimental 62
3.2.1 Earthworm Collection and Storage 62
3.2.2 Soil Collection and Amendment 62
3.2.3 Exposure Following Amendment with
Differing Pesticides or B[a]P 62
3.2.4 Coelomic Fluid Collection 63
3.2.5 The Alkaline Single Cell-gel Electrophoresis
(‘comet’) Assay 63
3.2.6 Exposure to Aged Cypermethrin Residues 64
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Contents xiii
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 The Major Groups of Soil Contaminants 78
4.2.1 Heavy Metal 78
4.2.2 Organic Contaminants 79
4.2.3 Sewage Sludge 80
4.3 Helix aspersa for Biomonitoring of Contaminated
Soil 80
4.4 Genotoxicity Tests with H. aspersa and Contribution
to Environmental Research 84
4.5 Conclusions 88
Acknowledgements 89
References 89
5.1 Introduction 96
5.2 Spiders in Ecosystems Contaminated with
Heavy Metals 98
5.2.1 Cellular Defence Reactions in Spiders
from Areas Affected by Industrial
Pollution 101
5.3 Spider Sensitivity to Pesticides 107
5.3.1 Changes in AChE Activity 109
5.3.2 Enzymatic Detoxifying Reactions 110
5.3.3 Genotoxic and Cytotoxic Effects of Plant
Protection Agents in Spiders 111
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xiv Contents
Contents xv
xvi Contents
Contents xvii
xviii Contents
Experimental Models
Section I: Terrestrial Invertebrates as
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-00001 View Online
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788010573-00001 View Online
CHAPTER 1
3
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4 Chapter 1
6 Chapter 1
animals, and microorganisms, and occupy several positions in the food web.
This fact, added to other varying behavioral habits of invertebrates in the
soil, may result in significant differences for the maintenance of terrestrial
ecosystems.
The changes promoted by soil organisms, especially those that benefit
human beings and the environment, are known as ‘‘Ecosystem Services’’.11
The importance of the services provided by soil invertebrates in terrestrial
ecosystems has been extensively discussed in the literature over the last
decade,3,7,11,12 especially of those who benefit the agricultural ecosystems
(agriculture and forestry).
Anthropogenic activities often produce negative impacts on the environ-
ment, for example, the impacts of conventional agricultural practices, such
as pesticide application, use of chemical fertilizers and waste disposal,
among others. They cause stresses on the living organisms of the terrestrial
ecosystems and produce negative effects on some of the essential soil eco-
system services.11 For this reason, researchers in the areas of soil health and
soil quality have been warning about the imminent need for developing
effective techniques to identify, quantify and prevent the impacts of toxic
substances or elements on soil invertebrate species and thus establish limits
to protect their associated ecosystem services.
Nevertheless, only in recent years have the evaluations of the ecological
risk of contaminants on soil health started to use living organisms as indi-
cators (bio-indicators), as substitutes or complementary to the traditional
chemical and physical analyses.11 For a long time, scientists believed that
the biological properties of soils were more difficult to predict or even to
measure.13 However, bio-indicators can be practical tools in this type of
assessment because they are highly reactive to the environmental con-
ditions.14 Changes caused by toxic substances in soil are perceived quickly
by analyzing the changes of the living soil community in their presence.
Diversity, distribution and vital functions of soil inhabitants as well as the
soil’s chemical composition allow us to draw conclusions regarding
the quality of contaminated soils. Therefore, nowadays, there are in use
numerous protocols of studies using species and communities of soil in-
vertebrates as biological indicators of the impacts of the contaminants in
terrestrial ecosystems.
A recent study describes ecotoxicology as a scientific area that studies the
effects of chemicals on living organisms in the environment with the final
goal of protecting the structure and function of the ecosystems.15 Thus,
methods using soil invertebrates to assess the toxicity of substances dis-
posed on soils are known as Soil Ecotoxicological Assays. This type of testing
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8 Chapter 1
past years. In 2015 this number was about 30 times higher than that of
publications in 1992. According to recent literature reviews on this subject,
this increase in scientific production is related, among other factors, to a
great development in soil ecotoxicology in recent years, highlighted both by
the new lines of research in the area and by improvements on traditional
laboratory toxicity tests.11,15,22,23
Among the new lines of research and of improvements in traditional
techniques we include: changes in the constituents of artificial soil24,25
proposed by the OECD,26 as well as the replacement of artificial soils
(original or modified versions) by natural soils, for example, LUFA soils,27
and changes in the laboratory climatic conditions (e.g. temperature) for
species cultures and assays, in order to increase the realism of studies
performed under tropical climatic conditions,24,28,29 and the development
of new types of toxicity tests, in order to observe different endpoints
(e.g. avoidance behavior assays with earthworms and springtails30,31 are
included). Evaluation of the toxicity of mixtures of contaminants and the
assessment of the influence of climate changes on the toxic potential of
substances against soil invertebrates32,33 are also included. Finally, with
even greater importance for this chapter, research looking for new alter-
native species of soil invertebrates for the standard laboratory toxicity
assays,34–39 or those with the unique aim of increasing the ecological
relevance of non-standardized assays carried out to obtain more accurate
responses about specific local ecosystems, play increasingly important roles.
The selection of new test species is particularly pertinent for soil eco-
toxicology when taking into account the consistent demand for increasing
the representation of the existing taxonomic groups of soil invertebrates in
toxicity testing. According to some authors,12,17 in an ideal situation, the
toxicity of all substances deposited on soils should be measured on all
animal species from a particular ecosystem, prior to establishing a limit of
generic exposure to preserve the invertebrate’s biodiversity. However, these
authors themselves recognize that this is an impossible task to fulfill
through laboratory toxicity tests, if one considers that the diversity of species
in soil macro-, meso- and micro-fauna is in the order of magnitude of
millions, as described in the first section of this chapter.
Despite the large numbers of taxonomic groups available to be used as
bio-indicators for toxic effects of substances in soil,15,35 only a few species of
earthworms, enchytraeids, mites, collembolans, nematodes, mollusks and
insects of the family Carabidae were selected for the soil ecotoxicological
assays standardized by the main international regulatory agencies
(Table 1.1). Those agencies include the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), Environment Canada, the International Organization for
Published on 12 June 2017 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:1
Arthropods Collembolans Folsomia candida Survival; reproduction Lab. toxicity test EPS 1/RM/47;48 OECD 232;49
Folsomia fimetaria ISO 1126750
Orthonychiurus folsomi Avoidance Lab. behaviour test ISO 17512-231
Proisotoma minuta
Mites Hypoaspis aculeifer Survival; reproduction Lab. toxicity test OECD 22651
Carabid insects Oxythyrea funesta Survival Lab. toxicity test ISO 2096352
Nematodes Nematodes Caenorhabditis elegans Survival Lab. toxicity test ASTM E2172-0153
Mollusks Snails Helix aspersa Survival; growth Lab. toxicity test ISO 1595254
9
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10 Chapter 1
(a) Physiological: the species must have high sensitivity to soil con-
taminants, low variability (use preferably species with parthenogenetic
Figure 1.1 Summary of the available standard invertebrate species for soil ecotox-
icological assays: (A) Eisenia andrei; (B) Folsomia candida; (C) Enchytraeus
crypticus; (D) Hypoaspis aculeifer.
Photos reproduced with permission from: (B) C. M. Ribeiro, picture of
the species Folsomia candida; (A) and (C) C. A. Santos, pictures of the
species Eisenia andre and Enchytraeus crypticus; (D) M. Bianchi, picture of
the species Hypoaspis aculeifer.
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(c) Practical: species with well-known biology, easy to identify (by tax-
onomy based on morphology), cultivate, maintain and synchronize
(age and/or size) under laboratory conditions. It is also desirable to
choose species with a reasonable number of measurable responses
(e.g. pollutant concentration in tissues, biological disorders in growth
and fertility, or genetic changes).
« Je vais demander s’il n’y aurait pas moyen, pour une partie
tout au moins de ces actes notariés, de faire établir des
procurations. Mais je crains que pour certains d’entre eux ma
présence soit nécessaire. Je serai fixé demain, — après-demain
au plus tard, et je vous écrirai aussitôt.
« Mes souvenirs affectueux.
« Robert Nordement. »