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 ROBERT S. FELDMAN

ESSENTIALS OF

Understanding
Psychology

12e
Essentials of
Understanding Psychology
TWELFTH EDITION

Robert S. Feldman
University of Massachusetts Amherst
ESSENTIALS OF UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY, TWELFTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous
­editions © 2015, 2013, and 2011. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic
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Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers
outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Feldman, Robert S. (Robert Stephen), 1947- author.

Title: Essentials of Understanding Psychology/Robert S. Feldman, University
of Massachusetts Amherst.
Description: Twelfth Edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, 2016. |
Revised edition of the author’s Essentials of Understanding Psychology, 2015. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016018311 | ISBN 9781259531804 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology.
Classification: LCC BF121 .F337 2016 | DDC 150—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016018311

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of
a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and
McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered
 Dedication
To
Jon, Leigh, Alex, Miles, Josh, Julie, Naomi,
Sarah, Jeff, Lilia, and Kathy
About the Author

ROBERT S. FELDMAN is Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Deputy

Chancellor of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. A recipient of the College
Distinguished Teacher Award, he teaches psychology classes ranging in size from 15
to nearly 500 students. During the course of more than two decades as a college
instructor, he has taught undergraduate and graduate courses at Mount Holyoke Col-
lege, Wesleyan University, and Virginia Commonwealth University in addition to the
University of Massachusetts.
Professor Feldman, who initiated the Minority Mentoring Program at the University
of Massachusetts, also has served as a Hewlett Teaching Fellow and Senior Online
Teaching Fellow. He initiated distance-learning courses in psychology at the University
of Massachusetts.
A Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Association for Psycho-
logical Science, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Profes-
sor Feldman received a BA with High Honors from Wesleyan University and an MS
and PhD from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is a winner of a Fulbright
Senior Research Scholar and Lecturer Award and the Distinguished Alumnus Award
from Wesleyan. He is past President of the Federation of Associations in Behavioral
and Brain Sciences (FABBS) Foundation, which advocates for the field of psychology,
and is on the board of the Social Psychology Network (SPN).
He has written and edited more than 250 books, book chapters, and scientific
articles. He has edited Development of Nonverbal Behavior in Children, Applications of
Nonverbal Behavioral Theory and Research, Improving the First Year of College: Research
and Practice, and co-edited Fundamentals of Nonverbal Behavior. He is also author of
P.O.W.E.R. Learning: Strategies for Success in College and Life. His textbooks, which have
been used by more than 2 million students around the world, have been translated
into Spanish, French, Portuguese, Dutch, German, Italian, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese.
His research interests include deception and honesty in everyday life, work that he
described in The Liar in Your Life, a trade book published in 2009. His research has
been supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health and the National
Institute on Disabilities and Rehabilitation Research.
Professor Feldman loves music, is an enthusiastic pianist, and enjoys cooking and
traveling. He serves on the Executive Committee and Board of New England Public
Radio. He has three children, two granddaughters, and two grandsons. He and his wife,
a psychologist, live in western Massachusetts in a home overlooking the Holyoke
mountain range.

v
Brief Contents

Preface xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Psychology 1

MO D U LE 1 Psychologists at Work 3
MO D U LE 2 A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future 12
MO D U LE 3 Research in Psychology 24
MO D U LE 4 Critical Research Issues 37

CHAPTER 2 Neuroscience and Behavior 44

MO D U LE 5 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior 46
MO D U LE 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System:
Communicating Within the Body 54
MO D U LE 7 The Brain 62

CHAPTER 3 Sensation and Perception 79

MO D U LE 8 Sensing the World Around Us 81
MO D U LE 9 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye 86
MO D U LE 1 0 Hearing and the Other Senses 95
MO D U LE 1 1 Perceptual Organization: Constructing Our
View of the World 109

CHAPTER 4 States of Consciousness 121

MO D U LE 1 2 Sleep and Dreams 123
MO D U LE 1 3 Hypnosis and Meditation 137
MO D U LE 1 4 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness 144

CHAPTER 5 Learning 158

MO D U LE 1 5 Classical Conditioning 160
MO D U LE 1 6 Operant Conditioning 168
MO D U LE 1 7 Cognitive Approaches to Learning 181

vii
viii Brief Contents

CHAPTER 6 Memory 191

MO D U LE 18 The Foundations of Memory 193
MO D U LE 19 Recalling Long-Term Memories 205
MO D U LE 20 Forgetting: When Memory Fails 216

CHAPTER 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 224

MO D U LE 21 Thinking and Reasoning 226
MO D U LE 22 Language 242
MO D U LE 23 Intelligence 251

CHAPTER 8 Motivation and Emotion 270

MO D U LE 24 Explaining Motivation 272
MO D U LE 25 Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring 280
MO D U LE 26 Understanding Emotional Experiences 296

CHAPTER 9 Development 308

MO D U LE 27 Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue 310
MOD U LE 28 Infancy and Childhood 320
MOD U LE 29 Adolescence: Becoming an Adult 337
MOD U LE 30 Adulthood 348

CHAPTER 10 Personality 362

MO D U LE 31 Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality 364
MO D U LE 32 Trait, Learning, Biological and Evolutionary, and Humanistic
Approaches to Personality 374
MO D U LE 33 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes Us
Distinctive 387

CHAPTER 11 Health Psychology: Stress, Coping, and Well-Being 396

MO D U LE 34 Stress and Coping 398
MO D U LE 35 Psychological Aspects of Illness and Well-Being 411
MO D U LE 36 Promoting Health and Wellness 417

CHAPTER 12 Psychological Disorders 425

MO D U LE 37 Normal Versus Abnormal: Making the Distinction 427
MO D U LE 38 The Major Psychological Disorders 437
MO D U LE 39 Psychological Disorders in Perspective 456
 Brief Contents ix

CHAPTER 13 Treatment of Psychological Disorders 464

MO D U LE 4 0 Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive
Approaches to Treatment 466
MO D U LE 4 1 Psychotherapy: Humanistic, Interpersonal, and Group
Approaches to Treatment 476
MO D U LE 4 2 Biomedical Therapy: Biological Approaches to Treatment 484

CHAPTER 14 Social Psychology 495

MO D U LE 4 3 Attitudes and Social Cognition 497
MO D U LE 4 4 Social Influence and Groups 506
MO D U LE 4 5 Prejudice and Discrimination 514
MO D U LE 4 6 Positive and Negative Social Behavior 520

McGraw-Hill Education Psychology’s

APA Documentation Guide
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-30
Contents

Preface xxiii
Making the Grade xxxi

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Psychology 1

MODU L E 1 Psychologists at Work 3

The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree 4
Working at Psychology 7

MODU L E 2 A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future 12
The Roots of Psychology 13
Today’s Five Major Perspectives 14
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Psychology Matters 18
Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 19
Psychology’s Future 21
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Enhancing Your Mind 22

MODU L E 3 Research in Psychology 24

The Scientific Method 24
Psychological Research 26
Descriptive Research 26
Experimental Research 30

MODU L E 4 Critical Research Issues 37

The Ethics of Research 37
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Choosing Participants Who Represent the Scope of Human
Behavior 38
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Importance of Using Representative
Participants 39
Should Animals be Used in Research? 39
Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias 40
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically About
Psychology: Distinguishing Legitimate Psychology from Pseudo-Psychology 41

xi
xii Contents

CHAPTER 2

Neuroscience and Behavior 44

MO DULE 5 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior 46

The Structure of the Neuron 46
How Neurons Fire 47
Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 49
Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers 51

MO DULE 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System:

Communicating Within the Body 54
The Nervous System: Linking Neurons 54
The Evolutionary Foundations of the Nervous System 57
The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands 58

MO DULE 7 The Brain 62

Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain 62
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:Controlling a Robotic Arm
with Only the Mind 64
The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 64
The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core 66
The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” 67
Neuroplasticity and the Brain 70
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Plastic Brain 71
The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One? 71
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Human Diversity and the Brain 73
The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres 73
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Learning to Control Your
Heart—and Mind—Through Biofeedback 75

CHAPTER 3

Sensation and Perception 79

MO DULE 8 Sensing the World Around Us 81

Absolute Thresholds: Detecting What’s Out There 81
Difference Thresholds: Noticing Distinctions Between Stimuli 83
Sensory Adaptation: Turning Down Our Responses 84
 xiii
Contents

MODU L E 9 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye 86

Illuminating the Structure of the Eye 86
Color Vision and Color Blindness: The 7-Million-Color
Spectrum 91

MODU L E 10 Hearing and the Other Senses 95

Sensing Sound 95
Smell and Taste 99
The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain 101
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: You Probably Can’t Read
This Without Scratching 103
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Managing Pain 105
How Our Senses Interact 106
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Synesthesia and the
Over-Connected Brain 107

MODU L E 11 Perceptual Organization: Constructing

Our View of the World 109
The Gestalt Laws of Organization 109
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing 110
Depth Perception: Translating 2-D to 3-D 111
Perceptual Constancy 113
Motion Perception: As the World Turns 114
Perceptual Illusions: The Deceptions of Perceptions 114
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Culture and Perception 116

CHAPTER 4

States of Consciousness 121

MODU L E 12 Sleep and Dreams 123
The Stages of Sleep 124
REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep 125
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is Necessary? 126
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Why Are We So Irritable
When We Don’t Get Enough Sleep? 127
The Function and Meaning of Dreaming 128
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems 131
Circadian Rhythms: Life Cycles 132
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep 133
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Sleeping Better 134
xiv Contents

MO DULE 1 3 Hypnosis and Meditation 137

Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience? 137
Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of Consciousness 139
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Meditation: Emotional
Control and Brain-Training 141
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Cross-Cultural Routes to Altered
States of Consciousness 142

MO DULE 1 4 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness 144

Stimulants: Drug Highs 146
Depressants: Drug Lows 149
Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety 152
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic Drugs 153
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Identifying Drug
and Alcohol Problems 154

CHAPTER 5

Learning 158

MO DULE 1 5 Classical Conditioning 160

The Basics of Classical Conditioning 160
Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior 163
Extinction 164
Generalization and Discrimination 165
Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions 166

MO DULE 1 6 Operant Conditioning 168

Thorndike’s Law of Effect 168
The Basics of Operant Conditioning 169
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Using Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification 178

MO DULE 1 7 Cognitive Approaches to Learning 181

Latent Learning 181
Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation 183
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Learning Through Imitation 184
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
Questioning Assumptions in the Classroom 186
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Does Culture Influence How We Learn? 186
 xv
Contents

CHAPTER 6

Memory 191

MODU L E 18 The Foundations of Memory 193

Sensory Memory 194
Short-Term Memory 195
Working Memory 197
Long-Term Memory 198
The Building Blocks of Memory:
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:
Do You Have a Beyoncé Neuron in Your Brain? 203

MODU L E 19 Recalling Long-Term Memories 205

Retrieval Cues 205
Levels of Processing 206
Explicit and Implicit Memory 207
Flashbulb Memories 208
Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past 209
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Remembering What Never Happened 212
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Are There Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory? 213

MODU L E 2 0 Forgetting: When Memory Fails 216

Why We Forget 217
Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The Before and After of Forgetting 218
Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting 219
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Improving Your Memory 221

CHAPTER 7

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 224

MODU L E 2 1 Thinking and Reasoning 226

Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye 226
Concepts: Categorizing the World 227
Algorithms and Heuristics 228
Solving Problems 229
APPLYING PSYCHOLGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Does Playing Video Games Improve
Your Thinking? 235
Creativity and Problem Solving 237
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically and
Creatively 239
xvi Contents

MO DULE 2 2 Language 242

Grammar: Language’s Language 242
Language Development: Developing a Way with Words 243
Understanding Language Acquisition: Identifying the Roods of Language 244
The Influence of Language on Thinking: Do Eskimos Have More
Words for Snow Than Texans Do? 246
Do Animals Use Language? 247
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Teaching with Linguistic Variety:
Bilingual Education 248
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Being Bilingual Affects Processing in the Brain 249

MO DULE 2 3 Intelligence 251

Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? 252
Assessing Intelligence 257
Variations in Intellectual Ability 262
Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and Environmental Determinants 264
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment: Nature,
Nurture, and IQ 265

CHAPTER 8

Motivation and Emotion 270

MO DULE 2 4 Explaining Motivation 272
Instinct Approaches: Born to Be Motivated 272
Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs 273
Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction 273
Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull 274
Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation 275
Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs 276
Applying the Different Approaches to Motivation 277

MO DULE 2 5 Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring 280
The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating 280
Eating Disorders 284
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Harnessing Motivation:
Is There a Snowball Effect? 285
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: When Regulation of Eating Behavior
Goes Wrong 286
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Dieting and Losing Weight Successfully 286
Sexual Motivation 287, Al
The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power 293
 xvii
Contents

MODU L E 2 6 Understanding Emotional Experiences 296

The Functions of Emotions 297
Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings 297
The Roots of Emotions 298
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly? 303

CHAPTER 9

Development 308

MODU L E 2 7 Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue 310

Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture 312
Developmental Research Techniques 312
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth 313
The Basics of Genetics 314
The Earliest Development 315

MODU L E 2 8 Infancy and Childhood 320

The Extraordinary Newborn 320
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Emotion Recognition in Infancy 323
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood 323

MODU L E 2 9 Adolescence: Becoming an Adult 337

Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent 337
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: The Adolescent Brain:
Wired for Irresponsibility? 339
Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong 339
Social Development: Finding One’s Self in a Social World 341
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Rites of Passage: Coming of Age Around
the World 346

MODU L E 30 Adulthood 348

Physical Development: The Peak of Health 349
Social Development: Working at Life 350
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties 351
Changing Roles of Men and Women 352
Later Years of Life: Growing Old 353
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Adjusting
to Death 357
xviii Contents

CHAPTER 10

Personality 362

MO DULE 3 1 Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality 364

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Mapping the Unconscious Mind 364
The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts: Building on Freud 370

MO DULE 3 2 Trait, Learning, Biological and Evolutionary, and Humanistic

Approaches to Personality 374
Trait Approaches: Placing Labels on Personality 374
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
Is There a Facebook Personality Type? 377
Learning Approaches: We Are What We’ve Learned 377
Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Are We Born with Personality? 380
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Wired to Be an Extrovert? The Biological
Underpinnings of Personality 383
Humanistic Approaches: The Uniqueness of You 384
Comparing Approaches to Personality 385

MO DULE 3 3 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes Us Distinctive 387

EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Should Race and Ethnicity Be Used to Establish Norms? 388
Self-Report Measures of Personality 389
Projective Methods 391
Behavioral Assessment 392
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Assessing Personality Assessments 393

CHAPTER 11

Health Psychology: Stress, Coping,

and Well-Being 396

MO DULE 3 4 Stress and Coping 398

Stress: Reacting to Threat and Challenge 398
The High Cost of Stress 401
Coping with Stress 405
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Altering Memories of Fear for Those with PTSD 408
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Effective Coping Strategies 409
 xix
Contents

MODU L E 35 Psychological Aspects of Illness and Well-Being 411

The As, Bs, and Ds of Coronary Heart Disease 411
Psychological Aspects of Cancer 412
Smoking 413
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:Is There a New Smoking Epidemic in
the Making?: How Teenagers Are Turning to E-Cigarettes 414
Hucksters of Death: Promoting Smoking
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:
Throughout the World 415

MODU L E 36 Promoting Health and Wellness 417

Following Medical Advice 417
Well-Being and Happiness 420

CHAPTER 12

Psychological Disorders 425

MODU L E 37 Normal Versus Abnormal: Making the Distinction 427

Defining Abnormality 427
Perspectives on Abnormality: From Superstition to Science 429
Classifying Abnormal Behavior: The ABCs of DSM 432

MODU L E 38 The Major Psychological Disorders 437

Anxiety Disorders 437
Obsessive-Complusive Disorder 439
Somatic Symptom Disorders 441
Dissociative Disorders 442
Mood Disorders 443
Schizophrenia 447
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Brain Changes with Schizophrenia 450
Personality Disorders 451
Disorders That Impact Childhood 453
Other Disorders 453

MODU L E 39 Psychological Disorders in Perspective 456

The Social and Cultural Context of Psychological Disorders 457
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Are College Student Psychological
Disorders on the Rise? 458
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: DSM and Culture—and the Culture of DSM 460
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Deciding When You Need Help 461
xx Contents

CHAPTER 13

Treatment of Psychological Disorders 464

MO DULE 40 Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive

Approaches to Treatment 466
Psychodynamic Approaches to Therapy 467
Behavioral Approaches to Therapy 469
Cognitive Approaches to Therapy 472
How Cognitive Behavioral
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:
Therapy Changes Your Brain 474

MO DULE 41 Psychotherapy: Humanistic, Interpersonal,

and Group Approaches to Treatment 476
Humanistic Therapy 476
Interpersonal Therapy 477
Group Therapies 478
Evaluating Psychotherapy: Does Therapy Work? 479
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Racial and Ethnic Factors in Treatment:
Should Therapists Be Color Blind? 481

MO DULE 42 Biomedical Therapy: Biological Approaches to Treatment 484

Drug Therapy 484
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) 487
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:Switching Off Depression? The Promise
of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) 488
Psychosurgery 489
Biomedical Therapies in Perspective 489
Community Psychology: Focus on Prevention 490
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Choosing the Right Therapist 491

CHAPTER 14

Social Psychology 495

MO DULE 43 Attitudes and Social Cognition 497

Persuasion: Changing Attitudes 497
Social Cognition: Understanding Others 500
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Attribution Biases in a Cultural Context: How Fundamental Is
the Fundamental Attribution Error? 504
 xxi
Contents

MODU L E 44 Social Influence and Groups 506

Conformity: Following What Others Do 506
Compliance: Submitting to Direct Social Pressure 509
Obedience: Following Direct Orders 511

MODU L E 45 Prejudice and Discrimination 514

The Foundations of Prejudice 514
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:The Prejudiced Brain, Race, and Empathy 516
Measuring Prejudice and Discrimination: The Implicit Association Test 517
Reducing the Consequences of Prejudice and Discrimination 517

MODU L E 46 Positive and Negative Social Behavior 520

Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the
Development of Relationships 520
Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others 523
Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature 527
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
The Awesomeness of Helping Others 529
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Dealing Effectively with Anger 530

McGraw-Hill Education Psychology’s

APA Documentation Guide
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-30
Preface

Students First
If I were to use only two words to summarize my goal across the twelve editions of
this introduction to psychology, as well as my teaching philosophy, that’s what I would
say: Students first.
I believe that an effective introduction to a discipline must be oriented to s­ tudents—
informing them, engaging them, and exciting them about the field and helping them
connect it to their worlds.

INFORMING AND ENGAGING STUDENTS ON

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
McGraw-Hill Education’s Connect® is a digital assignment and assessment platform that
strengths the link between faculty, students, and course work, helping everyone accom-
plish more in less time. Connect Psychology includes assignable and assessable videos,
quizzes, exercises, and interactivities, all associated with learning objectives. Interactive
assignments and videos allow students to experience and apply their understanding of
psychology to the world with fun and stimulating activities.
Using Connect Psychology, student can learn the course material more deeply and
study more effectively than ever before.
At the lower end of Bloom’s taxonomy, students are introduced to Concept Clips,
the dynamic, colorful graphics and stimulating animations that break down some of
psychology’s most difficult concepts in a step-by-step manner, engaging students and
aiding in retention. They are assignable and
assessable in Connect or can be used as a
jumping-off point in class.
Now with audio narration, the Twelfth
Edition also includes nearly twenty new
Concept Clips on challenging topics
such as:
• Five Factors of Personality
• Biases and Heuristics
• Observational Learning
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
• Structures and Functions of the Brain
• Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
• Convergent and Divergent Thinking
• Drive Reduction Theory
At the higher end of Bloom’s taxonomy
(analyze, evaluate, create), students can work
through in-depth arguments to sharpen their
critical thinking skills and prepare them to
be more discerning consumers of psychology
in their everyday lives. For each chapter,

xxiii
xxiv Preface

there are multiple sets of arguments accompanied by auto-graded assessments requiring

students to think critically about claims presented as facts.
Related NewsFlash exercises, powered by Connect, tie current news stories to
key psychological principles and learning objectives. After interacting with a contem-
porary news story, students are assessed on their ability to make the connection
between real life and research findings. Cases are revisited across chapters, encour-
aging students to consider multiple perspectives. The Twelfth Edition includes cur-
rent Newsflashes on topics such as transgender issues and locker room access, police
shootings and flaws in eyewitness testimony, and the link between cognitive abilities
and eating chocolate.
And, new Newsflashes will be added to Connect each semester.
Interactivities, assignable through Connect, require students to engage with the
content to practice and apply understanding. New activities include those for: Perspec-
tives in Psychology, Correlations, Neurons, The Brain and Drugs, The Stages of Sleep,
Levels of Processing, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Naturalistic Observation, Observa-
tional Learning, and Defense Mechanisms.

BETTER DATA, SMARTER REVISION, IMPROVED RESULTS

Students study more effectively with Smartbook®.
• Make It Effective. Powered by Learnsmart, SmartBook creates a personalized
reading experience by highlighting the most impactful concepts a student needs
to learn at that moment in time. This ensures that every minute spent with
SmartBook is returned to the student as
the most value-added minute possible.
• M
 ake It Informed. Real-time
reports quickly identify the concepts
that require more attention from indi-
vidual students—or the entire class.
SmartBook™ detects the content a
student is most likely to forget and
brings it back to improve long-term
knowledge retention.
Students help inform the revision strategy.
• M
 ake It Precise. Systematic and
precise, a heat map tool collates data
anonymously collected from thou-
sands of students who used Connect
Psychology’s Learnsmart.
• M
 ake It Accessible. The data is
graphically represented in a heat map
as “hot spots” showing specific con-
cepts with which students had the
most difficulty. Revising these con-
cepts, then, can make them more
accessible for students.

GAIN INSIGHT ON YOUR CLASS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE

Whether a class is face-to-face, hybrid, or entirely online, Connect provides the tools
needed to reduce the amount of time and energy that instructors must spend to
administer their courses. Easy-to-use course management tools allow instructors to
 xxv
Preface

spend less time administering and more time teaching, while reports allow students
to monitor their progress and optimize study time.
• The At-Risk Student Report provides instructors with one-click access to a
dashboard that identifies students who are at risk of dropping out of the
course due to low engagement levels.
• The Category Analysis Report details student performance relative to specific
learning objectives and goals, including APA Learning Goals and Outcomes and
levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
• Connect Insight is a one-of-kind visual analytics dashboard—now available for
both instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding
student performance.
• The LearnSmart Reports allow instructors and students to easily monitor
progress and pinpoint areas of weakness, giving each student a personalized
study plan to achieve success.

Student Tools: Mastering the Material

Student success in psychology means mastering the material at a deep level. These are
some of the tools that help students maximize their performance:

STUDY ALERTS Study Alert

Differentiate the five stages of
Throughout, marginal notes point out important and difficult concepts and topics.
sleep (stage 1, stage 2, stage 3,
These Study Alerts offer suggestions for learning the material effectively and for
stage 4, and REM sleep), which
studying for tests.
produce different brain-wave
patterns.
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF . . .
Every chapter includes questions to help students connect psychological concepts with
career realities. Called “From the Perspective of . . . ,” this feature helps students under-
stand how psychology relates to their chosen field of study.

From the perspective of…

An Educator How might you use the findings in sleep
research to maximize student learning?

Source: © Blend Images/Getty Images RF

NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE

This updated feature emphasizes the importance of neuroscientific research within
the various subfields of the discipline and in students’ lives. Representative brain
scans, with both caption and textual explanation, illustrate significant neuroscien-
tific findings that increasingly influence the field of psychology. For example, one
Neuroscience in Your Life feature explains how people with eating disorders process
information differently.
xxvi Preface

NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: WHEN REGULATION OF EATING

BEHAVIOR GOES WRONG
Research suggests that individuals with eating disorders not only show differences in behavior, but also
in the brain. For example, in the representational images below, those with bulimia show differences in
many areas of the brain that likely relate to how those with bulimia process their environment. Although
researchers are not sure if these differences are the cause or the result of disordered eating, under-
standing these differences may help us better address it. In particular, these images show areas in
which people with bulimia differ in the shape of their brains (red/yellow being areas that are larger and
blue/purple being smaller) as compared to those who do not have the disorder (Marsh et al., 2015).

Person with bulimia

Adapted from Marsh et al. (2015). Anatomical characteristics of the cerebral surface in bulimia nervosa. Biological
­Psychiatry, 77(7), 616–623.

Student Learning: Content and Concepts

The following information about new and revised topics and textual changes, including new definitions based on heat map data,
provides a good indication of the content’s currency and clarification for students.

Chapter 1—Introduction to Psychology
• Added psychological information about
terrorism and possible homophobia
in the Orlando nightclub shootings
• Updated the number of active
­psychologists
• Revised statistics about females out-
numbering male psychologists 2:1
• Revised information about the in-
crease in racial/ethnic minority psy-
chologists
• Added material about torture scandal
leading to psychologists being pro-
hibited from participating in military
interrogations
• Revised definitions for neuroscience,
behavioral, and humanistic
­perspectives
• Outlined key issues more clearly
• Refined description of nature vs.
­nurture description
• Refined operational definition
­description
• Reworded description of use of
­theories/data
• Refined goal of case studies
• Refined description of experiment as
only way to establish causality
• Revised definitions of significant out-
come and choosing participants
• Reworded experimenter expecta-
tions concept
• Refined description of individual
­difference vs. universal principles
Chapter 2—Neuroscience and Behavior
• Added material about using the
mind to move robotic limbs
• Included volume of gray matter in
cortex differs according to income
level
• Included Stiff Person Syndrome and
stem cell implants
• Clarified description of dendrite and
of axon
• Refined inhibitory and excitatory
message difference
• Clarified somatic division and auto-
nomic division
• Reworded transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS)
• Revised thalamus presentation
• Added correspondence between
brain tissue and touch sensitivity
• Redefined association areas
Chapter 3—Sensation and Perception
• Added positive consequences of
pain
• Updated statistics on incidence and
cost of chronic pain
• Discussed additional benefits of hyp-
nosis and chronic pain
• Explained mirror therapy for pain
­relief
• Described face blindness
• Described neural basis of itching
• Clarified Weber law examples
• Clarified visual spectrum
• Refined presentation of retina
­definition

• Refined presentation of visual
­processing units in the brain related
to different stimuli
• Clarified biodfeedback with
­additional examples
• Clarified retinal disparity/binocular
cues
• Included new definition of linear
perspective
• Refined ESP discussion
Chapter 4—States of Consciousness
• Clarified brain alterations related
to hypnosis
• Refined definition of addictive drugs
• Clarified the uses of hypnosis
• Refined description of the reasons
why people use drugs
• Added new information on D.A.R.E.
• Clarified the depressive effects of
­alcohol
• Included use of Suboxone and
Vivatrol in treatment of heroin
­addiction
• Added material about increased
­heroin use in the U.S.
• Refined description of barbiturates
• Clarified effects of MDMA use
• Explained multiple functions of sleep
• Included types of meditation:
­focused attention, mindfulness,
and compassion
• Discussed body rhythms involving
heart and kidneys as well as brain
processing
• Explained that sleep provides oppor-
tunity to prune neural connections
• Updated latest marijuana use
­statistics
• Updated research findings on
­consequences of marijuana use
Chapter 5—Learning
• Clarified classical conditioning
­process
• Clarified Pavlov’s research
• Removed reference to autism and
punishment
• Clarified positive and negative
­punishment
• Clarified different types of partial
­reinforcement schedules
• Redefined behavior modification
techniques
• Clarified choice of strategies in
­behavior modification
• Redefined relational and analytical
learning styles
• Expanded conclusion regarding the
impact of violent video games
• Revised Little Albert conclusion
• Explained Facebook addiction
• Added information about ­educational
practices based on learning data
Chapter 6—Memory
• Clarified capacity of working memory
• Described erasing traumatic memories
• Clarified chunk
• Clarified mnemonics
• Clarified working memory
­components
• Removed serial position effect term
• Clarified role of hippocampus in
memory
• Clarified information on MRI scans
of hippocampus
• Clarified role of amygdala in ­memory
• Redefined prime
• Clarified memory errors
• Clarified keyword technique
• Clarified cross-cultural differences
in memory
Chapter 7—Thinking, Language, and
Intelligence
• Reworded examples for prototype
• Redefined familiarity heuristic
• Refined description of arrangement
problems
• Clarified survival vs. dying frame
study
• Explained cognitive effects of video
games
• Redefined mental set
• Explained the idea of taking time off
to increase creativity
• Clarified nativist approach to lan-
guage
• Revised definition of interactionist
approach to language
• Clarified fluid intelligence
• Updated WISC-IV to WISC-V
• Replaced term mental retardation
with intellectual disability
• Clarified moderate, severe, and pro-
found intellectual disability
• Clarified differences between black
and white family environments
Chapter 8—Motivation and Emotion
• Clarified drawbacks to instinct
­approaches to motivation
• Redefined arousal approaches to
­motivation
• Redefined cognitive approaches to
motivation
xxvii
Preface
• Clarified esteem in Maslow’s
hierarchy
• Refined weight set point
definition
• Added new evidence on genetic
causes of homosexuality
• Clarified discussion of intersex
people
• Added new material on transgender
issues
• Refined high need for achievement
discussion
Chapter 9—Development
• Clarified attachment concept
• Refined discussion of degrees of
attachment and parenting styles
• Redefined conservation
• Clarified discussion of conservation
• Clarified zone of proximal develop-
ment and scaffolding
• Revised discussion of growth spurt
and surge in growth hormones in
­adolescence
• Included more on emerging
­adulthood
• Clarified Kohlberg’s levels
• Updated suicide incidence
• Revised Alzheimer’s statistics
Chapter 10—Personality
• Reworked unconscious determinants
of personality
• Revised statistics on use of personal-
ity testing in business and industry
• Redefined id
• Redefined ego
• Redefined superego
• Revised the discussion of relation-
ship between id, ego, and superego
• Revised discussion of fixation
• Revised discussion of penis envy
• Clarified discussion of defense
­mechanisms
• Redefined repression
• Clarified discussion of trait theory
• Redefined trait
• Clarified presentation of Allport’s
traits
• Revised description of trait labeling
critique
• Clarified discussion of culture and
self-esteem
• Revised discussion of self-concept
Chapter 11—Health Psychology: Stress,
Coping, and Well-Being
• Clarified problem-solving vs.
­emotion-focused coping strategies
xxviii Preface
• Refined the discussion of the rela-
tionship between smoking, emotion,
and nicotine levels
• Clarified the relationship between
high self esteem and happiness
• Clarified discussion of positive
­illusions
• Refined the discussion of how peo-
ple respond to extreme situations in
terms of happiness
• Added new material on e-cigarettes
• Discussed how psychotherapy can
slow the progression of cancer
• Included training of physicians to
convey empathy
• Included cumulative effects of
­cataclysmic events
• Updated statistics on amount spent
on PTSD of veterans
Chapter 12—Psychological Disorders
• Revised description and definition of
DSM to incorporate DSM-5 changes
• Included new terminology to reflect
DSM-5, including autism spectrum
disorder, intellectual disability, gen-
der dysphoria, paraphilic disorder,
neurodevelopmental disorders,
­neurocognitive disorders, illness
­anxiety disorder, somatic symptom
disorder
• Added more material on college
­student psychological disorders
• Removed five axes terminology
• Clarified positive/negative symptoms
of schizophrenia
• Clarified discussion of overattention
and underattention in schizophrenia
• Added new statistics on the inci-
dence of adolescent depression
• Refined discussion of additional
­disorders
• Clarified discussion of abnormality as
deviation from the average
• Clarified drawbacks to abnormality
as personal discomfort
• Refined discussion of difficulties
with medical perspective
• Refined discussion of psychoanalytic
theoretical explanations of
­abnormality
• Clarified discussion of criticisms of
cognitive perspective
• Refined discussion of sociocultural
explanations of psychological disor-
ders
• Clarified panic disorder vs. phobic
disorder
• Revised discussion of causes of
­anxiety disorders
• Clarified etiology of illness anxiety
disorder
• Refined discussion of hallucinations
and perceptual problems in
­schizophrenia
• Clarified biological and situational
explanations of schizophrenia
• Refined discussion of predisposition
model of schizophrenia
• Refined discussion of neurocognitive
disorders
Chapter 13—Treatment of
Psychological Disorders
• Clarified definition of psychoanalysis
• Clarified description of resistance
• Refined discussion of contemporary
psychodynamic therapy
• Refined presentation of behavioral
approaches
• Refined discussion of rational-­
emotive therapy
• Clarified contemporary person-­
centered therapy
• Redefined interpersonal
­psychotherapy
• Refined goals of family therapy
• Refined overview of biological
­approaches to treatment
• Revised definition of drug therapy
• Refined description of success rates
of antidepressant drugs
• Included discussion of deep brain
stimulation (DBS)
Chapter 14—Social Psychology
• Refined discussion of need for
­cognition
• Refined explanation of cognitive
­dissonance
• Clarified how people combine traits
mathematically
• Refined discussion of the foot-in-the-
door technique
• Refined discussion of the not-so-free-
sample technique
• Clarified Darley & Latane helping
model
• Discussed potential hard-wiring of
brain for altruistic behavior
• Included benefits of virtual inter-
group contact in improving
­intergroup relations
• Discussed types of aggression in
­everyday life
• Discussed microaggressions
• Included how heterosexual and gay
couples meet
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
universally current in America today, was, I believe, not known here
till the last year of the war.
The exact difference between flu and grip I leave to the physician
to determine; both differ from a cold in being invariably accompanied
by fever, and in both the patient feels the worst after he gets well.
But the speed with which the germs travel through the air
remains a mystery. I remember one flu epidemic that hit New York in
the morning and was prevalent in remote country districts in
Michigan the following afternoon. Manifestly, therefore, the accursed
thing does not depend on the comparatively slow method of
transmission from one person to another.
If one can possibly afford the time and money, the best way to rid
oneself of the after effects of the flu is to leave the icy North in winter
time and travel South. There are many coughs in every carload, but
soon after they arrive here they cease.
In fact, if one can afford it, it is a good thing to come South in
winter whether one is sick or well. “See America First” applies
especially to the winter season. Europe should be visited only in the
summer, because no Americans are comfortable in Europe at any
other time. George Ade once tried to spend a winter in Venice and
he nearly froze. He declared that the next winter he would spend in
Duluth, where they have steam heat and he could keep warm.
The intolerable thing about most “winter resorts” in Europe is that
they are so much warmer outdoors than in. The American takes a
pleasant walk in the mild sunshine, and, his body in an agreeable
glow, he enters his hotel room which has the chill of the grave. I
know one man who, whenever he entered his room, put on overcoat,
fur hat, gloves, arctic overshoes and then sat down to be as
comfortable as he could.
One impecunious student who spent the winter at a Continental
university in a room where apparently no means of heating had ever
been employed told me that he kept warm the entire winter on only
one stick of wood. In response to my question, he said that his room
was on the fifth story; he would study for ten minutes, then fling the
stick out of the window. He ran down five flights of stairs, picked up
the stick, ran up the stairs and found that this violent exercise kept
him warm for exactly ten minutes, when again he flung the stick out
of the window. That was an original method, but it is practicable only
for those who are young and vigorous. It would be almost useless for
an old lady with angina pectoris.
In the winter season our Southern States, or Arizona, or
California are what I especially prescribe. For those who wish eternal
summer with all its pleasant heat and the delights of sea-bathing,
Southern Florida is the best; for those who are middle-aged and
elderly, who wish to play golf and tennis, in crisp autumn-like
weather, Georgia is incomparable. Here in Augusta the weather is
frequently summer-hued; on this blessed January day, for example,
the temperature is 78. But in general, the January and February
weather here is like mild October in New England, with gentle days
and keen nights, good for sleep.
When I was young very few Northerners went South in winter; all
who could afford it went in the summer to the mountains or the sea.
But today, when there are many ways of keeping cool in the cities,
and when the country club is accessible every afternoon and
evening, an immense number of business men stay “on the job” in
the summer and take their vacation in the winter.
A perfect climate in the winter lies only twenty-four hours from
New York. Furthermore, it is an education for Northern men and
women who live in the South for a winter season to become
acquainted with our Southern people, “whom to know is to love.” To
me, a down-East Yankee, it is a delight to meet these charming,
gracious men and women of the South; and it is an especial delight
to hear the Southern accent, especially on the lips of lovely women.
I wish I might live one hundred years from now. Then, thanks to
the men of science, every year there will come a day in November
when a general notice will be given in our New England universities
for every member of the faculty and students to be indoors at a
certain hour. At the prescribed moment, all the dormitories, lecture
halls, offices and laboratories will rise majestically in the air, carrying
their human freight. They will sail calmly South, and in a few hours
float gently down on a meadow in Georgia or Florida, there to remain
until the middle of April.
 XXXI
GOING TO CHURCH IN PARIS

There are not many Protestant churches in Paris, because there

are not many Protestants; and of the vast throng of Americans who
visit Paris every summer, I suppose, comparatively speaking, only a
few go to church. The average tourist does not visit Paris with the
idea of entering churches except as a sight-seer. Yet the American
Church of Paris with the Rev. Dr. Joseph Wilson Cochran as pastor,
is a flourishing institution. The auditorium is filled every Sunday
morning, and the whole work of the church in its Sunday school, Boy
Scouts, classes for students, charitable enterprises, etc., is so active
and successful that a new edifice has been found necessary. They
are erecting a fine church in a splendid location on the Quai D’Orsay;
the steel frame is already in place and by another year the building
should be complete. Then there is also the American Cathedral
church of the Holy Trinity, St. Luke’s Chapel, the Catholic church of
St. Joseph, the Methodist Memorial church, the Baptist tabernacle,
the First Church of Christ Scientist, and the Second Church of Christ
Scientist.
Now I go to church not reluctantly, because I think I ought to, or
from any sense of duty, still less from the Pharasaical attempt to set
an example to my less godly neighbours. I go to church because I
enjoy going, because I really want to go, because the Christian
church is my spiritual home.
Last Sunday I attended the French Protestant church of the
Oratoire, in the rue St. Honoré. The attitude of the clergy and laity in
this church is very similar to that of the Rev. Dr. Harry Emerson
Fosdick and his congregation in New York. Last Sunday the big
church was well filled, and the services, with the single difference
that everything was in the French language, were similar to those of
any evangelical Protestant church in America. There was no ritual.
The prayers were extempore, and among the hymns sung was the
familiar one with the familiar tune, “Lord, I Hear of Showers of
Blessing,” which was just as good in French as in English.
I felt that I was among my own people, the kind with which I grew
up, although there were very few Americans present. The French
audience seemed to be composed of the same sort that one sees in
any Methodist or Baptist church in America. The pastor preached on
the parable of the sower, and explained to the audience the
significance of the evangelical Protestant church, as distinguished
from the more formal and ritualistic Catholic institution. The Catholics
provide beautiful music, a dignified ritual, which is very impressive,
he said; “but we appeal not to the eye and the ear, but to the mind
and the heart.” I do not think he meant to be antagonistic to the
Catholics; he was trying to make his congregation see that there was
a good reason for attending church, even though the service might
have little or no appeal to the senses.
It was peculiarly interesting for me to hear this aspect of religious
worship emphasised, for on the preceding Sunday in London I
attended service in an Anglo-Catholic church, where the preacher
was the Rev. T. P. Fry, the husband of the famous novelist, Sheila
Kaye-Smith. His sermon emphasised only one thing, the Blessed
Sacrament. He dwelt on its supreme importance, on its immense
significance, of what it should mean to every one who partakes of it.
The service was beautiful, with an elaborate ritual, and it was clear
that the preacher thought of only one thing—the Mass.
The English novelist, Compton Mackenzie, has recently written a
trilogy of novels dealing at great length and with much detail with the
life and career of a young English priest. Mr. Mackenzie, like G. K.
Chesterton and Maurice Baring, has entered the Catholic church,
and while these three novels, The Altar Steps, The Parson’s
Progress and The Heavenly Ladder, are frankly Catholic
propaganda, I found them interesting and valuable, because I was
brought up in the extreme Protestant point of view, and it is important
for me to hear and if possible to understand something quite
different. Mr. Mackenzie’s young parson says that he does not care if
he never succeeds in preaching a good sermon. His only interest is
to give the congregation the Blessed Sacrament.
An excellent Catholic lady once said to me, “You do not
understand our religion,” I answered, “You must not say religion; your
religion is my religion. We have exactly the same religion. What I do
not fully understand is your form of worship, the significance of the
various parts of your ritual.”
It is a matter of great rejoicing that the old antagonism between
Catholics and Protestants has so largely disappeared. It is
unfortunate that any irritation or misunderstanding should remain. In
a world so full of vice, so full of scepticism, and above all so full of
indifference to religion, there should be not the slightest shade of
hostility between adherents of Christianity. We should not be divided
in the presence of implacable foes.
A magnificent example of the true Christian spirit was given at
the beginning of this century by one of the greatest men of modern
times, Pope Leo XIII. He publicly offered prayer for the restoration to
health of Queen Victoria of England. When one thinks of the historic
antagonism, that was a noble and truly religious act.
Once in the cathedral at Cologne, during Mass, I sat between a
devout German Catholic and an American tourist. The German
bowed, knelt, crossed himself; the American used a pair of opera
glasses, as if he were at a spectacular play. I should like to have
given to my countryman a little pamphlet written by a Catholic priest,
called What Are They Doing at the Altar? so that he might have
understood what was going on, and at least have shown some
reverence.
There is one important thing that we Protestants ought to learn
from our Catholic friends. Many Protestants go to church just to hear
a sermon, and if the preacher is in bad form that morning, they feel
disappointed, almost aggrieved, as if they had gone to the movies
and the pictures happened to be poor.
 Going to church ought not to be merely passive; to go and see if
the minister can entertain us. It should be a community service,
where the audience participates and where spiritual refreshment and
stimulation may be obtained. If we go to church merely to hear a
popular preacher, then we might as well stay at home and read a
popular book. The feeling of actual participation is the supreme need
of the Protestant church today; not more clever preachers, but a
genuine hunger in the congregation for spiritual nourishment.
 XXXII
OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM

I am often called an optimist, and so I am; but perhaps not in the

popular meaning of the word. When a worldly wise man calls a person
an optimist, he usually regards him with intellectual contempt, just as
the elaborate courtesy toward women in the age of chivalry thinly
disguised a cynically sensual attitude. Optimism is associated in many
minds either with ignorance of life or mental inferiority; and when
certain persons call others optimists, look out for them!
Thus recent definitions of the optimist illustrate the superior attitude
of the pessimist: “An optimist is a fool unfamiliar with the facts.” “An
optimist is one who falls out of a fourth-story window, and as he goes
by the third story, he says, ‘So far, so good.’” “An optimist is one who at
night makes lemonade out of the lemons that have been handed to
him all day.” “A pessimist is one who lives with an optimist.”
Now the familiarly unpleasant back-slapping cheerio person, with a
genius for the inopportune, is not necessarily an optimist. He is a
nuisance. He was well known and dreaded like a pestilence among the
ancient Jews. See the Book of Proverbs, 27:14, “He that blesseth his
friend with a loud voice, rising early in the morning, it shall be counted
a curse to him,” and 25:29, “As he that taketh away a garment in cold
weather and as vinegar upon nitre, so is he that singeth songs to an
heavy heart.”

* * * * *
A man who attempts to console another by making light of his
troubles or by pretending that things are otherwise than what they
obviously are will not get very far. One might as well pretend in
January that it is June. You cannot get rid of obstacles by ignoring
them any more than you can solve problems by forgetting them. Nor
can you console sufferers by reminding them of the woes of others or
by inopportunely emphasising other things.
If a man slips on an orange peel that some moron has left on the
pavement and breaks his leg, you will not help him by saying,
“Yesterday a man fell here and broke his neck.” If a manifold father
loses one of his sons by a motor accident, you can’t help him by
saying, “Cheer up! You’ve got three sons left.”
“Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof.” These terrible words
were spoken not by a peevish invalid or by a bankrupt, but by the Light
of the World. He always and everywhere recognised the forces of evil
and never pretended that life was all sunshine. Religion does not
pretend that everything is easy and comfortable, for religion is not
meant to fill our minds with illusions but rather with fortitude. Our Lord
came into the world to show us how to bear the burden of life
cheerfully and bravely; life is not easy, but His yoke is.
A true optimist is one who recognises the sorrows, worries,
drawbacks, misfortunes of life, its injustice and inequalities. But while
seeing these things, the optimist believes that no matter how strong
error may be, truth in the long run will triumph, even though it may not
be our truth.
The optimist believes that in the long run virtue has superior
staying power as compared with vice; that goodness will eventually
defeat evil; that life means something; that character counts; that men
and women are of more consequence than sparrows; in short, that this
is God’s world and that the moral law is as unshakable as the law of
gravitation.
What, then, is a pessimist? A pessimist is one who believes that
the evolutionary process is the tragedy of the universe or, as Mark
Twain put it, that life is the worst practical joke ever played on man by
destiny. That from one primordial cell should have developed all
complex forms of life through the vegetable kingdom, through the
lower forms of animal existence up to man, is generally regarded as an
advance. The true pessimist regards it as an irremediable disaster, as
the worst of all possible mistakes. According to him, it would have
been better had the evolutionary march stopped with the lower forms
of animal life and never reached self-consciousness.
The fish, for example, is better off than men and women. The fish
functions perfectly. He does exactly what he was meant to do, he has
not the torture of self-conscious thought, no fear of death, and dies at
the appointed time. But man has thoughts and dreams and longings
that seem to belong to eternal life and eternal development, whereas
in reality he dies like the fish; only with all his dreams and longings
unsatisfied and with the constant fear and horror of annihilation in a
universe where, no matter how sublime or far-reaching his thoughts,
he is, in reality, of no more importance than a fish and must in the end
share the same fate.
Taking this stiff definition, are there then any genuine pessimists?
Certainly there are. Thomas Hardy was exactly such a pessimist. He
affirmed in his last volume of poems that man would have been
happier if he could have remained at the stage of lower animal
development, with no power of thought. Alfred Housman, the great
lyrical poet, says we could all be happy, if only we did not think. It is
when we think that we are overwhelmed with gloom.
The custom of congratulating others on their birthdays is really an
acquiescence in optimism. We instinctively (and I believe rightly)
regard life as an asset. But Swift believed that the worst thing that had
ever happened to him was being born. He therefore, like the honest
man he was, kept his birthdays as days of fasting and mourning. He
wore black and refused to eat.
For my part I find daily life not always joyous, but always
interesting. I have some sad days and nights, but none that are dull.
As I advance deeper into the vale of years, I live with constantly
increasing gusto and excitement. I am sure it all means something; in
the last analysis, I am an optimist because I believe in God. Those
who have no faith are quite naturally pessimists and I do not blame
them.
 XXXIII
TRANSLATIONS

Of course it is best to read every book in the language in which it

was originally written; but no man has ever been able to do that. Elihu
Burritt, “the learned blacksmith,” could, so I have heard, write an
intelligible sentence in fifty languages, but there were many more than
fifty of which he was ignorant. The vast majority of even intelligent
Americans know no language but their own, and that they do not know
any too well. It becomes necessary, therefore, unless one is to cut
oneself off from foreign thought and literature, to have recourse to
translations; a reader of a newspaper does that every day, though he
is not always aware of the fact.
Inasmuch as the greatest works of literature have been translated
many times into English, it is rather important to know which is the best
translation; no one driving a car would take a bad road if a better one
were available.
Great translators are rarer than great creative authors. In order to
achieve the best possible translation, one must in the first place have
an absolute command of two languages, an accomplishment that is
not nearly so common as is often supposed. Indeed, this is too often
supposed erroneously by the translator himself.

* * * * *
In the history of the literature of the world, there are four supremely
great poets; no one can name a fifth who is in their class. Those four,
in chronological order, are Homer, Dante, Shakespeare and Goethe.
Every reader, every lover of good books, should know something of
the work of these four mighty ones, for there is a perceptible difference
between the best and the second best. Goethe’s masterpiece is Faust,
and it so happens that we have an English translation of Faust that is
so much better than all other English translations that no comparison is
possible. This is by the American, Bayard Taylor.
It was the major work of his life; he spent many years of sedulous,
conscientious toil perfecting it. It has three admirable features—the
English style is beautiful; it is as literal as is consistent with elegance,
in this work amazingly literal; it preserves in every instance the original
metres which change so often in the German. If you wish to know how
superior Taylor is to all other translators of Faust, just read aloud the
four stanzas of the Dedication in any other English version and then try
the same experiment with Taylor’s. Those who cannot read German
and yet wish to come in contact with “the most spacious mind since
Aristotle” have the satisfaction of knowing they are very close to the
original—both in thought and in expression—in reading Taylor.
Goethe is not only one of the supreme poets of the world; he has
the distinction of being the author of the best German novel, Wilhelm
Meister. The best translation of this was written and published by
Thomas Carlyle more than one hundred years ago. In reading this
translation, therefore, one is reading in the same book the works of two
men of genius. Carlyle had had almost no opportunity to hear spoken
German; he was largely self-taught. But it was characteristic of his
honesty, industry, conscience, as well as of his literary gifts, that he
should have done his difficult work so well that no one has been able
to equal it.
In the course of the novel occurs the exquisite lyric Know’st thou
the land? The best English translation of this song was made about
fifteen years ago by the late James Elroy Flecker.
No absolutely first-rate translation of Dante into English exists. The
best plan is probably to read one in prose and one in verse; the prose
by Charles Eliot Norton, the verse by Cary.
A large number of English writers have had a try at Homer. George
Chapman, whose version inspired Keats, made a thundering
Elizabethan poem. Pope, according to his contemporary, Young, put
Achilles into petticoats, but Pope’s translation has anyhow the merit of
being steadily interesting. Butcher and Lang wrought together an
excellent prose version of the Iliad and Odyssey, while the latter poem
was artistically translated into rhythmic prose by George Herbert
Palmer.
There is an English translation of another work that stands with
Taylor’s Faust as being all but impeccable. This is Edward FitzGerald’s
version of the stanzas of Omar Khayyam. FitzGerald really wrote a
great English poem; it is only necessary to compare his version with a
literal prose translation, in Nathan Haskell Dole’s admirable Variorum
edition, to see how big is the debt we owe FitzGerald. If Omar and
Edward have met in the other world, I am sure Old Fitz has received
due acknowledgment.
The great Russian novelists, Turgeney, Dostoevski and Chekhov,
have been magnificently translated by Constance Garnett. She has
also Englished some of the novels of Tolstoi and Gogol. She has a
positive genius for translation. In the centenary year—1928—began an
entirely new version of the complete works of Tolstoi, by Aylmer
Maude. Mr. Maude knew Tolstoi intimately and is himself an admirable
writer.
 XXXIV
MUSIC OF THE SPHERES

When I was a small boy in Hartford, I often used to see Mark

Twain standing in the open air in his shirt-sleeves, the eternal cigar
in his mouth and a billiard cue in his hand. The billiard room was on
the top floor of his house and a tiny balcony projected from one of
the windows; nearly all dwellings built in the seventies had strange
abscesses of that kind. While his opponent was shooting, Mark
would come out on that platform for a breath of air. Billiards was the
only game he cared for; he was by no means fond of exercise. He
always said, “Never stand up when you can sit down; never sit down
when you can lie down.” Many years later, when he was living in
New York, he often attended professional billiard matches and the
spectators often looked away from the table at Mark’s superb leonine
head and noble old face.
Another famous contemporary writer also found his only
recreation in billiards—this was Herbert Spencer. Every afternoon he
would give himself and the unknowable a rest and go to the
Athenæum Club in London for a game, where his own cue is still
preserved as a memorial. If none of his cronies was available, he
would challenge a stranger. His philosophy afforded no balm in
defeat. On one occasion when he was beaten badly he put his cue in
the rack and remarked testily that to play billiards well was an
accomplishment; to play it too well was the sign of a misspent life.
It is rather strange, since most of our American games are
derived from the English, that we should have taken billiards from
France. Few games are more uncommon in the United States than
English billiards; cricket is not nearly so unusual a spectacle.
 Almost every American boy wants to play billiards. When I was
fourteen one of my schoolmates found a man who wished to sell a
small table—it had rubber tubes for cushions—but the price was
prohibitive, twenty dollars. Our total assets were seventy-five cents.
We remembered that my friend’s sister had received a twenty dollar
gold piece as a birthday present. Of what possible use could it be to
her? We persuaded her to donate it to the good cause, and if any
one thinks that our powers of persuasion were extraordinary, he
thinks accurately, for I subsequently persuaded her to become my
wife. We bought the table and set it up in my house late one
Saturday night, too late, alas, to play. Father would not allow me to
touch it on Sunday, and early Monday morning I had to be off to
school. We got out at four o’clock, made straight for that table and
played till eleven at night, not stopping to eat.
I know of no game at which professional skill has developed
more rapidly than at billiards. It seems incredible, but only fifty years
ago there were four balls on the table and the ordinary friendly game
was 34 points! Almost any professional today could run a thousand
points—indeed he could go on indefinitely.
I regret that the beautiful game of cushion-caroms, so common
in the eighties among the professionals, has become obsolete. In
that game there could be no nursing, because one had to make the
cue ball hit the cushion either before making the carom or after
hitting the object ball. The gentlemen of the green cloth who were
most proficient at this game were Vignaux, the Frenchman, and the
Americans, “Jake” Schaefer, father of the present expert of that
name; Slosson, Sexton and Sutton. In Allyn Hall at Hartford I saw a
great match between Vignaux and Schaefer. M. Vignaux was a large
man and very dignified; in his evening clothes he looked like a prime
minister. Mr. Schaefer was so small that Maurice Daly used to call
him the little shaver. They were formally introduced to the spectators
by the referee, who remarked with immense unction, “Mr. Schaefer
has never in his life played with his coat on; he asks the kind
permission of the audience to remove it.” This privilege was granted
with fervent applause. When the game began to go against him, M.
Vignaux also removed his swallowtail.
 At that time the highest run that had ever been made at cushion-
caroms was 77, which had been accomplished by Sexton. On this
night, by dazzling open-table play, Schaefer made a run of 70. He
was called the Wizard, because he played with extreme rapidity,
exactly the opposite of Slosson, who was known as the Student.
Now the popular professional game is the balkline, 18.2. A
recent champion is Edouard Horemans of Belgium, who won the title
from young Schaefer in a hair-raising match at San Francisco.
Horemans is a left-handed player and in every respect a worthy
champion. His rail play is phenomenal. I saw him give an exhibition
on his first visit to America in 1920 and it was clear that he was a
dangerous competitor.
Who is the greatest player in history? It is hard to say, but I
suspect there never was a greater player than Napoleon Ives. He
was one of the first to use a cue weighing more than twenty ounces
and was all but unbeatable. Schaefer (senior) once beat him with the
anchor shot, which was afterward barred. Unfortunately, tuberculosis
cut Ives off in his prime. The heated room, the chalk dust and the
excitement of close contests were too much for him.
 XXXV
DOG BOOKS

The dog, except in very high latitudes, is not so useful as the

horse, the mule, the camel, the donkey; he cannot supply food and
drink, like the cow and the goat; but for all that, he is, among all the
lower animals, man’s best friend. Even here, as in bipeds, we do not
prize our friends for what they can do for us, but for their mental and
moral qualities.
If it were possible to collect in one heap all the books and articles
that men have written in praise of dogs, it would be a sky-scraper. I
cannot tell what the earliest literary allusion to dogs is; but I think it
strange that the Bible is so silent. Those books representing the
social history of the Jews for many centuries, contain the most
beautiful poetry and prose ever written, as well as the most tender
and comforting assurances; but they indicate little interest in animals
as companions or pets. The word dog is repeatedly used as a term
of degradation, and for some unknown reason the Jews were
forbidden to bring into the sanctuary the price of a dog, which was
coupled with the wages of sin. The only allusion I have found to the
dog as a companion is in the Apocrypha, in the eleventh chapter of
Tobit: “So they went their way, and the dog went after them.” Even
here the dog apparently had to force his attentions upon man, which
is a way he has when unappreciated.
The fact that in the New Testament the dogs ate of the crumbs
from the table and that the street dogs licked the sores of Lazarus
the beggar, proves nothing in the way of appreciation; other animals
moved freely about the houses in Palestine, and they were not kept
for the charm of their company.
 But in the old Indian books of the East, many centuries before
Christ, the dog’s fidelity and social attractions were prized; as is
shown by the well-known story of the righteous pilgrim coming to the
gates of heaven with his dog. He was told to walk right in. “And my
dog?” “Oh, no dogs allowed.” “All right, then I don’t go in.” This man
thought heaven would not be heaven without dogs, as Siegmund
cared naught for heaven without Sieglinde.
Pope alluded to the Indian love of dogs:

“But thinks, admitted to that equal sky,

His faithful dog shall bear him company.”

The Greeks loved dogs. One of the most affecting incidents in

Homer’s Odyssey is where Ulysses returns after years of wandering,
and, being in rags, no one recognises him. But his dog Argos, who
had waited for his master expectantly all these years, instantly sees
and knows him, and through the beggar’s disguise salutes the king.
He wags his tail and dies of joy.
English literature is filled with dogolatry. Dr. John Brown’s Rab
and His Friends (1858), became a little classic. Tennyson
worshipped dogs, and always had two or three huge dogs in the
room while he composed poetry, which he read aloud to them. His
poem Owd Roa (Old Rover), describes how a dog saved a family
when the house was on fire. Bret Harte made a marvellous sketch of
the strange appearance and characteristics of the dog Boonder.
Stevenson wrote a whimsical essay, The Character of Dogs, in
which he proves conclusively that many dogs are snobs. They
certainly are; they will fawn on well-dressed strangers, and try to bite
the iceman.
Maeterlinck has declared that the dog is the only conscious
being in the world who knows and is sure of his god; in The Blue Bird
he exalted the moral character of the dog, though I find it hard to
forgive him for his slander of the cat. Richard Harding Davis’s
masterpiece—among all his brilliant short stories—is The Bar
Sinister, an imaginative study of dogs. Rudyard Kipling has
celebrated the virtues of dogs both in prose and verse.
Vivisection and dogs have called out many poems, of which two
of the most notable are Robert Browning’s Tray and Percy
MacKaye’s The Heart of a Dog.
Jack London’s masterpiece is The Call of the Wild, where the
great dog reverted to primitive impulses and habits. This is an
imperishable work of literature, and although cast in the form of
prose fiction, has much of the elevation and majesty of poetry.
Among contemporary writers, Albert Payson Terhune has
specialised in dogs, and done admirable work in canine
psychoanalysis. The late Senator Vest, when a young man, made a
speech in court on dogs which will outlast his political orations.
But of all the works in prose or verse, ancient or modern that
celebrates the virtues of the dog, the most admirable is the novel,
Bob, Son of Battle, by the late Alfred Ollivant. It was published in
1898, and was his first book, written under peculiar circumstances.
Mr. Ollivant was a young Englishman who had injured his spine in
football; then, having apparently recovered, he received a
commission in the artillery at the age of nineteen. A fall from his
horse permanently injured him, so that he was an invalid for the rest
of his life—he died in 1927. For the first few years he was not able to
leave his bed, and at the age of twenty, in horizontal pain and
weakness, began to write Bob. It took him three years to finish the
book. In England it was published under the poor title, Owd Bob, and
attracted no attention; but in America the publishers wisely changed
the name to the alliterative Bob, Son of Battle, and the book sold by
the hundred thousand. (Those who are interested in the first editions
should know that the first English edition differs in style from the first
American edition; the London publishers delayed publication, and
the author revised the story without injuring it.)
It is a curious fact that this book, written by an Englishman for
Englishmen, and dealing exclusively with English scenes and
customs, should have attracted no attention in the land of its birth,
while selling like the proverbial hot cakes in every city and village in
America. In public lectures in Texas, California, and all over the
middle West and the East, I had only to mention the name of this
novel and a wave of delighted recognition swept over the audience.
But even ten years after its appearance it was practically unheard of
in England. I asked William De Morgan, Henry Arthur Jones, and
William Archer if they had read it; they had never heard of it.
Some years after that, however, a cheap edition was published
in Great Britain, and the book slowly made its way, and is now over
there as here an acknowledged classic. Its popularity was increased
by its being made into a motion picture, and Mr. Ollivant was elected
to the Athenæum.
The two most remarkable dogs I ever met in fiction are both in
Bob, Son of Battle—the hero, Bob, the Grey Dog of Kenmuir, and the
villain Red Wull. Their continued rivalry has an epic force and
fervour. It is the eternal strife between the Power of Light and the
Power of Darkness.