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 Encyclopedia of
Computer
Science and
Technology
Second Edition
Volume I
3-D Graphics–Field

Edited by Phillip A. Laplante

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 Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology
Second Edition
Brief Contents

Volume I Volume II
3-D Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Fuzzy Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
3-D Graphics: Bump Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
3-D Graphics: Coordinate Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
3-D Graphics: High Level Shading Language (HLSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Hash Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
3-D Graphics: Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Human–Robot Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
3-D Graphics: Polygon Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Image Processing and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
3-D Graphics: Real-Time Graphics Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Internet Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
3-D Graphics: Skeletal Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
3-D Graphics: Standard Local Lighting Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Languages: Domain-Specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
3-D Graphics: Texture Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 LDPC Decoders: Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
3-D Graphics: Viewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Learning and Teaching Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Access Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Locality Sensitive Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Ad Hoc Networks: Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Location-Based Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Mathematics of Computer Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Algorithms: Rendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Modeling and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Modeling: Sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Animation: Facial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Parallel Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Authentication and Authorization: Pedestrian Detection and Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Policy-Based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Predictive and Anticipatory Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Privacy Preserving Cryptographic Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Bioelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Programming Languages: Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Bluetooth Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Securing Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
CDMA Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Security Risks: Managing Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Cellular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Semantics: Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
Classes: NP and NP-Complete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Sentiment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Coding Theory: History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Computer Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Social Context Computing: Wireless Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Concurrency: Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Social Media: Trends, Events, and Influential Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Counting: Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Steganography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Turing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Cryptography: Advanced Encryption Turing Machines: Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
Standard (AES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Ubiquitous Computing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Data Mining: Geographic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Undecidability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Data Mining: Privacy-Preservation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Undecidability and Reducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
Digital Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Virtual Worlds: Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Digital Arithmetic: Division Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Viruses: History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
Digital Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Wireless Embedded Systems: Secure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
Disabilities, Users with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Wireless LANs (WLANs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
Disabilities: Assistive Technology Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Wireless LANs (WLANs): IEEE 802.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Discrete Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Wireless Networks: VoIP Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Distributed Sensor Actuator Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Women in Computer Science: Deterrents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 XML and Other Metadata Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880

v
To the beloved dogs that I have had in my life: Ginger, Francis, Teddy, Maggie and Henry,
and those yet to come.

vii
 Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology
Second Edition
Editor-in-Chief
Phillip A. Laplante
Professor of Software Engineering, Great Valley School of Graduate Professional Studies, Pennsylvania State University,
Malvern, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Editorial Advisory Board

Rebecca Grasser George Hacken
Lakeland Community College New York Metro Transit Authority
Fabrizio Lombardi Haomin Zhou
Northeastern University Georgia Institute of Technology
Paolo Montuschi Ling Guan
Polytechnic University of Turin Ryerson University
Mohamad Kassab Maxine Cohen
Penn State Nova Southeastern
Jon Rokne Ashok Srivastava
University of Calgary Verizon
Fabrizio Lamberti Stefano Zanero
Polytechnic University of Turin Politecnico di Milano
Li Chen Michael Murphy
University of the District of Columbia Southeastern Polytechnic State University (emeritus)

ix
Contributors

Michael Affenzeller / Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory, University of Applied

Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria
Ali Naser Al-Khwildi / Commission of Media and Communications (CMC), Jadreiah, Iraq
Joao Andrade / IT, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Coimbra,
Coimbra, Portugal
Mikhail J. Atallah / Department of Computer Science, Purdue University, Lafayetter, Indiana,
U.S.A.
Christos Athanasiadis / Information Technologies Institute, Center for Research and
Technology Hellas, Thermi-Thessaloniki, Greece
Feng Bao / Department of Computer Science and Communication Engineering, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
Jakob E. Bardram / IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Kalyan Basu / Center for Research in Wireless Mobility and Networking, Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas,
U.S.A.
Andreas Beham / Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory, University of Applied
Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria
Sylvia Beyer / Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Parkside, Kenosha,
Wisconsin, U.S.A.
Matt Bishop / Department of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, Davis,
California, U.S.A.
Pradipta Biswas / Center for Product Design, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
Gloria Bordogna / Italian National Research Council, Institute for the Dynamics of
Environmental Processes, Dalmine, Italy
Jianhua Chen / Computer Science Department, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, U.S.A.
Thomas M. Chen / Department of Electrical Engineering, Southern Methodist University,
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.
Zhongliang Chen / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern
University, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Steven Cheung / Department of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, Davis,
California, U.S.A.
Marco Conti / National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
Ann Latham Cudworth / Ann Cudworth Projects/Alchemy Sims, New York University, New
York, New York, U.S.A.
Petros Daras / Information Technologies Institute, Center for Research and Technology Hellas,
Thermi-Thessaloniki, Greece
Sajal K. Das / Center for Research in Wireless Mobility and Networking, Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas,
U.S.A.
Claudio Demartini / Department of Control and Computer Engineering, Polytechnic University
of Turin, Turin, Italy
Fletcher Dunn / Valve Software, Bellevue, Washington, U.S.A.
Mark Edmead / President, MTE Software, Inc., Escondido, California, U.S.A.

xi
xii Contributors

Ben Falchuk / Telcordia Technologies, Inc., Piscataway, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Gabriel Falcao / IT, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
Dave Famolari / Telcordia Technologies, Inc., Piscataway, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Ché Fornusek / Exercise, Health and Performance Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences,
University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Jeremy Frank / Department of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, Davis,
California, U.S.A.
Adrian Friday / Computing Department, Lancaster University, Lancaster, U.K
Keith B. Frikken / Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering, Miami
University, Oxford, Ohio, U.S.A.
José Antonio Garcia-Macias / CICESE Research Center, Esenada, Mexico
Gaetano D. Gargiulo / Bioelectronics and Neuroscience Group, University of Western Sydney,
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Valentina Gatteschi / Department of Control and Computer Engineering, Polytechnic
University of Turin, Turin, Italy
Lal C. Godara / Australian Defence Force Academy, School of Electrical Engineering University
College, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Genady Ya. Grabarnik / St. John’s University, Queens, New York, U.S.A.
Rebecca Grasser / Department of Information Technology and Computer Science, Lakeland
Community College, Kirtland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Steven D. Gray / Nokia Research Center, Espoo, Finland
Lilit Hakobyan / School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston University, Birmingham,
U.K.
Jiawei Han / Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Champaign, Illinois, U.S.A.
Jeff Hayes / Certified Information Security Systems Professional, Alcatel, Inc., Draper, Utah,
U.S.A.
Michael James Heron / School of Computing and Digital Media, Robert Gordon University,
Aberdeen, Scotland
James Hoagland / Department of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, Davis,
California, U.S.A.
Javek Ikbal / Major Financial Services Company, Reading, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
S. Sitharama Iyengar / Florida International University, Miami, Florida, U.S.A.
Clayton Matthew Johnson / Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, California
State University, East Bay, Hayward, California, U.S.A.
David Kaeli / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern University,
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Vassilios Karakoidas / Department of Management Science and Technology, Athens University
of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece
Shafiullah Khan / School of Engineering and Information Sciences, Computer Communications
Department, Middlesex University, London, U.K.
Mariam Kiran / School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of
Bradford, Bradford, U.K.
Donald Kraft / Department of Computer Science, U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs,
Colorado, U.S.A.
Dave K. Kythe / Redspin, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.
Prem K. Kythe / Mathematics, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.
Contributors xiii

Fabrizio Lamberti / Department of Control and Computer Science, Polytechnic University of

Turin, Turin, Italy
Orion Sky Lawlor / Department of Computer Science, University of Alaska Fairbanks,
Fairbanks, Alaska, U.S.A.
Torsten Lehmann / School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of
New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Rock Leung / User Experience Researcher, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Ting Li / Wal-mart Stores Inc., Bentonville, Arkansas, U.S.A.
Yuhua Lin / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University,
Clemson, South Carolina, U.S.A.
Shoshana Loeb / Telcordia Technologies, Inc., Piscataway, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Jonathan Loo / School of Engineering and Information Sciences, Computer Communications
Department, Middlesex University, London, U.K.
Peter Olaf Looms / Faculty of Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China, and
Danish Broadcasting Corporation, Vedbæk, Hørsholm, Denmark
Jo Lumsden / School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston University, Birmingham, U.K.
Maria Luce Lupetti / Department of Control and Computer Science, Polytechnic University of
Turin, Turin, Italy
Matthew C. Mariner / George A. Smathers Libraries, University of Florida, Gainesville,
Florida, U.S.A.
Timothy G. Mattson / Intel Corporation, Dupont, Washington, U.S.A.
Alistair McEwan / Bioelectronics Lab, Electrical and Information Engineering, University of
Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Gary McGraw / Cigital, Dulles, Virginia, U.S.A.
Xavier Merino / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, Florida, U.S.A.
Harvey J. Miller / Geography Department, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.A.
Ali Miri / School of Information Technology and Engineering (SITE), and Department of
Mathematics and Statistics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Perhaad Mistry / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern
University, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Dimitris Mitropoulos / Department of Management Science and Technology, Athens University
of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece
Paolo Montuschi / Department of Control and Computer Engineering, Polytechnic University of
Turin, Turin, Italy
D. Mukhopadhyay / Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
William Hugh Murray / Executive Consultant, TruSecure Corporation, New Canaan,
Connecticut, U.S.A.
Mihai Nadin / antÉ—Institute for Research in Anticipatory Systems, University of Texas at
Dallas, Richardson, Texas, U.S.A.
Alberto Nannarelli / Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical
University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Tero Ojanperä / Nokia Research Center, Espoo, Finland
Ilker Onat / School of Information Technology and Engineering (SITE), and Department of
Mathematics and Statistics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Dympna O’Sullivan / School of Mathematics, Computer Science & Engineering, Department of
Computer Science, City University London, London, U.K.
xiv Contributors

Carlos E. Otero / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida Institute of

Technology, Melbourne, Florida, U.S.A.
Gianluca Paravati / Control and Computer Engineering Department, Polytechnic University of
Turin, Turin, Italy
Ian Parberry / Computer Science and Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas,
U.S.A.
Bernd-Peter Paris / George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, U.S.A.
Frederic I. Parke / Department of Visualization, College of Architecture, Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas, U.S.A.
Gabriella Pasi / Department of Informatics, Systems and Communication, University of Studies
of Milano, Milan, Italy
Keith Pasley / PGP Security, Boonsboro, Maryland, U.S.A.
Giovanni Piumatti / Department of Control and Computer Science, Polytechnic University of
Turin, Turin, Italy
Gopal Racherla / Photonics Division, Advanced Wireless Group, General Atomics, San Diego,
California, U.S.A.
Craig E. Rasmussen / Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, U.S.A.
Edna E. Reiter / Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, California State
University, East Bay, Hayward, California, U.S.A.
Irina Rish / IBM, Yorktown Heights, New York, U.S.A.
Jean-Marc Robert / Alcatel Canada, Inc., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Anthony Robins / Department of Computer Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand
Marco Rossi / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, Florida, U.S.A.
Ben Rothke / International Network Services (INS), New York, New York, U.S.A.
John C. Russ / Professor Emeritus, Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
College of Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Kouichi Sakurai / Department of Computer Science and Communication Engineering, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
Steven Samorodin / Department of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, Davis,
California, U.S.A.
Shivakumar Sastry / University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, U.S.A.
Tom Schweiger / Acxiom Corporation, Little Rock, Arkansas, U.S.A.
Theodoros Semertzidis / Information Technologies Institute, Center for Research and
Technology Hellas, Thermi-Thessaloniki, and Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Shoaib Shaikh / College of Technology and Innovation, Florida Polytechnic University,
Lakeland, Florida, U.S.A.
Haiying Shen / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University,
Clemson, South Carolina, U.S.A.
Vitor Silva / IT, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Coimbra,
Coimbra, Portugal
Suresh Singh / Portland State University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Matthew J. Sottile / University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, U.S.A.
Leonel Sousa / INESC-ID, IST, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
William Stallings / Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Wright State University,
Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A.
Contributors xv

Michael Gerassimos Strintzis / Information Technologies Institute, Center for Research and
Technology Hellas, Thermi-Thessaloniki, and Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Chunhua Su / Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka,
Japan
Apostolos Syropoulos / Xanthi, Greece
Leyla Toumi / LSR-IMAG, CNSR/INPG, Grenoble, France
Yash Ukidave / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern University,
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Stefan Wagner / Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory, University of Applied
Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria
Guilin Wang / Department of Computer Science and Communication Engineering, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
Keith Waters / Kwaters Consulting, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Chris Wee / Department of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, Davis,
California, U.S.A.
Petra Wiederhold / Department of Automatic Control, Center of Advanced Studies and
Investigation, National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico City, Mexico
Stephan Winkler / Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory, University of Applied
Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria
Gary K.W. Wong / Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Shinichi Yamagiwa / JST PRESTO, Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems,
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
Jana Zabinski / American National Standards Institute, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Jianying Zhou / Department of Computer Science and Communication Engineering, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka, Japan
Roberto V. Zicari / Department of Computer Science, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
 Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology
Second Edition
Contents

Topical Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
About the Editor-in-Chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix

Volume I
3-D Graphics / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3-D Graphics: Bump Mapping / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3-D Graphics: Coordinate Spaces / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3-D Graphics: High Level Shading Language (HLSL) / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3-D Graphics: Light Sources / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3-D Graphics: Polygon Meshes / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3-D Graphics: Real-Time Graphics Pipeline / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3-D Graphics: Skeletal Animation / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3-D Graphics: Standard Local Lighting Model / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3-D Graphics: Texture Mapping / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3-D Graphics: Viewing / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Access Methods / Bernd-Peter Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Ad Hoc Networks: Technologies / Marco Conti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) / Ben Rothke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Algorithms / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Algorithms: Rendering / Orion Sky Lawlor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) / Jana Zabinski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Animation: Facial / Frederic I. Parke and Keith Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Artificial Intelligence / Jianhua Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Authentication and Authorization: Policy-Based / Jeff Hayes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Big Data / Roberto V. Zicari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Bioelectronics / Alistair McEwan, Gaetano D. Gargiulo, Ché Fornusek and Torsten Lehmann . . . . . . . . . 172
Bluetooth Systems / William Stallings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
CDMA Networks / Tero Ojanperä and Steven D. Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Cellular Systems / Lal C. Godara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Classes: NP and NP-Complete / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton
Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Coding Theory: History / Dave K. Kythe and Prem K. Kythe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Computer Organization / Perhaad Mistry, Yash Ukidave, Zhongliang Chen and David Kaeli . . . . . . . . . 232
Concurrency: Concepts / Matthew J. Sottile, Timothy G. Mattson and Craig E. Rasmussen . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Counting: Basics / Rebecca Grasser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Cryptography / Javek Ikbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Cryptography: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) / D. Mukhopadhyay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

xvii
xviii Contents

Volume I (cont’d.)
Data Mining: Geographic / Harvey J. Miller and Jiawei Han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Data Mining: Privacy-Preservation Techniques / Chunhua Su, Jianying Zhou, Feng Bao, Guilin Wang
and Kouichi Sakurai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Digital Arithmetic / Dave K. Kythe and Prem K. Kythe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Digital Arithmetic: Division Algorithms / Paolo Montuschi and Alberto Nannarelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Digital Geometry / Petra Wiederhold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Disabilities, Users with / Pradipta Biswas and Peter Olaf Looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Disabilities: Assistive Technology Design / Jo Lumsden, Lilit Hakobyan, Rock Leung and
Dympna O’Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Discrete Fourier Transform / Dave K. Kythe and Prem K. Kythe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Distributed Sensor Actuator Networks / Shivakumar Sastry and S. Sitharama Iyengar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Ethics / Michael James Heron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) / D. Mukhopadhyay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Volume II
Fuzzy Set Theory / Donald Kraft, Gloria Bordogna and Gabriella Pasi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic / Apostolos Syropoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Genetic Algorithms / Michael Affenzeller, Stephan Winkler, Stefan Wagner and Andreas Beham . . . . . . . 469
Hash Algorithms / Keith Pasley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Human–Robot Interaction / Giovanni Piumatti, Maria Luce Lupetti and Fabrizio Lamberti . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Image Processing and Measurement / John C. Russ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Internet Security / Matt Bishop, Steven Cheung, Jeremy Frank, James Hoagland, Steven Samorodin
and Chris Wee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Languages / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Languages: Domain-Specific / Vassilios Karakoidas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
LDPC Decoders: Acceleration / Joao Andrade, Gabriel Falcao, Vitor Silva, Shinichi Yamagiwa
and Leonel Sousa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Learning and Teaching Programming / Anthony Robins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Locality Sensitive Hashing / Haiying Shen, Ting Li, Tom Schweiger and Yuhua Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Location-Based Services / Ben Falchuk, Dave Famolari and Shoshana Loeb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Mathematics of Computer Security / D. Mukhopadhyay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks / Jonathan Loo, Shafiullah Khan and Ali Naser Al-Khwildi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Modeling and Simulation / Mariam Kiran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Modeling: Sparse / Irina Rish and Genady Ya. Grabarnik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) / Matthew C. Mariner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Parallel Algorithms / Matthew J. Sottile, Timothy G. Mattson and Craig E. Rasmussen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Pedestrian Detection and Tracking / Gianluca Paravati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Predictive and Anticipatory Computing / Mihai Nadin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Privacy Preserving Cryptographic Protocols / Mikhail J. Atallah and Keith B. Frikken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Programming Languages: Concurrency / Matthew J. Sottile, Timothy G. Mattson and
Craig E. Rasmussen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Securing Software / Dimitris Mitropoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
Security Risks: Managing Software / Gary McGraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Semantics: Learning / Valentina Gatteschi, Claudio Demartini and Fabrizio Lamberti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
Sentiment Analysis / Carlos E. Otero, Shoaib Shaikh, Marco Rossi and
Xavier Merino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Contents xix

Set Theory / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716

Social Context Computing: Wireless Networking / Gary K.W. Wong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Social Media: Trends, Events, and Influential Users / Theodoros Semertzidis,
Christos Athanasiadis, Michael Gerassimos Strintzis and Petros Daras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Steganography / Mark Edmead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Turing Machines / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Turing Machines: Completeness / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
Ubiquitous Computing Systems / Jakob E. Bardram and Adrian Friday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Undecidability / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Undecidability and Reducibility / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
Virtual Worlds: Design / Ann Latham Cudworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Viruses: History / Thomas M. Chen and Jean-Marc Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
Wireless Embedded Systems: Secure Design / Ilker Onat and Ali Miri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
Wireless LANs (WLANs) / Suresh Singh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
Wireless LANs (WLANs): IEEE 802.11 / José Antonio Garcia-Macias and Leyla Toumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Wireless Networks: VoIP Service / Sajal K. Das and Kalyan Basu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) / Gopal Racherla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Women in Computer Science: Deterrents / Sylvia Beyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
XML and Other Metadata Languages / William Hugh Murray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
 Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology
Second Edition
Topical Table of Contents

Algorithms
Algorithms / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Algorithms: Rendering / Orion Sky Lawlor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Genetic Algorithms / Michael Affenzeller, Stephan Winkler, Stefan Wagner, and Andreas Beham . . . . . . . 469
Hash Algorithms / Keith Pasley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Parallel Algorithms / Matthew J. Sottile, Timothy G. Mattson, and Craig E. Rasmussen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630

Applications
Animation: Facial / Frederic I. Parke and Keith Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Artificial Intelligence / Jianhua Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Image Processing and Measurement / John C. Russ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Locality Sensitive Hashing / Haiying Shen, Ting Li, Tom Schweiger and Yuhua Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Location-Based Services / Ben Falchuk, Dave Famolari, and Shoshana Loeb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Modeling and Simulation / Mariam Kiran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) / Matthew C. Mariner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Pedestrian Detection and Tracking / Gianluca Paravati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Predictive and Anticipatory Computing / Mihai Nadin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Semantics: Learning / Valentina Gatteschi, Claudio Demartini, and Fabrizio Lamberti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
Sentiment Analysis / Carlos E. Otero, Shoaib Shaikh, Marco Rossi, and Xavier Merino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Ubiquitous Computing Systems / Jakob E. Bardram and Adrian Friday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Virtual Worlds: Design / Ann Latham Cudworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

Data Mining
Big Data / Roberto V. Zicari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Data Mining: Geographic / Harvey J. Miller and Jiawei Han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Data Mining: Privacy-Preservation Techniques / Chunhua Su, Jianying Zhou, Feng Bao,
Guilin Wang, and Kouichi Sakurai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Graphics
3-D Graphics / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3-D Graphics: Bump Mapping / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3-D Graphics: Coordinate Spaces / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3-D Graphics: High Level Shading Language (HLSL) / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3-D Graphics: Light Sources / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3-D Graphics: Polygon Meshes / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3-D Graphics: Real-Time Graphics Pipeline / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

xxi
xxii Topical Table of Contents

Graphics (cont’d.)
3-D Graphics: Skeletal Animation / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3-D Graphics: Standard Local Lighting Model / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3-D Graphics: Texture Mapping / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3-D Graphics: Viewing / Fletcher Dunn and Ian Parberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Hardware
Bioelectronics / Alistair McEwan, Gaetano D. Gargiulo, Ché Fornusek, and Torsten Lehmann . . . . . . . . . 172
Computer Organization / Perhaad Mistry, Yash Ukidave, Zhongliang Chen, and David Kaeli . . . . . . . . . 232
Digital Arithmetic / Dave K. Kythe and Prem K. Kythe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Digital Arithmetic: Division Algorithms / Paolo Montuschi and Alberto Nannarelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) / D. Mukhopadhyay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
LDPC Decoders: Acceleration / Joao Andrade, Gabriel Falcao, Vitor Silva, Shinichi Yamagiwa,
and Leonel Sousa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

Languages
Concurrency: Concepts / Matthew J. Sottile, Timothy G. Mattson, and Craig E. Rasmussen . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Languages / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Languages: Domain-Specific / Vassilios Karakoidas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Learning and Teaching Programming / Anthony Robins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Programming Languages: Concurrency / Matthew J. Sottile, Timothy G. Mattson, and Craig E.
Rasmussen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
XML and Other Metadata Languages / William Hugh Murray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880

Mathematics
Classes: NP and NP-Complete / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Mathematics of Computer Security / D. Mukhopadhyay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Counting: Basics / Rebecca Grasser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Digital Geometry / Petra Wiederhold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Discrete Fourier Transform / Dave K. Kythe and Prem K. Kythe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Fuzzy Set Theory / Donald Kraft, Gloria Bordogna, and Gabriella Pasi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic / Apostolos Syropoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Modeling: Sparse / Irina Rish and Genady Ya. Grabarnik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Set Theory / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Turing Machines / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Turing Machines: Completeness / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
Undecidability / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Undecidability and Reducibility / Edna E. Reiter and Clayton Matthew Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803

Networks
Ad Hoc Networks: Technologies / Marco Conti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Bluetooth Systems / William Stallings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
CDMA Networks / Tero Ojanperä and Steven D. Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Cellular Systems / Lal C. Godara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Distributed Sensor Actuator Networks / Shivakumar Sastry and S. Sitharama Iyengar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Topical Table of Contents xxiii

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks / Jonathan Loo, Shafiullah Khan and Ali Naser Al-Khwildi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Social Context Computing: Wireless Networking / Gary K.W. Wong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Wireless Embedded Systems: Secure Design / Ilker Onat and Ali Miri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
Wireless LANs (WLANs) / Suresh Singh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
Wireless LANs (WLANs): IEEE 802.11 / José Antonio Garcia-Macias and Leyla Toumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Wireless Networks: VoIP Service / Sajal K. Das and Kalyan Basu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) / Gopal Racherla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

Security and Privacy

Access Methods / Bernd-Peter Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) / Ben Rothke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Authentication and Authorization: Policy-Based / Jeff Hayes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Coding Theory: History / Dave K. Kythe and Prem K. Kythe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Cryptography / Javek Ikbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Cryptography: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) / D. Mukhopadhyay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Data Mining: Privacy-Preservation Techniques / Chunhua Su, Jianying Zhou, Feng Bao,
Guilin Wang, and Kouichi Sakurai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Internet Security / Matt Bishop, Steven Cheung, Jeremy Frank, James Hoagland, Steven Samorodin,
and Chris Wee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Privacy Preserving Cryptographic Protocols / Mikhail J. Atallah and Keith B. Frikken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Securing Software / Dimitris Mitropoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
Security Risks: Managing Software / Gary McGraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Steganography / Mark Edmead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Viruses: History / Thomas M. Chen and Jean-Marc Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824

Societal Implications
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) / Jana Zabinski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Disabilities: Assistive Technology Design / Jo Lumsden, Lilit Hakobyan, Rock Leung, and
Dympna O’Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Disabilities, Users with / Pradipta Biswas, and Peter Olaf Looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Ethics / Michael James Heron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Human–Robot Interaction / Giovanni Piumatti, Maria Luce Lupetti, and Fabrizio Lamberti . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Social Media: Trends, Events, and Influential Users / Theodoros Semertzidis, Christos
Athanasiadis, Michael Gerassimos Strintzis and Petros Daras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Women in Computer Science: Deterrents / Sylvia Beyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Preface

So, how does one go about building an encyclopedia? The most effective way is through a
divide-and-conquer approach. Therefore I composed an Editorial Board with members
who had expertise along the major knowledge areas of computing according to Associa-
tion for Computing Machinery’s Computing Classification System, that is:
• General and reference
• Hardware
• Computer systems organization
• Networks
• Software and its engineering
• Theory of computation
• Mathematics of computing
• Information systems
• Security and privacy
• Human-centered computing
• Computing methodologies
• Applied computing
• Social and professional topics
• People, technologies and companies
I am delighted and lucky to have recruited an outstanding group of experts in their
respective fields to comprise the Editorial Board listed previously.
The Editorial Board members were responsible for, in consultation with and the
approval of the Editor in Chief (EIC):
• Identifying articles for each of the sub-areas in their knowledge areas;
• Identifying and recruiting expert authors to write these articles;
• Organizing peer reviews of these articles;
• Collecting and editing these articles as appropriate;
• Submitting the reviewed and edited articles to the EIC for final approval and
compilation.
The task of finding authors was not easy. Teasing small entries for a dictionary is much
easier than extracting substantial articles for an encyclopedia, and experts are always
busy. Therefore there were many false starts and stops, searches for new authors when
necessary, and the need for constant encouragements. As the articles begin to be delivered
by the authors, peer reviews for the articles needed to be organized. Finding expert peer
reviewers, who are also busy, wasn’t always easy. The articles and review reports were
then returned to the authors for revision, and in many cases, another round of reviews.
The process was not dissimilar to editing a special issue of a scholarly journal, only mag-
nified by a factor of 20. The final articles then needed to be edited by expert copy editors,
then returned to the authors for another check. The EIC conducted one final check.
In some cases, in order to round out coverage, we mined content from other books pub-
lished by Taylor & Francis and restructured that content to encyclopedia articles. This step
was also time consuming as it required an analysis of hundreds of books in the T&F
library. It should be no surprise, then, the process of building this Encyclopedia, from start
to finish, took four years.
xxv
xxvi Preface

I hope you are pleased with the result. This Encyclopedia is the result of the work of
more than 200 expert contributors and reviewers from industry and academia across
the globe. We tried to be as correct and comprehensive as possible, but of course, in a
work of this grand scope there are bound to be holes in coverage, as well as typographical,
possibly even factual errors, I take full responsibility for these errors, and hope that you
will contact me at ecst@taylorandfrancis.com to notify me of any.
The good news is that this Encyclopedia is a perpetual project – the online version will
be updated regularly, and new print editions are anticipated. These updated versions allow
for ongoing augmentation of the Encyclopedia, to keep pace with the rapid changes in
computing hardware, software, systems and applications. My intention is to keep this
Encyclopedia as relevant and fresh as possible. If you have an idea for a new or revised
article for the encyclopedia, please send me your thoughts. If you feel qualified to write an
article, please send me a proposal along with your qualifications and will consider them
and respond promptly.
The Target readership for this Encyclopedia includes computer scientists, computer
engineers computing professionals, managers, software professionals, and other technol-
ogy professionals. I also expect the Encyclopedia to find its way into many library data-
bases. Finally, I hope that this Encyclopedia will be added to the reading list for
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Acknowledgments

Compiling an Encyclopedia is a massive effort, and the role of Editor-In-Chief is similar

to that of the captain of an aircraft carrier – the captain merely articulates the mission of the
ship and its destination and provides general guidance along the way – hundreds of others
do the real work. This encyclopedia really did involve hundreds of people: contributors,
reviewers, editors, production staff and more, so I cannot thank everyone personally. But
some special kudos are required.
Collectively, I thank the authors of the articles and the reviewers – without them, of
course, there would be no Encyclopedia. Members of the Editorial Advisory Board
also provided a great deal of advice, encouragement, and hard work, and I am grateful
to them for those. And there are many staff at Taylor & Francis in the acquisitions, editing,
production, marketing, and sales departments that deserve credit. But I must call out some
key individuals who guided me through this journey.
First, I want to thank senior acquisitions editor, John Wyzalek and encyclopedia pro-
gram director Claire Miller – I have worked with John and Claire on many projects and
they have always provided wise guidance and kept me on task. Over the four years that
were needed to solicit, develop, review, revise, and edit the articles, my development edi-
tors, Molly Pohlig and Stephanie DeRosa have been my eyes, ears and hands. I am grate-
ful for their enthusiasm and counsel. Finally, I want to thank my family for putting up with
my physical presence but mental absence as I worked on this project in our family room
over many days and evenings.

xxvii
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Writers and Artisans, Neural Disorders of, v. 504

Wry-neck, v. 463

X.

Xanthoma, iv. 687

 Y.

Yellow Fever, i. 640

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