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Walter Dittrich
Martin Reuter
Classical and
Quantum
Dynamics
From Classical Paths to Path Integrals
6th Edition
Classical and Quantum Dynamics
Walter Dittrich • Martin Reuter
Sixth Edition
123
Walter Dittrich Martin Reuter
Institute of Theoretical Physics Institute of Physics
University of TRubingen Johannes Gutenberg University
TRubingen, Germany Mainz, Germany
1st edition, 2nd edition, 3rd edition: © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992, 1994, 2001
4th edition, 5th edition: © Springer International Publishing AG 2016, 2017
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
In the sixth edition of this book, we have added some new chapters. Chapter 39
continues and brings to a close the explicit calculations of the propagation function
of a charged spin- 21 particle in a constant electromagnetic field. But now we adopt
Fock’s and Schwinger’s proper-time method instead of applying the Van Vleck
determinant as done in Chap. 38. This, in fact, signals the beginning of Schwinger’s
withdrawal from operator quantum field theory and his return to c-numbers. As it
turned out, Schwinger’s article in Phys. Rev. of 1951 is one of the most-cited papers
in the physics literature. We will describe his approach in great detail, considering
only those parts of his paper that are relevant to the calculations contained in our
following chapters. The emphasis lies on c-number field theory rather than on
operators and their multiplication at the same space–time point because of their
highly complicated high-energy behavior. As a final application of Schwinger’s
proper-time calculation, we derive in Chap. 40 the explicit expression for the one-
loop effective Lagrangian in QED. This is the most elegant way to reproduce
the famous Heisenberg-Euler Lagrangian (1936) and sets the stage for all future
effective quantum field theories.
As an introduction to low-energy pion-rho-nucleon chiral physics, in Chaps. 41
and 42 we rely on the geometrical as well as the dynamical approach. The former
is based on differential geometry as developed by Gauss, Riemann, Einstein, and
Weyl, where chiral symmetry is realized in a curved isospin space. The latter
approach was favored by the late Schwinger. Our contribution is a reassessment
of Schwinger’s Brandeis lecture notes [63] of 1969; the details we present here
have—so far as we know—never been published. We devote our final Chap. 43 to
Riemann’s groundbreaking ideas contained in his Habilitation lecture (1854), where
he touches on geometrical and physical spaces and consequences for physics and
philosophy.
v
vi Preface to the Sixth Edition
Finally, at the close of this enterprise, we wish to express our profound thanks to
Ms. Ute Heuser of Springer-Verlag, who was kind enough to guide us over the years
in preparing the various editions of this book for publication.
This volume is the result of the authors’ lectures and seminars given at Tübin-
gen University and elsewhere. It represents a summary of our learning process
in nonlinear Hamiltonian dynamics and path integral methods in nonrelativistic
quantum mechanics. While large parts of the book are based on standard material,
readers will find numerous worked examples which can rarely be found in the
published literature. In fact, toward the end they will find themselves in the midst of
modern topological methods which so far have not made their way into the textbook
literature.
One of the authors’ (W.D.) interest in the subject was inspired by Prof. D. Judd
(UC Berkeley), whose lectures on nonlinear dynamics familiarized him with
Lichtenberg and Lieberman’s monograph, Regular and Stochastic Motion (Springer,
1983). For people working in plasma or accelerator physics, the chapter on nonlinear
physics should contain some familiar material. Another influential author has been
Prof. J. Schwinger (UCLA); the knowledgeable reader will not be surprised to
discover our appreciation of Schwinger’s Action Principle in the introductory
chapters. However, the major portion of the book is based on Feynman’s path
integral approach, which seems to be the proper language for handling topological
aspects in quantum physics.
Our thanks go to Ginny Dittrich for masterly transforming a long and complex
manuscript into a readable monograph.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 The Action Principle in Classical Electrodynamics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Application of the Action Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5 Jacobi Fields, Conjugate Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 Canonical Transformations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7 The Hamilton–Jacobi Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8 Action-Angle Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9 The Adiabatic Invariance of the Action Variables . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10 Time-Independent Canonical Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11 Canonical Perturbation Theory with Several Degrees of Freedom . . . 141
12 Canonical Adiabatic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
13 Removal of Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14 Superconvergent Perturbation Theory, KAM Theorem
(Introduction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15 Poincaré Surface of Sections, Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
16 The KAM Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
17 Fundamental Principles of Quantum Mechanics . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
18 Functional Derivative Approach .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
19 Examples for Calculating Path Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
20 Direct Evaluation of Path Integrals.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
ix
x Contents
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Chapter 1
Introduction
The subject of this monograph is classical and quantum dynamics. We are fully
aware that this combination is somewhat unusual, for history has taught us convinc-
ingly that these two subjects are founded on totally different concepts; a smooth
transition between them has so far never been made and probably never will.
An approach to quantum mechanics in purely classical terms is doomed to
failure; this fact was well known to the founders of quantum mechanics. Never-
theless, to this very day people are still trying to rescue as much as possible of
the description of classical systems when depicting the atomic world. However,
the currently accepted viewpoint is that in describing fundamental properties in
quantum mechanics, we are merely borrowing names from classical physics. In
writing this book we have made no attempt to contradict this point of view. But
in the light of modern topological methods we have tried to bring a little twist to the
standard approach that treats classical and quantum physics as disjoint subjects.
The formulation of both classical and quantum mechanics can be based on the
principle of stationary action. Schwinger has advanced this principle into a powerful
working scheme which encompasses almost every situation in the classical and
quantum worlds. Our treatment will give a modest impression of the wide range
of applicability of Schwinger’s action principle.
We then proceed to rediscover the importance of such familiar subjects as Jacobi
fields, action angle variables, adiabatic invariants, etc. in the light of current research
on classical Hamiltonian dynamics. It is here that we recognize the important role
that canonical perturbation theory played before the advent of modern quantum
mechanics.
Meanwhile, classical mechanics has been given fresh impetus through new
developments in perturbation theory, offering a new look at old problems in
nonlinear mechanics like, e.g., the stability of the solar system. Here the KAM
theorem proved that weakly disturbed integrable systems will remain on invariant
surfaces (tori) for most initial conditions and do not leave the tori to end up in chaotic
motion.
At this stage we point to the fundamental role that adiabatic invariants played
prior to canonical quantization of complementary dynamical variables. We are
reminded of torus quantization, which assigns each adiabatic invariant an integer
multiple of Planck’s constant. All these semiclassical quantization procedures have
much in common with Feynman’s path integral or, rather, approximations thereof.
Indeed, Feynman’s path integral methods are ideally suited to follow a quantum
mechanical system—if certain restrictions are enforced—into its classical realm.
Consequently it is one of our main goals to apply Feynman’s path integral and
other geometrical methods to uncover the mystery of the zero point energy (Maslov
anomaly) of the quantum harmonic oscillator.
That quantum and classical mechanics are, in fact, disjoint physical worlds was
clear from the very beginning. Present-day experience is no exception; it is rather
embarrassing to find out that an important geometric phase in a cyclic adiabatic
quantal process has been overlooked since the dawn of quantum mechanics. This
so-called Berry phase signals that in nonrelativistic as well as relativistic quantum
theory, geometrical methods play an eminent role.
The appearance of topology in quantum mechanics is probably the most impor-
tant new development to occur in recent years. A large portion of this text is
therefore devoted to the geometric structure of topologically nontrivial physical
systems. Berry phases, Maslov indices, Chern–Simons terms and various other
topological quantities have clearly demonstrated that quantum mechanics is not,
as of yet, a closed book.
Chapter 2
The Action Principles in Mechanics
We begin this chapter with the definition of the action functional as time integral
over the Lagrangian L.qi .t/; qP i .t/I t/ of a dynamical system:
Z t2
S fŒqi .t/I t1 ; t2 g D dt L.qi .t/; qP i .t/I t/ : (2.1)
t1
Equation (2.2) is the most general formulation of the action principle in mechanics.
The fixed values G1 and G2 depend only on the endpoint path variables at the
respective terminal times.
Again, given a system with the action functional S, the actual time evolution
in configuration space follows that path about which general variations produce
only endpoint contributions. The explicit form of G is dependent upon the special
representation of the action principle. In the following we begin with the one that is
best known, i.e.,
1. Lagrange: The Lagrangian for a point particle with mass m, moving in
a potential V.xi ; t/, is
m 2
L.xi ; xP i I t/ D xP V.xi ; t/ : (2.3)
2 i
Here and in the following we restrict ourselves to the case N D 3; i.e., we
describe the motion of a single mass point by xi .t/ in real space. The dynamical
variable xi .t/ denotes the actual classical trajectory of the particle which is
parametrized by t with t1 t t2 .
Now we consider the response of the action functional (2.1) with respect to
changes in the coordinates and in the time, ıxi .t/ and ıt.t/, respectively. It is
important to recognize that, while the original trajectory is being shifted in real
space according to
the time-readings along the path become altered locally, i.e., different at each
individual point on the varied curve—including the endpoints. This means that
our time change is not a global .ıt.t/ D const:/ rigid time displacement, equally
valid for all points on the trajectory, but that the time becomes changed locally,
or, shall we say, gauged, for the transported trajectory. All this indicates that we
have to supplement (2.4) by
where the terminal time changes are given by ıt.t2 / D ıt2 , and ıt.t1 / D ıt1 .
To the time change (2.5) is associated the change in the integration measure
in (2.1) given by the Jacobi formula
d.t C ıt/ d
d.t C ıt/ D dt D 1 C ıt.t/ dt (2.6)
dt dt
or
d
ı.dt/ WD d.t C ıt/ dt D dt ıt.t/ : (2.7)
dt
d
ıxi .t/ D ı0 xi .t/ C ıt .xi .t// (2.8)
dt
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 5
dx0i .t/
ıxi .t/ D x0i .t0 / xi .t/ D x0i .t C ıt/ xi .t/ D x0i .t/ C ıt xi .t/
dt
dxi dxi
D .x0i .t/ xi .t// C ıt DW ı0 xi .t/ C ıt :
dt dt
Similarly,
d
ı xP i .t/ D ı0 xP i .t/ C ıt xP i (2.9)
dt
d d
D ı0 xP i C .ıtPxi / xP i .ıt/
dt dt
d d d d d
D ı0 C ıt xi xP i ıt D .ıxi / xP i ıt : (2.10)
dt dt dt dt dt
The difference between ı and ı0 acting on t, xi .t/ and xP i .t/ is expressed by the
identity
d
ı D ı0 C ıt : (2.11)
dt
So far we have obtained
2d 3
dt .Lıt/ıt dt
dL
Z t2 Z t2 6 ‚ …„ ƒ
7
6 d 7
ıS D Œı.dt/L C dtıL D dt 6 L .ıt/ CıL7
t1 t1 4 dt 5
Z t2 Z t2
d dL d
D dt .Lıt/ C ıL ıt D dt .Lıt/ C ı0 L ;
t1 dt dt t1 dt
(2.12)
d
ıL D ı0 L C ıt L: (2.13)
dt
The total variation of the Lagrangian is then given by
d @L @L dL
ıL D ı0 L C ıt LD ı 0 xi C ı0 xP i C ıt
dt @xi @Pxi dt
@L @L @L @L @L
D ı 0 xi C ı0 xP i C ıt xP i C xR i C
@xi @Pxi @xi @Pxi @t
6 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics
@L d @L d @L
D ı0 C ıt xi C ı0 C ıt xP i C ıt
@xi dt @Pxi dt @t
@L @L @L
D ıxi C ı xP i C ıt :
@xi @Pxi @t
@L @V.xi ; t/ @L @L @V
D ; D mPxi ; D ; (2.14)
@xi @xi @Pxi @t @t
@V @V d d
ıL D ıt ıxi C mPxi ıxi mPx2i ıt : (2.15)
@t @xi dt dt
We can also write the last expression for ıS a bit differently, thereby presenting
explicitly the coefficients of ıxi and ıt:
Z ( " 2 ! #
t2
d dxi m dxi
ıS D dt m ıxi C V ıt
t1 dt dt 2 dt
" 2 #)
d 2 xi @V @V d m dxi
m 2 ıxi ıxi ıt C ıt CV ; (2.17)
dt @xi @t dt 2 dt
d 2 xi @V.xi ; t/
ıxi W m 2
D ; .Newton/ ; (2.20)
dt @xi
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 7
dE @V
ıt W D ; (2.21)
dt @t
so that for a static potential, @V=@t D 0, the law of the conservation of energy
follows: dE=dt D 0.
dxi
Surface term W G D m ıxi Eıt : (2.22)
dt
2. Hamiltonian: As a function of the Hamiltonian,
p2i
H.xi ; pi I t/ D C V.xi ; t/ ; (2.23)
2m
dxi
L D pi H.xi ; pi I t/ : (2.24)
dt
Here, the independent dynamical variables are xi and pi ; t is the independent
time-parameter variable. Hence the change of the action is
Z t2
dxi
ıS D ı dt pi H.xi ; pi I t/
t1 dt
Z t2
d dxi d
D dt pi ıxi C ıpi ıH H ıt : (2.25)
t1 dt dt dt
Upon using
@H @H @H
ıH D ıxi C ıpi C ıt ; (2.26)
@xi @pi @t
dxi @H pi
ıpi W D D ; (2.28)
dt @pi m
dpi @H @V
ıxi W D D : (2.29)
dt @xi @xi
dH @H
ıt W D : (2.30)
dt @t
Surface term: G D pi ıxi Hıt : (2.31)
@S @S @S @S
ıS D ıx1 C ıx2 C ıt1 C ıt2 (2.33)
@x1 @x2 @t1 @t2
(2.32) yields
@S @S
p1 D ; H.x1 ; p1 I t1 / D (2.34)
@x1 @t1
or
@S @S
H x1 ; ; t1 D0: (2.35)
@x1 @t1
Obviously, (2.35) and (2.36) are the Hamilton–Jacobi equations for finding the
action S. In this way we have demonstrated that the action (2.1) satisfies the
Hamilton–Jacobi equation. (Later on we shall encounter S again as the generating
function of a canonical transformation .qi ; pi / ! .Qi ; Pi / of the F1 .qi ; Qi ; t/-
type.
20 3 The Action Principle in Classical Electrodynamics
dL @L @L
D xP C xR (3.14)
d @x @Px
@L
In our particular case with @Px
D ec A , we obtain
1 h 2 e e i
D m 0 c C P
x A xP A
c2 c c
D m0 :
O N leaving the hill we took a road that led us towards the north.
We first rounded the western end of the scarp of the detached
plateau parallel to which we had marched on coming from Bu
Gerara, and, about two hours after our start, ascended a steepish
bank on to the top of the plateau, which here was only about fifty feet
high.
From the summit of a small hill close by, a huge cliff stretching to
the north and south, as far as it was possible to see, was visible, far
off in the east; this was evidently the eastern boundary of the Farafra
depression, and, as I afterwards discovered, the continuation of the
cliff to the north of Bu Gerara.
The scarp was too far for me to be able to see any details of its
surface, with the light behind it, and as the top of it showed as only a
straight line, there were no points on it to which I could take a
bearing.
In these circumstances it was impossible either to fix its position
or to estimate the direction in which it ran. I several times met with
this difficulty, but found that, when a cliff faced towards the south, it
was only necessary for me to wait till the sun came round far enough
to begin to light up its surface, and then a rough estimate of the
direction in which it ran could be obtained by taking a bearing on to
the sun itself. This dodge was especially useful when it was
necessary to map the continuation of a cliff, part of which had
already been surveyed and the remainder of it could only be seen
from one point, such as the top of a high hill.
The part of the Farafra depression in which we found ourselves
was an absolutely featureless plain, of hard level sand, that sloped
slightly towards the foot of the scarp on our east. Here and there we
came across patches of greenish clay, with white lines running
through it, showing above the surface of the sand.
The Persian King, Cambyses, during his occupation of Egypt,
sent a great army across the desert to destroy the oracle of Jupiter
Ammon in Siwa Oasis. The army never reached Siwa; but was lost
in the desert. Its last resting-place is unknown, but, according to
native reports, the whole host perished of thirst in this huge
depression in which the oasis of Farafra lies.
I happened to mention to Qwaytin the subject of singing sands,
and asked him if he had ever heard any. He told me that somewhere
in the north of the Farafra depression there was a rock that was
supposed to be the “church” of the spirits of the lost Persian army. It
was called the “infidel rock,” because it “sang on Sunday.” It
appeared to be some form of musical sands.
It was not until the third day after our start from the treasure hill
that we sighted in the west the field of dunes that occupies the
centre of the Farafra wady. They appeared to be almost white in
colour, and lay a long way off.
Qwaytin told me that we should reach the Kairowin hattia on our
third day after leaving his hill. It will give some idea of his utter
incompetence as a guide when I say that we did not actually get
there until two days later.
He came into my tent on the first evening and began yarning in an
aimless sort of way, as he generally did as a preliminary to serious
business, and I endeavoured to extract some information from him
as to the topography of the Bedayat country, with which he was well
acquainted.
But he at once got impatient and changed the subject to that of
his confounded hill. He ended by asking—almost demanding—that
we should go back there to have another look at it, and to make
certain that there was not another hill in the neighbourhood which
might be the one indicated in his book. On my refusing to do so, he
flounced out of the tent—he was certainly a queer customer to deal
with.
Whenever I spoke to him the next day he began gassing about his
wretched hill, and saying that he wanted to go back to it; but towards
evening he rather recovered himself, and when he came to my tent I
again threw out feelers about the country of the Bedayat, though he
declined to tell me anything about the district, he started giving me a
lot of information about the Bedayat themselves, which, as they are
an almost unknown race, proved extremely interesting.
They claim to be descended from an afrit, whom, for some crime,
either David or Solomon shut up in a box, till he grew to such an
enormous size that he burst it open. There still exists apparently a
mongrel Bedayat—Tibbu tribe, known as the M’Khiat er Rih, that
possess the miraculous power of being able to walk over sand
without leaving any tracks behind them—a most useful
accomplishment in the desert for a race of born freebooters. This
peculiarity they owe to the fact that wherever they go they are
followed by a wind that immediately obliterates their footprints!
On our fourth day after leaving the treasure hill, our road
converged towards the dunes lying on our west, and, as Qwaytin
seemed to be hopelessly lost, I climbed one of the biggest of them
with him to try and make out our position.
From the top, the east and west scarp, with a break in it leading
up to Baharia Oasis, that lies on the north of Farafra, could be seen
in the far distance, but no sign of the hattia Kairowin was visible. In
front of us, however, was a high three-headed sif, or longitudinal
sand dune, that Qwaytin declared to be the landmark for the hattia
from the south.
As we were getting very short of water, the news that the hattia
was not in sight caused something like consternation among my
men. They all started grumbling at Qwaytin’s ignorance of the road,
and Ibrahim went so far as to ask him point-blank why he called
himself a guide, if he knew so little about the desert.
This coming from a young Sudani, hardly out of his ’teens, to an
elderly Arab guide, who, moreover, was a sheykh of his tribe, was a
great ayb, and Qwaytin was intensely put out. Qway, under the
circumstances, would have retaliated with some stinging remarks on
the inferiority of “slaves” and the respect that was due from a boy to
his elders and superiors in rank; but Qwaytin lacked his ready
powers of vituperation. He was a slow-witted old curmudgeon, and
failed entirely to put Ibrahim in his place. His own men stood up for
him in a feeble sort of way. But they were no match for Ibrahim, and
eventually gave up any attempt to defend their sheykh, probably
feeling themselves that there was not much to be said in his
defence. As I rather wanted to encourage a certain amount of friction
between my men and Qwaytin’s, I left them to settle their differences
as best they could, with the result that Qwaytin and his men got
much the worst of the wrangle.
Kairowin hattia measures some eighteen miles from north to
south, by seven from east to west. It consists of a level scrub-
covered area, in which, here and there, are to be seen a few
neglected-looking palms. A number of wells have been sunk here at
various times; one on the extreme eastern edge of the hattia, where
the road coming from Assiut first enters the scrub, is known as Bir
Murr. This well, which I did not visit, is said to be sanded up. Another
well somewhere to the north, I believe, is known as Bir Abd el Qadr.
There are also several others, all of which seem to be impartially
named Bir Kairowin. Probably water can be found under all the lower
lying parts of the hattia by digging for a few feet into the ground,
which throughout this district consists of chalk.
The wells in every case apparently give water so thick with chalk
particles that when first drawn from them it is almost as milky as
whitewash. Attempts to clear the water by passing it through a
Berkefeld filter failed, as the chalk clogged the filter after a few
strokes. But when it had been allowed to stand for a few hours, most
of the chalk settled down to the bottom, and the water that was
poured off passed quite easily through the filter, after which it proved
to be of quite good quality.
I, unfortunately, forgot to wind my watches the first night in the
hattia, and so allowed the half chronometer I had been using in
taking my observations to run down. As I was depending on it for my
longitudes, this necessitated a stay of two or three days in the camp
in order to ascertain its new rate after it had been rewound.
These watches are for some reason only made so as to run for
one day. As oversights of this kind must be of common occurrence
with travellers, it would seem to be preferable that they should be
made so as to run for two days, and be furnished with an up and
down indicator to show how long an interval has elapsed since they
were last wound.
I spent a considerable part of the time while in the hattia in trying,
without success, to get a shot at gazelle. There appeared to be very
few in the district, though a considerable number of old tracks were
to be seen where they had been feeding on the scrub.
This scarcity of game may perhaps have been due to the fact that
a few bedawin were at that time living there in charge of some
camels belonging to the Senussi zawia at Qasr Farafra. These men
kept away from the camp, but I saw them and their camels several
times wandering about in the scrub, and twice found small hovels
constructed of brushwood, in which they had been living—they had,
so far as I could see, no tents.
My men spent most of their time in grubbing about in some large
mounds. On the top of one of these, about thirty feet high, Ibrahim
found some burnt bricks. The whole mound was covered by a thick
growth of terfa bushes, among which the sand had collected,
completely hiding any building there might have been beneath it.
It must have been originally a building of some size and of
considerable height, and was perhaps a tower. The men unearthed
part of a small room at the base of the mound. It had been well built,
of the same burnt bricks, and the interior was covered with plaster. A
few pieces of broken pottery were found, one of them covered with a
green glaze. There were four or five other mounds of a similar nature
in the neighbourhood; but we had neither time nor implements
thoroughly to examine them.
As the total result of their treasure hunt in Kairowin the men only
unearthed one corpse and a few bits of broken pottery, without
finding even a single copper coin to gratify their cupidity. They were
consequently considerably disillusioned with their occupation, and I
experienced no difficulty in getting them to start for Qasr Farafra.
I made first for the main well, that is known as the Bir Kairowin, in
order to close my traverse. The water lay about eight feet below the
surface; access being gained to it by the usual sloping path, cut out
of one of its sides. By the top of the well was a mud-built trough for
watering camels, with an empty paraffin tin lying beside it for use as
a bucket.
Immediately on leaving the hattia we got into the dunes, which
cover a large area in the centre of the Farafra depression. The first
two or three dunes gave a little difficulty, but we found the rest of
them quite easy to cross. They were all, so far as I could see, of a
very elongated whalebacked type, which ran roughly from north to
south, in the direction of the prevailing wind.
Qasr Farafra lay almost due west from our camp. Soon after we
got into the sand it became clear that Qwaytin was again hopelessly
lost, as I found we were marching almost due south. I was obliged to
put it to my guide, as inoffensively as I could, that if he would change
the direction in which he was leading us by a mere right angle, we
might perhaps reach our destination, instead of going on to Dakhla
Oasis as we seemed to be doing. Qwaytin was so hopelessly lost
that he accepted my suggestion without the slightest argument.
Soon after this we got out of the sand on to level desert, where a
large number of black nodules of iron pyrites were to be seen lying
on the surface. Further on some fine specimens of sand erosion
were met with in the shape of chalk “mushrooms” and table rocks.
Otherwise this part of the desert was quite featureless. The road lay
entirely over white chalk, which caused a rather trying glare in the
blazing sunlight.
We sighted Qasr Farafra on the evening of the second day after
leaving Kairowin hattia; but as night fell before we could reach it, we
camped a few miles away from the village. Two hours’ march on the
following morning brought us into the oasis. On the outskirts we
passed a patch of ground on which the sand was encroaching, some
palms lying on the north of it being almost entirely submerged.
We camped on the northern side of the village. A large crowd of
natives came out and stood watching us while the tent was being
pitched. Among them was a sulky-looking fellow whom I was told
was the ’omda; so, as soon as the tent was pitched, I invited him and
some of the other men standing by to come in.
We had foolishly camped too close to the village, with the result
that throughout the greater part of the day the camp was surrounded
by a crowd of men and children watching all our actions, peering into
the tent, thronging round the theodolite, when I began to take
observations, and generally showing an ill-mannerly curiosity that
was in great contrast to the conduct of the natives of the other oases
in which we stayed. Farafra being the least known of the Egyptian
oases, the advent of a European was an event of such rare
occurrence that the natives had evidently decided to make the most
of it.
The natives of Farafra Oasis, who are known as the Farfaroni, or
sometimes as the Farafaroni, are a far more vigorous lot than those
of Kharga and Dakhla. They were a surly unpleasant-looking crowd.
The day after our arrival, I went out with the ’omda and Qwaytin to
see the village and plantations. With the exception of an ezba at ’Ain
Sheykh Murzuk, where there are a few houses, a Senussi zawia and
a family or two continuously resident to tend the cultivation near the
well, Qasr Farafra is the only permanently inhabited spot in the
whole Farafra depression. It is a poor little place with a total
population of about five hundred and fifty inhabitants. The houses
are of the usual mud-built type, and in most cases little better than
huts; almost the only exception being that of a square tower,
showing in places the remains of battlements, attributed, perhaps
rightly, by the natives to the Romans, who are said to have erected it
as a keep to protect the village.
This proved to be rather an interesting place. It is not inhabited,
but the door is kept locked with a watchman perpetually on guard
over it. The building is used solely as a storehouse, each family in
the village having the right to the use of one of the rooms that it
contains—there were said to be no less than one hundred and
twenty-five chambers in the building.
The ’omda showed us over the tower. The entrance lay through a
strong wooden door, at the top of a flight of steps, in a passage
entered in the middle of one of the outer walls, the walls on either
side of which were pierced with apertures, apparently intended for
use as loop-holes. The passage extended the whole height of the
building and was unroofed, in order that stones might be dropped
from above on to any assailant attempting to attack the door.
BOY WITH CROSS-BOW, FARAFRA.