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 Engineering Chemistry

Engineering chemistry discusses fundamental theoretical concepts of chemistry and links them with their
engineering applications. First and second semester engineering students in various technical universities
study the subject, and this textbook has been designed to meet their course requirements in a comprehensive
manner. It supplements its treatment of the fundamental concepts and their applications by scores of
illustrations and learning exercises. Lucid language and an easy-to-learn approach will enable the readers to
assimilate the basic concepts and also facilitate comprehension by students not so strong in English language
skills. This revised, second, edition builds on the success and popularity of the first 2015 edition, which was
adopted as a text/reference book by several universities.
In addition to the topics in the first edition, this edition deals with new topics such as a detailed discussion
of renewable energy sources, nuclear fuels, defluoridation of water by Nalgonda technique and domestic
waste water management, periodic properties including classification of elements, periodicity in properties
and types of elements on the basis of their electronic configuration, periodic trends in properties like atomic
and ionic radii, ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, Fajan’s rule and oxidation states
of elements of various groups, different theories of acids and bases like the Arrhenius theory, Bronsted–Lowry
concept, solvent system definition of acids and bases, Lewis concept, hard–soft acids and bases, oxidation and
reduction with its applications to the extraction of metals, Ellingham diagram, molecular interactions, real
gases and critical phenomenon, topics on quantum chemistry such as Schrodinger wave equation, particle in a
one- and three-dimensional box, Schrodinger wave equation for hydrogen and hydrogen-like system, Huckel
molecular orbital theory for conjugated system, semiconductors, superconductors and magnetic materials,
potential energy of surfaces, trajectories on potential energy surfaces, thermodynamic formulation of the
transition state theory, topics related to molecular spectroscopy like the Franck–Condon principle, rotational
(microwave) spectroscopy of diatomic molecules, vibrational rotational spectra of diatomic molecules,
Raman spectroscopy and applications of NMR spectroscopy in magnetic resonance imaging, drugs, absolute
configuration of organic compounds, coordination chemistry, nomenclature of coordination compounds,
bonding and isomerism in coordination compounds. The chapter on basics of environment science has been
removed in this edition.
Shikha Agarwal is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, Government Engineering College,
Ajmer, India. She has more than two decades’ experience teaching engineering chemistry, environment
science, spectroscopy, photo-chemistry and reaction mechanism to undergraduate and graduate students.
Her areas of interest include organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and environment science.
Engineering Chemistry
Fundamentals and Applications

Second Edition

Shikha Agarwal
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia
314 to 321, 3rd Floor, Plot No.3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108724449
© Cambridge University Press 2015
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2015

Second edition 2019
Printed in India
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-108-72444-9 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 To
His Holiness Shri Shivkripanand Swami
 Contents

Preface to Second Edition xix

Preface to First Edition xxi
Acknowledgements xxv

1. Fuels 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of Fuels 1
1.3 Characteristics of a Good Fuel 2
1.4 Calorific Value 4
1.5 Determination of Calorific Value 6
1.6 Solid Fuels 16
1.7 Analysis of Coal 17
1.8 Carbonisation of Coal 29
1.9 Liquid Fuels 35
1.10 Refining of Petroleum 36
1.11 Cracking 38
1.12 Synthetic Petrol 41
1.13 Knocking 45
1.14 Octane Rating 47
1.15 Diesel Engine Fuels 48
1.16 Knocking in Diesel Engine 48
1.17 Cetane Rating/Cetane Number 49
1.18 Reforming 49
1.19 Non Petroleum Fuels, Power Alcohol and Aviation Fuel 51
1.20 Gaseous Fuels 53
1.21 Natural Gas 53
1.22 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) 54
1.23 Liquified Petroleum Gas 54
viii Contents

1.24 Coal Gas 55

1.25 Oil Gas 56
1.26 Producer Gas 57
1.27 Water Gas 59
1.28 Analysis of Flue Gas 60
1.29 Combustion Calculations 62
1.30 Renewable Sources of Energy 75
1.31 Nuclear Fuels 87
Summary 94
Review Questions 96
Multiple Choice Questions 98

2. Water 103
2.1 Introduction 103
2.2 Sources of Water 104
2.3 Effect of Water on Rocks and Minerals 105
2.4 Common Impurities of Water 106
2.5 Water Quality Standards 108
2.6 Hardness of Water 111
2.7 Disadvantages of Hard Water 119
2.8 Water for Industries 120
2.9 Boiler Problems with Hard Water 122
2.10 Softening Methods: External Treatment Process 130
2.11 Municipal Water Supply 156
2.12 Desalination of Water 163
2.13 Defluoridation 167
2.14 Waste Water Management 169
2.15 Chemical Analysis of Water 173
Summary 203
Review Questions 205
Multiple Choice Questions 206

3. Corrosion 209
3.1 Introduction 209
3.2 Effects of Corrosion 209
3.3 Theories/Mechanism of Corrosion 210
3.4 Types of Corrosion 217
3.5 Passivity 224
3.6 Galvanic Series 225
 Contents ix

3.7 Factors Influencing Corrosion 226

3.8 Protection against Corrosion (Corrosion Control) 228
3.9 Methods of Application of Metal Coatings 235
3.10 Electroplating 239
3.11 Electroless Plating 245
Summary 248
Review Questions 250
Multiple Choice Questions 251

4. Phase Rule 255

4.1 Introduction 255
4.2 Explanation of Terms 255
4.3 Phase Diagram 263
4.4 Water System 264
4.5 Sulphur System 266
4.6 Two-Component Systems 269
4.7 Construction of Phase Diagrams 270
4.8 Lead–Silver System 273
4.9 Zinc–Magnesium System 277
4.10 Iron–Carbon Alloy System 280
4.11 Metal and Alloys 287
4.12 Properties of Metals 287
4.13 Alloys 290
4.14 Purpose of Making Alloys 290
4.15 Classification of Alloys 291
4.16 Special Effects of Alloying Elements 293
4.17 Alloy Steels and Their Applications 294
4.18 Non-Ferrous Alloys 297
4.19 Heat Treatment of Steel 300
Summary 302
Review Questions 303
Multiple Choice Questions 304

5. Engineering Materials 307

5.1 Cement 307
5.2 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) 318
5.3 Plaster of Paris (2CaSO4.H2O or CaSO4.½H2O) 318
5.4 Lime 319
5.5 Glass 320
x Contents

5.6 Refractories 330

5.7 Abrasives 340
5.8 Insulating Materials 342
Summary 345
Review Questions 347
Multiple Choice Questions 349

6. Polymers 352
6.1 Introduction 352
6.2 Classification of Polymers 352
6.3 Functionality 358
6.4 Mechanism of Polymerisation 359
6.5 Polymerisation Techniques 367
6.6 Molecular Weight of Polymers 368
6.7 Plastics 371
6.8 Individual Polymers 376
6.9 Rubbers (Elastomers) 387
6.10 Fibres 393
6.11 Speciality Polymers 400
6.12 Properties of Polymers 408
6.13 Degradation of Polymer 416
6.14 Polymer Composites 418
6.15 Adhesives 421
Summary 423
Review Questions 425
Multiple Choice Questions 426

7. Lubricants 431
7.1 Introduction 431
7.2 Functions of Lubricants 432
7.3 Mechanism of Lubrication 432
7.4 Classification of Lubricants 436
7.5 Synthetic Lubricants 440
7.6 Lubricating Emulsions 441
7.7 Properties of Lubricants 442
7.8 Selection of Lubricants for Different Types of Machinery 450
Summary 451
Review Questions 452
Multiple Choice Questions 453
 Contents xi

8. Periodic Properties 455

8.1 Introduction 455
8.2 Basic Concepts 455
8.3 Periodicity in Properties 459
8.4 Types of Elements on the Basis of Their Electronic Configuration 460
8.5 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements 461
8.6 Ionisation Enthalpy 465
8.7 Electron Gain Enthalpy 467
8.8 Electronegativity 469
8.9 Polarising Power and Polarisability: Fajan’s Rule 473
8.10 Oxidation State 475
Summary 477
Review Questions 478
Multiple Choice Questions 478

9. Acid–base, Oxidation–Reduction and Intermolecular Forces 481

9.1 Introduction 481
9.2 Arrhenius Concept 481
9.3 Bronsted–Lowry Concept 482
9.4 The Solvent System Definition of Acids and Bases 485
9.5 Lewis Concept of Acid and Base 486
9.6 Hard Soft Acids and Bases 488
9.7 Solubility Equilibria 491
9.8 Common Ion Effect 493
9.9 Oxidation and Reduction 495
9.10 Oxidation Number (Oxidation State) 495
9.11 Application of Principles of Oxidation and Reduction in Metallurgy 496
9.12 Ellingham Diagram: Thermodynamical Aspect of the Reduction Process 499
9.13 Molecular Interactions 502
9.14 Real Gases and Critical Phenomenon 505
Summary 510
Review Questions 511
Multiple Choice Questions 511

10. Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding 515

10.1 Introduction 515
10.2 Dual Nature of Radiation 516
10.3 Dual Nature of Matter: de Broglie Equation 516
10.4 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 522
xii Contents

10.5 Schrodinger Wave Equation 525

10.6 Particle in a One Dimensional Box 529
10.7 Particle in a Three Dimensional Box 535
10.8 Schrodinger Wave Equation for Hydrogen and Hydrogen-Like System 538
10.9 Huckel Molecular Orbital (HMO) Theory for Conjugate System 544
10.10 Chemical Bonding 553
10.11 Hybridisation of Orbitals 554
10.12 Molecular Orbital Theory 567
10.13 Bonding in Metals – Metallic Bond 586
Summary 592
Review Questions 593
Multiple Choice Questions 595

11. Solid State 599

11.1 Introduction 599
11.2 Types of Solids 599
11.3 Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell 601
11.4 Bravais Lattice 602
11.5 Types of Unit Cells and Number of Atoms per Unit Cell 604
11.6 Packing of Crystals 606
11.7 Interstitial Sites or Interstitial Voids 609
11.8 Coordination Number and Radius Ratio 609
11.9 Packing Efficiency and Atomic Radius 612
11.10 Calculation of Density of a Crystal from Its Edge Length 616
11.11 Braggs Law: X-Ray Study of Crystals 620
11.12 Structures of Simple Ionic Compounds 622
11.13 Imperfection in Solids 628
11.14 Semiconductors 631
11.15 Superconductors 643
11.16 Magnetic Materials 648
11.17 Fullerenes 649
11.18 Graphite 651
Summary 652
Review Questions 653
Multiple Choice Questions 654

12. Liquid Crystals 658

12.1 Introduction 658
12.2 Characteristics of Liquid Crystals 659
 Contents xiii

12.3 Classification of Liquid Crystals 660

Summary 665
Review Questions 665
Multiple Choice Questions 666

13. Chemical Kinetics 668

13.1 Introduction 668
13.2 Rate of Reaction 669
13.3 Average Rate and Instantaneous Rate 672
13.4 Rate Law Expression 675
13.5 Velocity Constant or Rate Constant 676
13.6 Factors Influencing Reaction Rate 677
13.7 Reaction Mechanism 678
13.8 Order and Molecularity of Reaction 681
13.9 Kinetic Equation of Different Orders/Integrated Rate Reactions 686
13.10 Half-life of a Reaction 706
13.11 Methods of Determining the Order of a Reaction 711
13.12 Concept of Activation Energy 720
13.13 Variation of Reaction Rates with Temperature – Arrhenius Equation 722
13.14 Theories of Reaction Rates 727
13.15 Potential Energy of Surfaces 732
13.16 Catalysis 738
Summary 745
Review Questions 748
Additional Problems 750
Multiple Choice Questions 753

14. Surface Chemistry 757

14.1 Introduction 757
14.2 Adsorption 757
14.3 Factors Affecting Adsorption 759
14.4 Types of Adsorption 761
14.5 Type of Adsorption Isotherms 762
14.6 Applications of Adsorption 767
14.7 Colloidal State 768
14.8 Classification of Colloids 770
14.9 Preparation of Colloids 773
14.10 Purification of Colloidal Solutions 777
14.11 Properties of Colloidal Solutions 778
xiv Contents

14.12 Stability of Colloids 783

14.13 Protective Colloids 783
14.14 Emulsion 784
14.15 Micelles 786
14.16 Applications of Colloids 787
Summary 788
Review Questions 788
Multiple Choice Questions 789

15. Thermodynamics 793

15.1 Introduction 793
15.2 Terminology of Thermodynamics 793
15.3 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 798
15.4 First Law of Thermodynamics 798
15.5 Heat Capacity 811
15.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Ideal Gases 813
15.7 Isothermal Processes in Ideal Gases 816
15.8 Adiabatic Processes in Ideal Gases 818
15.9 Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics 827
15.10 Laws of Thermochemistry 830
15.11 Kirchhoff’s Equation 834
15.12 Joule–Thomson Effect 838
15.13 Limitations of the First Law: Need for the Second Law 840
15.14 Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 841
15.15 Entropy 847
15.16 Second Law of Thermodynamics in Terms of Entropy 848
15.17 Evaluation of Entropy 850
15.18 Entropy Changes in a Reversible Process 856
15.19 Entropy Change in a Irreversible Process 857
15.20 Entropy of Mixing 858
15.21 Free Energy Function (G) and Work Function(A) 861
15.22 Gibbs–Helmholtz Equation 866
15.23 Claypeyron–Clausius Equation 868
15.24 Vant Hoff Isotherm 871
15.25 Maxwell’s Thermodynamic Relations 873
15.26 Spontaneity and Equilibrium 875
Summary 878
Review Questions 883
Multiple Choice Questions 885
 Contents xv

16. Electrochemistry 890

16.1 Introduction 890
16.2 Types of Conductors 890
16.3 Conductance in Electrolytic Solutions 891
16.4 Factors Affecting Conductance 898
16.5 Kohlrausch’s Law of Independent Migration of Ions 900
16.6 Conductometric Titration 904
16.7 Electrochemical Cell 908
16.8 Electrode Potential and EMF of a Galvanic Cell 910
16.9 Measurement of Electrode Potential 912
16.10 Electrochemical Series 913
16.11 Nernst Equation 918
16.12 Thermodynamic Functions and Electrochemical Cells 925
16.13 Types of Electrodes 928
16.14 Determination of Fluoride by Ion Selective Electrode Method 934
16.15 Determination of pH 936
16.16 Concentration Cells 942
16.17 Batteries 945
16.18 Fuel Cells 952
Summary 957
Review Questions 963
Multiple Choice Questions 965

17. Spectroscopy 968

17.1 Introduction 968
17.2 Basic Terms and Principles of Spectroscopy 968
17.3 Electronic (UV–Visible) Spectroscopy 977
17.4 IR Spectroscopy 989
17.5 Rotational Spectroscopy of Diatomic Molecules 1007
17.6 Vibrational–Rotational Spectra for a Diatomic Molecule 1014
17.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1015
17.8 Raman Spectroscopy 1032
Summary 1037
Review Questions 1040
Multiple Choice Questions 1042

18. Photochemistry 1047

18.1 Introduction 1047
18.2 Significance of Photochemistry 1048
xvi Contents

18.3 Laws Governing Light Absorption 1049

18.4 Laws of Photochemistry 1049
18.5 Quantum Yield or Quantum Efficiency 1051
18.6 Electronic Excitation 1056
18.7 Jablonski Diagram 1056
18.8 Photophysical Processes 1058
18.9 Photosensitisation 1060
18.10 Semiconductor Photochemistry 1061
18.11 Supramolecular Chemistry 1064
18.12 Supramolecular Photochemistry 1067
18.13 Introduction to Optical Sensors 1070
Summary 1073
Review Questions 1074
Multiple Choice Questions 1075

19. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry 1077

19.1 Introduction 1077
19.2 Cleavage of Covalent Bonds 1077
19.3 Attacking Reagents 1078
19.4 Electron Displacements in Covalent Bonds 1080
19.5 Reaction Intermediates 1093
19.6 Types of Organic Reactions 1103
19.7 Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions 1109
19.8 Mechanism of Electrophilic Substitution Reactions 1115
19.9 Mechanism of Elimination Reactions 1121
19.10 Important Name Reactions 1124
19.11 Stereochemistry 1133
19.12 Drugs 1150
Summary 1152
Review Questions 1156
Multiple Choice Questions 1158

20. Coordination Chemistry 1163

20.1 Introduction 1163
20.2 Terms Used in Coordination Chemistry 1164
20.3 Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds 1165
20.4 Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 1168
20.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Werner’s Coordination Theory 1173
20.6 Sidgwick Coordination Theory 1175
20.7 Valence Bond Theory 1176
 Contents xvii

20.8 Crystal Field Theory 1180

20.9 Molecular Orbital Theory 1188
Summary 1193
Review Questions 1194
Multiple Choice Questions 1196

21. Organometallic Compounds 1198

21.1 Introduction 1198
21.2 General Methods of Preparation 1200
21.3 Applications of Organometallics 1202
21.4 Grignard Reagents 1205
Summary 1214
Important Dates in Organometallic Chemistry 1214
Review Questions 1214
Multiple Choice Questions 1215

22. Green Chemistry 1217

22.1 Introduction 1217
22.2 Emergence of Green Chemistry 1218
22.3 Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry 1218
22.4 Use of Alternative Feedstock (Biofuels) 1221
22.5 Use of Innocuous Reagents 1223
22.6 Use of Alternative Solvents 1223
22.7 Design of Safer Chemicals 1225
22.8 Designing Alternative Reaction Methodology 1226
22.9 Minimising Energy Consumption 1228
Summary 1231
Review Questions 1231
Multiple Choice Questions 1232

23. Nanochemistry 1234

23.1 Introduction 1234
23.2 Properties of Nanomaterials 1236
23.3 Self-assembly 1236
23.4 Preparation of Nanomaterials 1242
23.5 Nanomaterials 1244
23.6 Surface Characterisation Techniques 1251
23.7 Applications of Nanomaterials 1252
Summary 1255
Review Questions 1256
Multiple Choice Questions 1257
xviii Contents

24. Chemical Aspects of Biotechnology 1259

24.1 Introduction 1259
24.2 Applications of Biotechnology 1259
24.3 Biocatalysts or Enzymes 1264
24.4 Fermentation 1265
24.5 General Outline of the Fermentation Process 1266
Summary 1273
Review Questions 1273
Multiple Choice Questions 1274

25. Analytical Techniques in Chemistry 1276

25.1 Introduction 1276
25.2 Type of Analysis 1276
25.3 Separation Techniques 1279
25.4 Potentiometry 1280
25.5 pH metry 1283
Summary 1285
Review Questions 1285
Multiple Choice Questions 1286

26. Chemistry of Carbon and Hydrogen 1287

26.1 Hydrogen 1287
26.2 Preparation of Hydrogen 1287
26.3 Industrial Method of Preparation of Hydrogen 1288
26.4 Properties of Hydrogen 1289
26.5 Isotopes of Hydrogen 1290
26.6 Storage of Hydrogen 1291
26.7 Compounds of Hydrogen 1292
26.8 Applications of Hydrogen 1297
26.9 Carbon 1297
26.10 Isotopes 1297
26.11 Allotropes of Carbon 1298
26.12 Chemical Properties of Carbon 1299
26.13 Uses 1300
Summary 1300
Review Questions 1301
Multiple Choice Questions 1301
Index 1303
 Preface to Second Edition

The wide popularity and acceptance of the first edition was the main motivation behind the second
edition. The first edition found its place as a text/reference book in the syllabus of several universities.
Several improvements have been made in this edition; the obscurities in the earlier edition have been
removed and several new topics have been added as per the AICTE model curriculum.
In Chapter 1, ‘Fuels’, the portion on renewable energy sources, which was just touched upon in the
first edition, has been elaborately written; a descriptive study of nuclear fuels has been added along
with chemical fuels. Chapter 2, ‘Water’, includes many new topics such as break point chlorination,
defluoridation of water by Nalgonda technique and domestic waste water management. Chapter 3,
‘Corrosion’, has been revised. Several figures have been replaced and a myriad of examples on different
types of corrosion both from day-to-day life and from industry have been introduced. Chapter 4, ‘Phase
Rule’, the iron–carbon alloy system has been rewritten. Chapter 8, ‘Periodic Properties’, and Chapter
9, ‘Acid–Base, Oxidation–Reduction and Intermolecular Forces’, are new to this edition. Chapter 8
deals with the basic concepts of classification of elements, periodicity in properties, types of elements
on the basis of their electronic configuration, periodic trends in properties like atomic and ionic radii,
ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, Fajan’s rule and oxidation states of
elements of various groups; Chapter 9 discusses the different theories of acids and bases such as the
Arrhenius theory, Bronsted–Lowry concept, solvent system definition of acids and bases, Lewis concept,
hard–soft acids and bases, oxidation and reduction with its applications to the extraction of metals,
Ellingham diagram, molecular interactions, real gases and critical phenomenon. Chapter 10, ‘Atomic
Structure and Chemical Bonding’, covers new topics like Schrodinger wave equation, particle in a one-
and three-dimensional box, Schrodinger wave equation for hydrogen and hydrogen like system, Huckel
molecular orbital theory for conjugated system. Chapter 11, ‘Solid State’, has been augmented with
the theory of semiconductors, superconductors and magnetic materials. Potential energy of surfaces,
trajectories on potential energy surfaces and thermodynamic formulation of the transition state theory
have been included in Chapter 13, ‘Chemical Kinetics’. In Chapter 15, ‘Thermodynamics’, and Chapter
16, ‘Electrochemistry’, several sign conventions have been changed in accordance with the latest IUPAC
conventions. Several portions of these chapters have been rewritten to facilitate understanding. Several
new topics have been added to Chapter 17, ‘Spectroscopy’; topics related to molecular spectroscopy
missing in the earlier edition have been included. The new topics included are Franck–Condon
principle, rotational (microwave) spectroscopy of diatomic molecules, vibrational rotational spectra of
diatomic molecules. Raman spectroscopy and applications of NMR spectroscopy in magnetic resonance
imaging has also been discussed. IR spectra of several compounds given in the first edition have been
removed and the important absorption peaks have been tabulated.
xx Preface to Second Edition

Drugs and absolute configuration of organic compounds has been included in Chapter 19,
‘Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry’. Chapter 20, ‘Coordination Chemistry’, with topics like
nomenclature, bonding and isomerism in coordination compounds, is again a new chapter in this
edition. To contain the size of the book Chapter 21, ‘Basics of Environment Science’, has been removed
from this edition.
Illustrations, new figures, numerical problems and scores of new examples have been included. I
hope with all these changes, the book will meet the expectations of the students and teaching fraternity
across the country. Although great care has been taken to make the book as error free as possible, yet
‘to err is human and to forgive is divine’. I extend apologies for the errors left inadvertently and look
forward to the cooperation of the faculty and students in bringing these errors to my notice so that they
can be rectified in future.
 Preface to First Edition

Engineering chemistry is taught as a compulsory subject to first year undergraduate students of all
the branches of engineering. The scope of the subject is very wide and writing a book for such a
heterogeneous variety of students across the country was a challenging assignment. The needs of the
students are diversified and incorporate a combination of both traditional topics and the latest trends in
the subject including emerging areas like liquid crystals, green chemistry and nanochemistry.
This book has been organised to meet syllabi requirements of almost all Indian universities. The
aim of this text is to enable the student to develop capabilities in self learning and understanding. It is a
student oriented book and my teaching experience, stretching more than two decades, gave me insight
into the mental status of the students at this level and the problems they confront while studying the
subject. Two important facts have been kept in mind one, students reading this text are taking their
first steps into the world of technical education and two, that English is a second language for most of
these students.
Keeping these objectives in mind the book has been written in very simple language. The book has
nearly 350 figures and illustrations, over 500 solved, unsolved problems along with review questions and
it also includes more than 450 multiple choice questions.
All chapters are provided with highly descriptive and well labeled figures. A simple look at a figure will
enable the student to grasp the underlying description. Theoretical explanations have been supplemented
with solved and unsolved problems wherever required to enhance the process of understanding, learning
and reproducing the principles involved. The problems have been blended with the text so that the
student need not turn pages. The book aims to familiarize the student with the university pattern of
examination: to meet this objective, numerical problems that have appeared in various university and
board exams have been included at appropriate places.

Organisation of the book

The book has been organised into twenty four chapters. It begins with topics of common interest
like fuels, water, corrosion and phase rule followed by engineering materials, polymers and lubricants.
The book then incorporates fundamental topics: structure and bonding, solid state, liquid crystals,
chemical kinetics, surface chemistry, thermodynamics, electrochemistry, spectroscopy, photochemistry,
fundamentals of organic chemistry, organometallic chemistry, green chemistry, nanochemistry, basics
of environmental chemistry, chemical aspects of biotechnology, analytical techniques in chemistry,
chemistry of compounds of carbon and hydrogen.
Chapter one, Fuels, introduces the student to the basic definition of fuels, then proceeds to describe
different types of fuels, their occurrence, purification, composition and uses. In addition it discusses the
xxii Preface to First Edition

manufacture of fuels. The chapter also outlines renewable energy sources and their utility in the present
scenario. Chapter two on water lays emphasis on the industrial end uses of water with special emphasis on
hard water and its effects in industry. It deals with the principles involved in the softening of water like
zeolite method, ion exchange method and it explains the latest techniques for desalination of brackish
water by reverse osmosis and flash evaporation process. The chapter devotes a section to the analysis
of hard water. Corrosion has a massive impact in industry and its study is of great significance for an
engineering student. Chapter three underlines the causes, effects and measures to control corrosion.
The latter half of this chapter lays special emphasis on corrosion control and outlines techniques like
galvanising, tinning, hot spraying, electroplating, electroless plating, organic coatings, etc. Similarly
phase rule, engineering materials (cement, glass, refractories, abrasives and insulators), polymers are very
important topics for the students at this level. These topics have been covered in chapters four, five and
six respectively. The chapter on phase rule familiarizes the student with the fundamentals like what is a
phase, what is a component, what are degrees of freedom, what is a phase diagram, difference between a
true equilibrium and a metastable equilibrium and other fundamentals. To clarify these basic concepts,
definitions are followed-up by plenty of examples. After ensuring that the student has grasped the basics,
the chapter proceeds to explain the phase diagrams of various one component and two component
systems and their applications. The second half of the chapter deals with metals and their alloys. This
topic is important for understanding the behaviour of metals, their properties and variations in their
properties depending on different phases and their composition. It explains advantages of alloys over
pure metals and also explains the properties and uses of common alloys.
Chapter six on polymers not only explains fundamental concepts and basic definitions but also deals
with the properties like glass transition temperature, viscoelasticity, anelasticity which are of immense
industrial utility. The chapter explains various polymerisation techniques like bulk polymerisation,
solution polymerisation and suspension polymerisation. Plastics and their manufacturing techniques
like compression moulding, transfer moulding, blow moulding and extrusion moulding have been
illustrated. Fibres and adhesives are also discussed. Apart from dealing with the preparation and uses of
commonly known polymers the chapter lays special emphasis on speciality polymers like engineering
thermoplastics, conducting polymers, electroluminescent polymers, liquid crystalline polymers like
kevlar, biodegradable polymers and composite polymers like reinforced plastics.
Chapter seven on lubricants explains the significance, properties and types of lubricants; their
selection and suitability for different types of machinery. Chapter eight on structure and bonding deals
with the fundamental principles and various theories of bonding in molecules like valence bond theory,
molecular orbital theory, band theory of solids. The chapter explains basic concepts like hybridisation,
overlap of orbitals, filling of electrons in the orbitals and also explains the dual nature of matter, de-
Broglie relationship and Schrodinger wave equation. Chapter nine highlights the fundamentals of solid
state. It explains fundamental concepts like unit cell, crystal lattice, packing of crystals, Braggs law and
the structure of common crystals. To help the student visualize these structures, the chapter has plenty
of figures. Moreover numerical problems to enhance understanding of crystals have been integrated
into the text. Chapter ten gives an introductory idea about the fourth phase of matter – liquid crystals.
Chapters eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen and sixteen cover important topics in physical chemistry
like chemical kinetics, surface chemistry, thermodynamics and photochemistry. Special care has been
taken to illustrate the derivations step by step. Important relations and mathematical formulae have
been provided in the summary of these topics. I am hopeful that the formulae given at the end will be
very useful for students and instructors in understanding the basic concepts and theory of these topics.
 Preface to First Edition xxiii

Chapter fifteen deals with ultraviolet, infrared and NMR spectroscopy. It explains the fundamentals,
basic instrumentation required for spectroscopy study in different regions and the application of
spectroscopic techniques in chemistry.
Chapters seventeen concerns itself with topics on organic chemistry. Fundamental organic concepts
like inductive effect, resonance, hyperconjugation, electromeric effect, reaction intermediates like
carbocation, carbanions, free radicals, nitrenes, carbenes have been discussed in sufficient details with
lots of supporting examples. The chapter also discusses different types of organic reactions like addition,
elimination, substitution and rearrangement reactions. Common name reactions alongwith their
mechanism and applications have also been explained. Stereochemistry and its basic concepts have also
been dealt. Organometallic compounds and their applications have been discussed in chapter eighteen.
To promote the concept of sustainable development green chemistry is gaining importance. The twelve
principles of green chemistry and its applications are explained in chapter nineteen. Chapter twenty deals
with nanochemistry. It gives an introductory idea to fundamentals like Top-Down and Bottom-Up
approaches to nanoparticles. Important nanomaterials like carbon nanotube, nanowires, nanocones and
haeckalites have been discussed in brief along with their applications. Fundamentals of environment
science, pollution control, solid waste management and major environmental issues like acid rain, ozone
depletion, wetland depletion, deforestation, biodiversity, soil erosion have been explained in sufficient
detail in chapter twenty-one. Biotechnology is the application of technology to living organisms to modify
products or processes for specific use. An introduction to the basic principles and their applications has
been dealt with in chapter twenty-two.
The use of highly sophisticated instruments in science has made analysis accurate. Chapter twenty-
three introduces the student to various analytical techniques in chemistry. The text ends with a discussion
on the chemistry of carbon and hydrogen in the last chapter.
Throughout the text I have tried to maintain simplicity of language. Unnecessary details have been
omitted and the book contains only as much material as is required for the target students. I hope it
will serve its purpose and both teachers and students in various streams will benefit. I look forward
to suggestions from esteemed faculty members and students, as their inputs will invariably help me
to improve the book in future. Although great care has been taken to make the book as error free as
possible but to err is human; I extend apologies for errors left inadvertently in the text and also look
forward to suggestions from my friends and colleagues from the teaching fraternity across the country.
 Acknowledgements

“To speak gratitude is courteous and pleasant, to enact gratitude is generous and noble, but to live gratitude
is to touch heaven.”
A project of this dimension could not be completed without the support, advice and suggestions
of colleagues, friends and family members. It is my divine duty to acknowledge the contribution of
every person whose effort has made this project see the light of the day. I bow my head in reverence
to my spiritual Guru and the almighty God for giving me the internal strength and self-discipline for
this assignment. It is a well known fact that praise makes us complacent whereas criticism helps us to
review our weaknesses and gives us an opportunity to improve. I am highly indebted to my first reviewer
whose extremely critical review made me step out of my comfort zone and work to remove all types of
obscurities in the book.
I extend sincere thanks to Professor C. P. Sharma (Retired Professor, MNIT, Jaipur), Dr Dinesh
Gupta (Member Secretary, RPSC), Dr R. K. Upadhyay (Associate Professor and Head, Department of
Chemistry, SPC Government College, Ajmer) for their suggestions and scholarly advice. I owe sincere
gratitude to Dr Ranjan Maheshwari (Principal, Government Engineering College, Ajmer) for providing
a positive work environment. I owe thanks to Dr Alok Khatri and Dr Amit Kumar Srivastava for going
through certain portions of this book and giving me valuable inputs for improvement. I am also grateful
to colleagues in my department Dr Sangeeta Krishnan, Dr Pooja Tomar and Dr Suresh Sahu for their
valuable suggestions.
My family deserves a special mention. My husband Harsh Gupta stood behind me as a pillar of
strength. My elder daughter Surabhi, a final year student of Computer Science branch at IIT Guwahati
opened a plethora of web resources which were of great help in improving the content of the text. My
younger daughter Kanishka studying in class eight deserves a special mention and acknowledgement as
her golden time to be spent with me was sacrificed at the altar of this work.
In the end, I express my gratitude to the editorial team at Cambridge University Press; Gauravjeet
Singh Reen (Commissioning Editor) for his excellent ground work and syllabus research that helped me
in deciding the table of contents. I always turned to him for suggestions wherever I was stuck and he was
always available to answer my queries. The editorial team did great work in editing the book trying to
maintain uniformity in fonts and also editing grammatical errors throughout the book. I am extremely
thankful and indebted to the marketing team at Cambridge who left no stone unturned to make this
book reach out to the target group.
Last but not the least, I am thankful to all my students and teachers who have taught me and made
me what I am today.
 Chapter 1
FUELS

1.1 Introduction
A fuel is a substance that produces useful energy either through combustion or through nuclear
reaction. An important property of a fuel is that the energy is released in a controlled manner and
can be harnessed economically for domestic and industrial purposes. Wood, coal, charcoal, petrol,
diesel, kerosene, producer gas and oil gas are some of the common examples of fuels.
Fuels that produce heat energy by combustion are termed as chemical fuels. During combustion,
carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and phosphorus that are present in the fuel combine with oxygen and
release energy.

Fuel + O2 → Products + Heat

C + O2 → CO2 + Heat

2H2+ O2 → 2H2O + Heat

However, combustion is not always necessary for a fuel to produce heat. Energy can also be liberated
by fission or fusion of nuclei. This energy is much greater than the energy released by chemical
fuels, and such fuels are termed as nuclear fuels. For example, plutonium, tritium, uranium, etc.

1.2 Classification of Fuels

Fuels can be classified on the basis of their (I) occurrence (II) physical state
(I) On the basis of occurrence, fuels are of two types
(a) Primary Fuels or Natural Fuels These are found to occur in nature and are used as
such either without processing or after being processed to a certain extent, which does
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 “Fanny,” papa said, “will you come in my study a few moments.”
She put her hand over his shoulder, and his arm was around her
waist. I saw them cross the hall, making such a pretty picture that I
smiled. Then the door shut.
This was what happened.
They walked together to the library table. Papa took up a letter,
fingered it idly and studied Fan’s sweet young face.
“I did not mean to speak of this until Monday,” he began, “but I
have a feeling that it may be best finished at once. I received a letter
a few days ago,—in which there was an enclosure for you—this.”
He took out a folded paper and handed it to her. She opened it
wonderingly. Out fell a faded rose with two or three buds.
She gave a low cry and hid her face on papa’s shoulder. He
smoothed the golden hair and presently said in a tremulous tone—
“Will you read my letter? I should like to have you.”
She raised her scarlet face, still keeping her eyes averted. It was
some seconds before she could begin to distinguish the words.
A manly straight-forward appeal to papa from Winthrop Ogden. He
confessed to having spoken hastily in the summer, and promising to
wait long enough to convince Miss Endicott that he was in earnest.
His mind had not wavered from that hour, and now he asked papa’s
permission to visit her and try his fate, convinced that his love was
loyal and earnest. His family admired Miss Endicott, and such an
engagement would meet with their approval, he knew. Might he hope
for an answer soon?
“My darling!”
“Oh papa!” and the fair head went down again.
“Shall I send this young interloper about his business?”
There was no answer except as the soft arms crept up round his
neck.
 “My dear child, what is it?” finding a little place in the forehead to
kiss.
“Can I—do—” and the faltering voice paused.
“Just as you like, my darling. While I should be sorry to give you—
to another,” and there was a pathetic little break in the voice; “still the
young man is unexceptionable. I believe the Churchills would
welcome you warmly. And marrying and being given in marriage is
the way of the world.”
“Then—papa—” and the remainder of the answer was a long,
tender kiss.
“I thought perhaps—Stephen Duncan—”
“Oh, papa, he doesn’t love me—in that way.
“But I know his secret, that is I once saw it gleam out like a tiny
snow-drop in the sun. I am not to be the only happy girl in the world.”
Papa looked a little puzzled, then he sighed.
“Why,” said he dolorously—“there will be only five left!”
 CHAPTER XIV.

T seemed so strange the next day to look at Fan and

think what had happened to her. I was glad to have it
Sunday. The very church bells appeared to have caught
a deeper tone, an awe and sacredness, a being set
apart as it were from the ordinary uses. It was sweet
and beautiful to me, and I was filled with a kind of quiet excitement, a
great throbbing and trembling in every nerve, as if I stood on the
threshold of a new life. Other girls had been engaged or had lovers,
but it did not enter into my soul like this.
She was sweet and dreamy, saying very little. When she sang in
Church her voice had a peculiar tremulousness in it, as if it swept
through great waves of feeling. Mamma was very tender to her.
When their eyes met it was with a mutual understanding made
manifest in the simplest glance. I did not feel jealous. She and papa
surely had the first right to the mystery and blessedness of the new
relation. Papa watched her with wistful eyes, as if he could hardly
resolve to relinquish her.
Thus two or three days passed. We were up in our room, I dusting,
and Fan folding some clothes, and laying ribbons orderly in a pretty
box.
“That is so lovely,” and she shook out a delicate blonde blue. “Mr.
Duncan chose it for me. We went shopping one day with Mrs.
Whitcomb, to buy some table linen. It was such fun! I told him he
wasted his money in riotous living, the fine linen being a sure sign.”
Just then our heads met, mine going down and hers coming up.
We laughed and looked at each other in great confusion.
“O Fan,” I said just under my breath.
“My dear old darling! I want to tell you—”
 “I have guessed,” I said quickly with conscious color. “It is just
right, you and Stephen will be so happy.”
“Stephen!” and she looked at me in surprise. “And papa thought so
too!” at which she laughed gayly.
“Isn’t it Stephen?” in blank amazement.
“Why, no, and mamma has not even hinted?”
“It cannot be Dick Fairlie,” I said wonderingly. “I am sure Jennie—”
“O you little goose! Now as there is just one other man left in the
world you can surely guess.”
I looked at her with that peculiar mental blindness where one may
see, but the thought is shaped to nothing.
“It is not—Winthrop Ogden.”
A great rift of scarlet rushed over her face. Her eyes were
luminous with the dewiness of joy that misses tears, and her lips
trembled.
“Oh Fanny!”
I could only take her in my arms and kiss her.
“He wrote to papa. He cared more than we thought. And there was
—I did not tell you about the rose then. I felt afraid that he was trifling
with me. And somehow—”
I understood it all when she did tell me in her sweet halting way. A
faint glimmering of love, or what might be love if there was truth for a
foundation stone.
“Are you quite certain that Stephen—?”
“Oh you dear, tender heart! Yes, quite sure that he does not love
me only in a friendly fashion. We suit, and can talk of everything. He
will not be so with the woman he loves—at first.”
“But it is so—queer;” and I smiled reflectively.
“Yes. We are not engaged, you know. He only asked for the
privilege of coming honorably. I thought he would wait a year—but
he has not.”
“He is earnest, if impatient.”
“Yes. I believe I like the imperiousness.”
We went down stairs presently, Papa came in with a letter.
“For you, little woman;” he said, looking curiously at me.
I did not wonder at that. It was in Mr. Duncan’s hand, and of
course he was surprised at Mr. Duncan writing to me. But I knew all
about it and broke open the seal hurriedly. It was very brief.
“My Dear, Dear Friend.
Louis came to me on Sunday evening. I understand how
much of the good work has been yours, and have no words to thank
you as I ought. God bless you, always. Louis is quite ill. With love to
you and yours.
S. Duncan.”
I handed it to papa, saying—
“I shall have to tell you the story, first. I have had a secret since
last week, but I could not help it.”
“God be thanked for restoring this last son. Now what is it, Rose?”
I related the particulars of our meeting, and how I had urged Louis
to return, but that being bound by a promise of secrecy, I could only
wait the result.
“You were quite right;” replied papa. “The good seed has not been
utterly wasted. I have great hopes for this young man, after all.
Perhaps just this shock was needed to bring him to his senses.
Peculiar natures need peculiar discipline.”
“How brave and good you are in your quiet way Rose.” Fan said
with her arms around my neck.
I could not see what particular bravery there was in it. It had just
happened. The work had come to my hand, and I could not have
turned away.
 “I am so glad Mrs. Whitcomb is there;” began mamma thoughtfully.
“It seems a special providence. She has so much wisdom and
patience, she can look beyond the little to-day, to the great end. She
does not show you how weak and miserable you are, but raises you
up to her strength, lends it to you, as it were, until you have some of
your own.”
Then we went our ways again a shade more grave, perhaps, but
with a secret joy in our hearts over the “one sinner.” Just now we did
not need to remember the ninety and nine just ones.
The next event was a letter from Mr. Ogden to papa. He expected
to make a flying visit at the West Side, and would take great
pleasure in calling.
He reached the village late Saturday afternoon, and came over in
the evening. He and papa and Fan had a talk in the study, and then
they spent an hour by themselves. Fan looked bright and funny
when she came up stairs.
“Oh, you dear little grandmother;” she began, “how nice it is to
have some one to confess to, when you feel foolish and half
sentimental. If you want to laugh at me you can, there is no law in
the Constitution to forbid it. I am not very far gone in love yet, but I
expect to be some day. Meanwhile, let us be sensible.”
“I have not the slightest objection;” said I gayly.
“I will make my last will and testament while I am of sound mind,
then. Or rather part of this is papa’s. We are not to be really engaged
before Autumn, and in the meanwhile we are to find out on how
many points we agree. But Mr. Ogden is in desperate earnest.”
“You do not seem to be.”
“I really don’t know what I am. I have been tumbled up and down
in my mind and lost my mental equilibrium. But Rose, to think of
Winthrop that very evening telling his Aunt Lucy! And I have been
there time and again, never suspecting it. She has been very sweet
to me.”
“Why not?”
 “I cannot tell, only they are rich, and grand as people say, and I
feel quite small beside them. He doesn’t mean to tell his mother just
yet, but the rest of the family are—glad that it is so. But when his
Aunt Lucy wrote about Mr. Duncan being here he was in a flame at
once. He spoke last summer because he was jealous of Dick Fairlie,
and now because he was jealous of Mr. Duncan.”
“Do you like that?” I inquired gravely.
“Well—” reflectively, tying her hair ribbon around the pin-cushion,
and going off a step to view it, as if the becomingness of that was the
great point for consideration—“yes, I suppose it is best. He thinks so.
I do believe I have a slight penchant for—flirting. It is abominable in a
clergyman’s daughter! Somehow I do not believe the old Adam has
been entirely eradicated in my case. I shall have to go on fighting it
awhile longer. And so—if I know he is watching me and will be made
miserable over it, I shall be more thoughtful.”
“But if you love him—?”
“It isn’t the love—it is the bits of fun that crop out now and then,
and when I laugh, somebody thinks it means something, when it
does not. I could not help about Dick, and I was very sorry. I am so
glad he has taken to Jennie Ryder. And I know Mr. Duncan never
had a thought about marrying me. But it is best to be careful, since
there are men in the world.”
“I think you had better come to bed,” I rejoined, much amused at
her.
“I suppose I had. Good-bye, moralizing. ‘Be good and you will be
happy.’”
But she came and kissed me with rare tenderness.
Mr. Ogden walked home from church with us on Sunday, and
came to tea in the evening. He was very bright and gracious and
made the children like him.
After this they were to correspond until midsummer, when they
would meet again.
 There was another embarrassment to be gone through with. A few
days afterward Miss Churchill came over. Obeying her first impulse,
Fan ran away with blushing cheeks. Mamma and Miss Churchill had
a good long talk to themselves. But after awhile Fan was compelled
to make her appearance.
“My dear child;” and Miss Churchill just took her in her arms and
kissed her. “We all think it very delightful to have a claim upon you.”
The tears sprang to Fan’s eyes. It was sweet indeed to be so
warmly welcomed. Mamma was a little touched by it, too.
“I was very much surprised, and I scolded Lucy roundly for
keeping the secret from me. But if we had chosen we could not have
suited ourselves better. And now, my dear, go get yourself ready, for
I am going to take you home with me and keep you all night. Lucy is
wild to see you.”
Fanny looked at mamma who nodded assent, so she left us rather
lingeringly.
“My dear Mrs. Endicott,” and Miss Churchill came around, laying
her hand on mamma’s shoulder, “I think if I have ever envied any
one in the world, it is you, since I have come to know you thoroughly.
These charming girls growing up beside you should be a crown of
content to any woman.”
“I have been very happy with my husband and children;” and
mamma’s eyes glistened.
“Circumstances shut me out of such hopes. I suppose we all have
our little romances in youth. I too have had a pleasant life, and my
sister has needed my care, so that I do not feel wasted;” and she
smiled. “But I think I was in danger of making my life rather too
narrow. We need something fresh and different from ourselves. Even
we who have the strength to stand alone, like the sweet, tender
sense of a trailing vine reaching towards our hearts. A breath out of
some other living which enters into or demands our sympathy makes
us so much more of kin to the whole world.”
“Indeed it does,” replied mamma warmly. “When you learn to give
and to take out of each other’s sphere and experience, the actual
richness and breadth of existence is made manifest.”
“You have managed to get so much of real sympathy and
heartiness into your girls’ souls. They are natural. There is no aiming
at any superiority. They will always go into beautiful places because
they fit just like a statue in some niche. I cannot tell you what a
pleasure Fanny has been to us. I do not think Kenton is as fond of
Helen, way down in the depths of his heart, though we always had to
coax her into our lives, and alter the niches a little. So we are doubly
glad to have her.”
It was such a sweet, heart-felt welcome that the tears positively
did come to mamma’s eyes this time.
“Thank you a thousand times for your cordiality;” she murmured
with a great tremble in her voice.
“Winthrop is very young, but the Churchill blood is loyal to the last
drop. I think he will be true as steel through any probation. And since
they can have only one spring-time, one glad season of bright,
eager, joyous youth, we will all try to keep out the thorns and let
them ramble to the very mountain tops if they so elect. I dare say
you fancy me a foolish old woman!”
I thought her just splendid! Fan would be rich in love on every
side.
“They are both young,” returned mamma. “Mr. Endicott considers it
best that there should be no formal engagement for the present, but I
feel as if it was quite a settled matter.”
“You must not become jealous if we should monopolize her a great
deal. She is such a comfort to Lucy, with her bright engaging ways.
And I seem to be almost sharing your bliss of motherhood.”
Fan returned just then fairly bewitching in her new timidity. We
kissed all round, and they drove away. I took up my sewing, but the
house seemed strangely still.
“Rose, dear,” mamma began presently, “this will bring a sense of
lonesomeness to you that may be depressing at first. I had hoped
the circle would not be broken quite so soon. But you must be a
brave little girl.”
“Oh,” I replied, “I am happy because she is. And then she will not
leave us for ever so long. But she is so bright and pretty that some
one would have fallen in love with her if it had not been Mr. Ogden.
You will not be robbed of me so soon—if that is any comfort.”
She smiled a little but did not answer.
The affection and honoring seemed to render Fan more humble
than before. She possessed a truly rich and noble nature which
would not be easily puffed up with pride.
Mrs. Fairlie and Kate returned, and a few days afterward we heard
that Mrs. Ogden was at her brother’s.
Kate came over to see us. She had changed indescribably. A
languid society air enveloped her as a garment. She talked with a
slight drawl, pronouncing her words in a very clear, delicate manner,
as if she was afraid of hurting them, Nelly said. All except the r’s,
which she rather ignored.
The months spent at the South had been just lovely. Such
charming people, (“chawming” she said,) so much cultivation,
elegant, refined manners, and oh, such dressing! How any one could
exist in this dull little town she did not see. And the stay in New York
had been splendid! They had become very intimate with Mrs. Ogden.
We had seen Winthrop, of course. Didn’t we think him a most
entertaining young man? She forgot though that we had but a very
slight opportunity of judging. He had spent a number of evenings
with her, and they had been out together. He was quite an eligible
“parti,” with a strong French accent. The whole Churchill estate
would have to be divided between him and his sister presently, since
there were only old maids and old bachelors in the family. But she
should not make up her mind about marrying until after she had
been abroad. American girls often married very handsomely in
foreign countries.
“French Counts for instance,” said Fan.
 “O, but the real article was to be had. And American gentlemen
traveled abroad now instead of going to native watering places. It
was so much more stylish. If Dick only would go with them! Mother
had tried to persuade him to hire the farm out.”
“He must be very lonesome;” said mamma.
“O, he is such an old hermit! He doesn’t care at all for society. Just
give him a book, or a dog, or a lot of kittens and he is perfectly
happy. He will end by being a bachelor like Mr. Churchill, yet I don’t
know as that is altogether to be deplored. Since mamma has a life
right there, it will be as well if there is no wife to interfere.”
She said this with the utmost complacency. I do not suppose she
imagined that it had a selfish sound.
Fan laughed a little afterward. “I shall tell Winthrop that he had
better wait. She might come home from Europe and marry him.”
“I do not believe they will like Jennie Ryder;” I remarked.
“Kate snubbed her long ago. But Dick and she will have a chance
to get settled, I think, without any one’s interference. It is really
fortunate that they are going.”
We saw Mrs. Ogden twice during her stay. She was not as lovely
as Miss Esther, being more worldly-minded, but she had the
Churchill breeding and was a lady.
There was one little feast that we kept by ourselves—baby’s
birthday. She could walk and began to utter pretty words with one
syllable left off, and was the quaintest, cunningest baby in the wide
world as we knew—very well.
“What a short year;” said Fanny. “How many things have been
crowded into it.”
“And we are glad to have you, dear little Dot, if there are seven of
us,” exclaimed Nelly, kissing her extravagantly.
“But Mr. Duncan said he owned her and that he meant to take her
away some day;” declared tiny Tim, who was fast outgrowing her pet
name. It seemed to me that they were all a great deal taller than a
year ago.
“We won’t let him have her just yet,” answered papa. “Or perhaps
some one might go in her place.”
The children glanced at each other in dismay; and papa laughed
heartily.
The birds began to sing and the trees were coming out again. We
went to the woods for wild flowers and had our house fragrant with
them. But in the wake of spring came house-cleaning and gardening,
and then—all the sewing.
“The same thing year after year;” I said to mamma.
“And yet not quite the same either. There is a gradual outgrowing
and ingrowing. There should be a corresponding strength and
sweetness and patience and faith. By and by we come to the whole
stature. But it is the growth of a good many springs, the heat and toil
and watching of many summers, and the ripening of repeated
autumns.”
“I did not take it as high as that.”
“But are we not to?” and mamma’s face was at its sweetest. “I
often think we work, in types. We clean our houses and dust finds
lodgement in them again, we purify our souls by prayer and good
works, and we find the rubbish of indolence and impatience and
selfishness. So we go at it and have another trial.”
“We ought to get strong;” I said thoughtfully.
“We do grow stronger, I hope. And we become more watchful over
our work. You know when our house is first made nice and tidy how
careful we are of littering it again. And when God has helped us by
his grace to purify our souls how earnestly we should try to keep
them so. For they are His temples.”
I thought it over by myself. Yes, everything spoke. The true
meanings of life were not so hard to get at, after all. It was—believe
and do. They went hand in hand.
 And yet it was a curious jumble. You had to come back from the
grand thoughts to the common every-day doings. Dresses and skirts
and aprons, sheets and towels, washing and ironing, and the
inevitable eating. The charm lay in making it as good and as pretty
as possible, with the outside harmony of taste and appropriateness,
and the minor graces of love and kindness.
Fan had taken upon herself some new, odd ways. She began to
grow very motherly with the children, she spent a part of every day in
the kitchen with Ann, and she had a box in one corner of the bureau-
drawer with which she held mysterious consultations. Wonderful
were the patterns of tatting that went into it, the bits of fine
crocheting, the puffs and rufflings gathered and stitched in dainty
fashionings.
For her there could be no expensive trousseau ordered at some
first class city store. It would have to be a labor of love and
necessity.
She was quite demure and precise for awhile, then Harry Denham
came home from the West, and she broke out into a regular frolic.
Nothing very bad or harmful, but her olden self that could not be
altogether repressed. Mamma came in with a guiding hand, and I
think she understood that she was being led over a dangerous place.
Oh, wise and tender mothers, what should we do without you?
I went to Mrs. Ryder’s one afternoon to tea, Jennie had asked me
specially on Sunday. “Come early,” she said, “so that we can have a
nice talk while mother is taking her rest.”
I could imagine what we were to talk about. Jennie kissed me with
a sweet, earnest tenderness, seated me in a low chair by the window
and began to take off my hat, and shawl.
“Your mother is not any worse?” I began by way of getting into the
common-places of talk before we should feel awkward.
“O no. Indeed I think she improves a little. She walks better than
she did.”
“I am so glad of that.”
 “Not that she will ever regain the entire use of her limbs. That
would be too great a hope. But it is so nice to have her even this
way. I sometimes think how lonely and forlorn I should have been
without one dear friend of my very own.”
“I could not spare any one,” I returned, looking away.
“And you have so many.”
At that I smiled a little.
“A year or so ago mamma used to worry a great deal in her sweet
way that was not actual complaining, about being such a burthen.
She thought it was dreadful to have all my plans brought to nought,
when I loved teaching so much. And sometimes I could not see just
why that misfortune had to happen to me.”
“It is clearer now.”
“The way is clearer,—yes. But it is only lately that I have
understood the great truth.”
“I am sure you were always patient and good-tempered.”
“Isn’t there something still higher than that, or wider, maybe? We
do not live to ourselves, after all, or we ought not.”
“No;” I returned a little wonderingly, studying the bright thoughtful
face.
“The knowledge came—with something else. Every day there is a
new unfolding. And I wanted to tell you—”
Her voice trembled and the sweet eyes were downcast, while a
soft flush crept up to her temples.
“Oh, Jennie, we guessed—and we are all so glad. It is about
Richard.”
“Yes.”
Here I was in the midst of another confidence.
“I wanted you to come alone to-day so that we might talk it over. It
is not that I love Fan any less.”
 It was my turn to blush now. I did it with a sense of pain and
shame. As if she divined my distress, she said—
“Richard told me about the day last summer. He did love Fanny
very much—he loves her still in one way. But he understands how
different their natures are.”
“That is just it;” I exclaimed with a sense of relief.
“She wants some one to guide and strengthen her, to be tender,
and yet self-assertive. I do not believe she could ever have made the
best of Richard. And I love to teach. I like the unfolding, the evolving,
something to do, beside living straight along and enjoying one’s self.
And Richard needs to go to school. That is nothing derogatory to
him.”
“No. It is because he has had a rather repressed life. No one
cared for the things which pleased him, except his father.”
“And the woman who takes it ought to spend all her energy in
making it blossom, in bringing it to its best and richest fruitage.”
“As you will.”
“I hope to try. It is the kind of work that I like. But do you not think
—” with much hesitation in her tone, “that it is great good fortune for
me?”
“But you deserve it, every bit. I rejoice that God did send it to you.
Once in awhile some event comes out just right in this world.”
She smiled. “I want to tell you a few of our plans. I cannot help but
think it best that Mrs. Fairlie and Kate have gone abroad. I shall feel
more free, and he will have no opposition to encounter. Though I
was afraid at first that it was not quite fair nor honest.”
“It certainly was best. And if they consult their own fancies and
leave him alone they cannot blame him for marrying.”
“He wanted it to be very soon, though we have been engaged
barely a month. I put it off until Autumn. There are so many things to
think about. And he is so good.”
“He is. There can be no doubt on that point.”
 “You know I could never leave mother. I told him so when he first
spoke. I must have her with me, do for her while she lives, share part
of my interest with her, and take much of hers. A person who cannot
go out is so very dependant. He said that her home should be
always with us, there was plenty of room in the house, and he meant
to be a son to her; that he had never had a real mother like her. I am
to make over all right in this place to her, and she can sell it or rent it,
and have a little income of her own.”
“It is delightful. I shall be thankful to have you in that house. You
will make a home of it, which it never has been.”
“We are going on in a quiet old fashioned way. I suppose people
will think,” and an arch light crossed her face.
“They have not thought very much about it yet.”
“I wanted to tell you first. And your mother and Fanny.”
“Yes;” I replied softly.
That seemed taking the matter too tamely. I ran to her and clasped
my arms around her neck, making an extravagant speech between
my kisses.
Then we branched into relative topics, side issues that presented
themselves in a chance fashion. How wide her range of sight was!
Some way we touched upon position and station.
“That is part of the knowledge;” she said in her bright, sweet way.
“I have learned a lesson that I mean to put in practice if God does
give me the opportunity. It is—holding up, and not pushing down.”
I understood her inconsequent little speech.
“Rich people can do so many pleasant things. Their position keeps
them quite free. They are not misunderstood, at least no one can
accuse them of unworthy motives. It seems to me that they might
sometimes hold out their hands to the next best. It would not hurt
them. I don’t want ever to forget this.”
I knew she would not.
“It has been hard;” I said softly, thinking of the past.
 “Why was I not as good and refined and lady-like? What difference
was it whether I worked for the mothers of children one way or
another, teaching them, or sewing for them? I was not likely to crowd
in without an invitation. And how much better shall I be as mistress of
Mr. Fairlie’s house than I am now?”
“It is one of the bitter and unjust ways of the world.”
“I feel as if I should not like to be taken into favor again solely for
the money. I know the setting usually displays the stone to a better
advantage, but why cannot people see it before the gold begins to
glitter? The only drawback to perfect happiness is that Richard’s
mother and sister would not approve. Yet once Kate Fairlie and I
were very good friends.”
“Kate is not really a fair test. There are others—”
“I know it. I ought to be ashamed to find any fault. But I hope I
never shall forget how it feels to be crowded out of bright and
pleasant things.”
There was a little stir, and a soft voice called—“Jennie.” Presently
Mrs. Ryder made her appearance, and then the real visiting began.
We chatted about the village people, the sick and the well, the
babies and the old folks, mamma’s visit to New York which was not
an old story here. I could see they too, suspected Stephen Duncan
of a penchant for Fanny.
Jennie walked home with me part of the way for exercise, and we
came back to Richard in our talk. She did love him very much. The
money had not tempted her.
I had a thought that afternoon too. As soon as I was alone with
Fan I put it into execution. First I told her of the engagement, and
she rejoiced as thoroughly as I.
“Fan,” I said, “there is one thing that it would be just lovely to do, if
you could manage it. If Miss Churchill and you could call on Jennie
Ryder, and have it look every-day-like and social.”
“What a bright idea, Rose! Miss Churchill will like her ever so
much. It is odd how many nice things you find in people when you
come to know them well. We will bring the West Side over here and
make them admire us.”
 CHAPTER XV.

HERE was quite a lively time in the parish for a

fortnight. Papa had two marriages in Church, one of
which was Annie Fellows and Mr. Hunter. Then Miss
Maynard was married at home in a very exclusive and
elegant manner. Fifty-five dollars for all of it. Wedding
fees were mamma’s money.
“I don’t know as we need spend it just now;” she said, “I think I will
lay it away against time of necessity;” smilingly.
I imagined what that meant. Days and weeks went on so fast.
Then papa’s sister came from Philadelphia to make us a visit; Aunt
Margaret for whom Daisy had been named. She brought with her a
piece of pretty Nainsook muslin and some laces for gifts. There were
the three younger children provided with new summer dresses.
She was sweet and gracious, with that indescribable lady-like
charm, and then she insisted upon helping everywhere. Altering
dresses, dusting rooms, talking to papa or tying up vines and flowers
in the garden—nothing came amiss to her. She petitioned that Daisy
should be lent to her for the remainder of the summer. She had one
son at home, but her two daughters were married and away.
Papa thought at first that it would not be possible to spare her.
Mamma said that she was not prepared for so long a visit.
“Never mind that, Frances,” returned Aunt Margaret, “I will attend
to what is needful. I don’t see how you get along with such a host of
little ones. If Edith had not come—”
“Oh, but Edith is the crown of all;” declared Fan. “She brought rare
good luck with her. So many lovely things have happened to us
during the year. And now we couldn’t spare her.”
Aunt Margaret smiled. “You have been very fortunate in your
children,” she said, glancing at mamma.
 Miss Churchill came over with the barouche and took the elders
riding. It was a lovely afternoon late in May, and the whole world was
abloom with beauty and sweetness.
She and Fanny had dropped in one day at Mrs. Ryder’s and had a
charming call. Afterward Fan had whispered the secret.
“The young man is to be congratulated;” declared Miss Churchill.
“She will make a pretty, cheerful wife, and that will be much to a man
like Mr. Fairlie. I am glad he has been so sensible and I must see
more of her before she leaves her old station. My dear, I am afraid I
shall turn into a regular village gossip, I am so fond of young girls
and their affairs.”
It began to be guessed at elsewhere as well, for the two went out
driving now and then of an afternoon.
Allie West and Dora Hyde were over one evening and it happened
to be touched upon.
“I don’t believe there is anything in it;” exclaimed Dora. “Dick
Fairlie will not throw himself away in that style! Why, he could have
the best in the town with that handsome place of his.”
“I am sure Jennie is quite pretty;” said Fan, “and nicely educated.
She reads French and German, is well up in history and house-
keeping, sings beautifully and sews in the same fashion. What better
can a man want?”
“O, you know what I mean! And she is poor.”
“He has enough for both. And the Ryders are a respectable old
family.”
“I know she is a favorite of yours,” returned Dora loftily, “but I never
discovered anything special about her. And I do not see how she can
leave her mother, I should think her duty would be there.”
Fan laughed at that.
“I shall not believe it until I hear it from a better source. Some
people make so much out of a trifle of ordinary politeness.”
“Indeed I would not,” Fan continued seriously.