Download pdf Essentials Of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9Th Frederick J Gravetter ebook full chapter

Essentials of Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences, 9th Frederick J.

Gravetter
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/essentials-of-statistics-for-the-behavioral-sciences-9t
h-frederick-j-gravetter/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Frederick J. Gravetter
https://textbookfull.com/product/essentials-of-statistics-for-
the-behavioral-sciences-frederick-j-gravetter/
Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J.

Gravetter
https://textbookfull.com/product/statistics-for-the-behavioral-
sciences-frederick-j-gravetter/
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

(MindTap Course List) 10th Edition Frederick J
Gravetter
https://textbookfull.com/product/essentials-of-statistics-for-
the-behavioral-sciences-mindtap-course-list-10th-edition-
frederick-j-gravetter/
Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter
sciences-gravetter/
Cengage Advantage Books Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences 9th Edition Gravetter
https://textbookfull.com/product/cengage-advantage-books-
statistics-for-the-behavioral-sciences-9th-edition-gravetter/
Cengage Advantage Books Essentials of Statistics for

the Behavioral Sciences Loose leaf Version 8th Edition
Gravetter
https://textbookfull.com/product/cengage-advantage-books-
essentials-of-statistics-for-the-behavioral-sciences-loose-leaf-
version-8th-edition-gravetter/
Fundamental statistics for the behavioral sciences, 9th

Ed 9th Edition David C. Howell
https://textbookfull.com/product/fundamental-statistics-for-the-
behavioral-sciences-9th-ed-9th-edition-david-c-howell/
Essential Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Gregory J. Privitera
https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-statistics-for-the-
behavioral-sciences-gregory-j-privitera/
Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 4th Edition

Susan A. Nolan
sciences-4th-edition-susan-a-nolan/
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
ED I T I O N
9 Essentials of Statistics
THE Behavioral Sciences
FOR
FREDERICK J GRAVETTER
The College at Brockport, State University of New York
LARRY B. WALLNAU
LORI-ANN B. FORZANO
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral © 2018, 2014 Cengage Learning
Sciences, Ninth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
Frederick J Gravetter, Larry B. Wallnau, herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
Lori-Ann B. Forzano except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written
Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard permission of the copyright owner.
Product Manager: Carly McJunkin
For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Content Development Manager: Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706
Jasmin Tokatlian For permission to use material from this text or product,
Content Developer: Linda Man submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions
Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to
Product Assistant: Kimiya Hojjat
permissionrequest@cengage.com
Marketing Manager: James Finlay
Content Project Manager: Carol Samet
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016941378
Art Director: Vernon Boes
Student Edition:
Manufacturing Planner: Karen Hunt
ISBN: 978-1-337-09812-0
Production and Composition Service:
MPS Limited Loose-leaf Edition:
ISBN: 978-1-337-27331-2
Text and Cover Designer: Lisa Henry
Cover Image: Deborah Batt
Cengage Learning
20 Channel Center Street
Boston, MA 02210
USA
Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

with employees residing in nearly 40 diﬀerent countries and sales in more
than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at
www.cengage.com
Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

Nelson Education, Ltd.
To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit

www.cengage.com
Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our
preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com
Printed in Canada
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
B RIEF CO N TEN T S
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1
CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35
CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57
CHAPTER 4 Variability 87
CHAPTER 5 z-Scores: Location of Scores and Standardized Distributions 119
CHAPTER 6 Probability 143
CHAPTER 7 Probability and Samples: The Distribution of Sample Means 169
CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197
CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237
CHAPTER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267
CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301
CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329
CHAPTER 13 Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 371
CHAPTER 14 Correlation and Regression 421
CHAPTER 15 The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness of Fit and Independence 473
iii
CO N TEN T S
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1

1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations 2
1-2 Variables and Measurement 10
1-3 Three Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics 17
1-4 Statistical Notation 25
Summary 29
Focus on Problem Solving 31
Demonstration 1.1 31
Problems 32
CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35

2-1 Frequency Distributions and Frequency Distribution Tables 36
2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Tables 39
2-3 Frequency Distribution Graphs 43
Summary 50
Problems 53
CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57

3-1 Overview 58
3-2 The Mean 59
3-3 The Median 67
3-4 The Mode 71
3-5 Central Tendency and the Shape of the Distribution 74
3-6 Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency 76
Summary 82
Problems 84
v
vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4 Variability 87
4-1 Introduction to Variability 88
4-2 Defining Variance and Standard Deviation 91
4-3 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Population 95
4-4 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Sample 99
4-5 Sample Variance as an Unbiased Statistic 104
4-6 More about Variance and Standard Deviation 107
Summary 113
Problems 116
z-Scores: Location of Scores

CHAPTER 5 and Standardized Distributions 119
5-1 Introduction 120
5-2 z-Scores and Locations in a Distribution 121
5-3 Other Relationships between z, X, the Mean, and the Standard
Deviation 125
5-4 Using z-Scores to Standardize a Distribution 128
5-5 Other Standardized Distributions Based on z-Scores 133
5-6 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 135
Summary 138
Problems 140
CHAPTER 6 Probability 143

6-1 Introduction to Probability 144
6-2 Probability and the Normal Distribution 149
6-3 Probabilities and Proportions for Scores
from a Normal Distribution 156
CONTENTS vii

Summary 165
Problems 167
Probability and Samples: The Distribution

CHAPTER 7 of Sample Means 169
7-1 Samples, Populations, and the Distribution of Sample Means 170
7-2 Shape, Central Tendency, and Variability for the Distribution
of Sample Means 175
7-3 z-Scores and Probability for Sample Means 181
7-4 More About Standard Error 185
Summary 193
Problems 195
CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197

8-1 The Logic of Hypothesis Testing 198
8-2 Uncertainty and Errors in Hypothesis Testing 209
8-3 More about Hypothesis Tests 213
8-4 Directional (One-Tailed) Hypothesis Tests 218
8-5 Concerns about Hypothesis Testing: Measuring Effect Size 222
8-6 Statistical Power 226
Summary 231
Problems 234
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237

9-1 The t Statistic: An Alternative to z 238
9-2 Hypothesis Tests with the t Statistic 244
9-3 Measuring Effect Size for the t Statistic 248
9-4 Directional Hypotheses and One-Tailed Tests 257
Summary 260
Problems 263
CHAP TER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267

10-1 Introduction to the Independent-Measures Design 268
10-2 The Hypotheses and the Independent-Measures t Statistic 270
10-3 Hypothesis Tests with the Independent-Measures t Statistic 277
10-4 Effect Size and Confidence Intervals
for the Independent-Measures t 284
10-5 The Role of Sample Variance and Sample Size
in the Independent-Measures t Test 288
Summary 291
Problems 295
CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301

11-1 Introduction to Repeated-Measures Designs 302
11-2 The t Statistic for a Repeated-Measures Research Design 303
11-3 Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-Measures Design 307
11-4 Effect Size, Confidence Intervals, and the Role of Sample Size and
Sample Variance for the Repeated-Measures t 310
11-5 Comparing Repeated- and Independent-Measures Designs 316
Summary 320
CONTENTS ix

Problems 324
CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329

12-1 Introduction (An Overview of Analysis of Variance) 330
12-2 The Logic of Analysis of Variance 334
12-3 ANOVA Notation and Formulas 338
12-4 Examples of Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with ANOVA 346
12-5 Post Hoc Tests 353
12-6 More about ANOVA 357
Summary 362
Problems 367
Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis

CHAPTER 13 of Variance 371
13-1 Introduction to the Repeated-Measures ANOVA 372
13-2 Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with the Repeated-Measures
ANOVA 375
13-3 More about the Repeated-Measures Design 384
13-4 An Overview of the Two-Factor, Independent-Measures ANOVA 388
13-5 An Example of the Two-Factor ANOVA and Effect Size 396
Summary 406
Problems 415
CH A P T ER 14 Correlation and Regression 421

14-1 Introduction 422
14-2 The Pearson Correlation 425
14-3 Using and Interpreting the Pearson Correlation 430
14-4 Hypothesis Tests with the Pearson Correlation 437
x CONTENTS
14-5 Alternatives to the Pearson Correlation 441

14-6 Introduction to Linear Equations and Regression 450
Summary 463
Problems 470
The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

CHAPTER 15 of Fit and Independence 473
15-1 Introduction to Chi-Square: The Test for Goodness of Fit 474
15-2 An Example of the Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit 479
15-3 The Chi-Square Test for Independence 485
15-4 Effect Size and Assumptions for the Chi-Square Tests 493
15-5 The Relationship between Chi-Square and Other
Statistical Procedures 498
Summary 500
Problems 506
A PPE N D IX E S
A Basic Mathematics Review 511
A-1 Symbols and Notation 513
A-2 Proportions: Fractions, Decimals, and Percentages 515
A-3 Negative Numbers 521
A-4 Basic Algebra: Solving Equations 523
A-5 Exponents and Square Roots 526
B Statistical Tables 533
C Solution for Odd-Numbered Problems in the Text 545
D General Instructions for Using SPSS 559
Statistics Organizer: Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 563
References 575
Name Index 579
Subject Index 581
PREFACE
M any students in the behavioral sciences view the required statistics course as an
intimidating obstacle that has been placed in the middle of an otherwise interest-
ing curriculum. They want to learn about human behavior—not about math and science.
As a result, the statistics course is seen as irrelevant to their education and career goals.
However, as long as the behavioral sciences are founded in science, knowledge of statistics
will be necessary. Statistical procedures provide researchers with objective and systematic
methods for describing and interpreting their research results. Scientific research is the
system that we use to gather information, and statistics are the tools that we use to distill
the information into sensible and justified conclusions. The goal of this book is not only
to teach the methods of statistics, but also to convey the basic principles of objectivity and
logic that are essential for science and valuable for decision making in everyday life.
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, ninth edition, is intended for an
undergraduate statistics course in psychology or any of the behavioral sciences. The overall
learning objectives of this book include the following, which correspond to some of the
learning goals identified by the American Psychological Association (Noland and the Soci-
ety for the Teaching of Psychology Statistical Literacy Taskforce, 2012):
1. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic measures of central tendency and
variability.
2. Distinguish between causal and correlational relationships.
3. Interpret data displayed as statistics, graphs, and tables.
4. Select and implement an appropriate statistical analysis for a given research design,
problem, or hypothesis.
5. Identify the correct strategy for data analysis and interpretation when testing
hypotheses.
6. Select, apply, and interpret appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.
7. Produce and interpret reports of statistical analyses using APA style.
8. Distinguish between statistically significant and chance findings in data.
9. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic tests of statistical significance.
10. Calculate and interpret the meaning of confidence intervals.
11. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic measures of effect size statistics.
12. Recognize when a statistically significant result may also have practical
significance.
The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics
courses. We begin with descriptive statistics (Chapters 1–4), next lay the foundation for
inferential statistics (Chapters 5–8), and then examine a variety of statistical procedures
focused on sample means and variance (Chapters 9–13), before moving on to correlational
methods and nonparametric statistics (Chapters 14 and 15). Information about modifying
this sequence is presented in the “To the Instructor” section for individuals who prefer a
different organization. Each chapter contains numerous examples (many based on actual
xi
xii PREFACE
research studies), learning objectives and learning checks for each section, a summary and
list of key terms, instructions for using SPSS, detailed problem-solving tips and demonstra-
tions, and a set of end-of-chapter problems.
Those of you who are familiar with previous editions of Essentials of Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences will notice that some changes have been made. These changes are
summarized in the “To the Instructor” section. Students who are using this edition should
read the section of the preface entitled “To the Student.” In revising this text, our students
have been foremost in our minds. Over the years, they have provided honest and useful
feedback, and their hard work and perseverance has made our writing and teaching most
rewarding. We sincerely thank them.
To the Instructor
Those of you familiar with the previous edition of Essentials of Statistics for the Behav-
ioral Sciences will notice a number of changes in the ninth edition. Throughout the book,
research examples have been updated, real-world examples of particular interest to stu-
dents have been added, and the end-of-chapter problems have been extensively revised.
Major revisions for this edition include:
1. Each section of every chapter begins with a list of Learning Objectives for that
specific section.
2. Each section ends with a Learning Check consisting of multiple-choice questions
and answers, with at least one question for each Learning Objective.
3. Do-it-yourself examples have been added to each chapter. These present numerical
examples and ask student to perform specific statistical calculations to test their
understanding of topics presented in the chapter.
Other examples of specific and noteworthy revisions include:
Chapter 1 The section on data structures and research methods has been edited to par-
allel the Statistics Organizer: Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data in the appendix.
The chapter has been reorganized to simplify the sequence of topics.
Chapter 2 The chapter has undergone relatively minor editing to clarify and simplify.
Chapter 3 The sequence of topics within the chapter has been reorganized to facilitate
the flow of concepts. The median discussion has been refined and clarified and includes
both samples and populations.
Chapter 4 The opening paragraphs have been edited to relate the concept of variability to
the more familiar concepts of diversity and consistency. The sections on standard deviation
and variance have been edited to increase emphasis on concepts rather than calculations.
Chapter 5 The section discussing z-scores for samples has been incorporated into the
other sections of the chapter so that populations and samples are consistently discussed
together.
Chapter 6 The section “Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics” has been shortened
and simplified.
PREFACE xiii
Chapter 7 The box feature explaining the difference between standard deviation and
standard error has been deleted, with the content being incorporated into Section 7.4.
Furthermore, the content was edited to emphasize that the standard error is the primary
new element introduced in the chapter. The final section, “Looking Ahead to Inferential
Statistics,” was simplified and shortened to be consistent with the changes in Chapter 6.
Chapter 8 A redundant example was deleted, which shortened and streamlined the
remaining material so that most of the chapter is focused on the same research example.
Chapter 9 The section introducing confidence intervals was edited to clarify the origin
of the confidence interval equation and to emphasize that the interval is constructed at the
sample mean.
Chapter 10 The section presenting the estimated standard error of (M1 2 M2) has been
simplified and shortened.
Chapter 11 The discussion of matched-subjects designs has been moved to the end of the
chapter as part of the strengths and weaknesses of independent- versus repeated-measures
designs. The section discussing hypothesis testing has been separated from the section on
effect size and confidence intervals to be consistent with the other two chapters on t tests.
The section comparing independent- and repeated-measures designs has been expanded.
Chapter 12 One redundant example of an ANOVA has been eliminated to simplify

and shorten the chapter. Sections of the chapter have been reorganized to allow the discus-
sion to flow directly from hypothesis tests and effect size to post tests.
Chapter 13 The section discussing factors that influence the outcome of a repeated-
measures hypothesis test and associated measures of effect size has been substantially ex-
panded. The same research example is used to introduce and to demonstrate the two-factor
ANOVA, which simplifies that portion of the chapter.
Chapter 14 The section on partial correlations was deemed not essential to the topic
of correlation and has been eliminated, which substantially simplifies and shortens the
chapter.
Chapter 15 A new section introduces Cohen’s w as a measure of effect size for both
chi-square tests.
■ Matching the Text to Your Syllabus

The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics courses.
However, different instructors may prefer different organizations and probably will choose
to omit or deemphasize specific topics. We have tried to make separate chapters, and even
sections of chapters, completely self-contained, so that they can be deleted or reorganized
to fit the syllabus for nearly any instructor. Some common examples are as follows:
■ It is common for instructors to choose between emphasizing analysis of variance
(Chapters 12 and 13) or emphasizing correlation/regression (Chapter 14). It is rare for
a one-semester course to complete coverage of both topics.
■ Although we choose to complete all the hypothesis tests for means and mean differ-
ences before introducing correlation (Chapter 14), many instructors prefer to place
correlation much earlier in the sequence of course topics. To accommodate this,
xiv PREFACE
sections 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3 present the calculation and interpretation of the Pearson
correlation and can be introduced immediately following Chapter 4 (variability).
Other sections of Chapter 14 refer to hypothesis testing and should be delayed until
the process of hypothesis testing (Chapter 8) has been introduced.
■ It is also possible for instructors to present the chi-square tests (Chapter 15) much
earlier in the sequence of course topics. Chapter 15, which presents hypothesis tests
for proportions, can be presented immediately after Chapter 8, which introduces the
process of hypothesis testing. If this is done, we also recommend that the Pearson
correlation (Sections 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3) be presented early to provide a foundation
for the chi-square test for independence.
To the Student
A primary goal of this book is to make the task of learning statistics as easy and painless
as possible. Among other things, you will notice that the book provides you with a number
of opportunities to practice the techniques you will be learning in the form of Learning
Checks, Examples, Demonstrations, and end-of-chapter problems. We encourage you to
take advantage of these opportunities. Read the text rather than just memorizing the for-
mulas. We have taken care to present each statistical procedure in a conceptual context that
explains why the procedure was developed and when it should be used. If you read this
material and gain an understanding of the basic concepts underlying a statistical formula,
you will find that learning the formula and how to use it will be much easier. In the “Study
Hints” that follow, we provide advice that we give our own students. Ask your instructor
for advice as well; we are sure that other instructors will have ideas of their own.
■ Study Hints
You may find some of these tips helpful, as our own students have reported.
■ The key to success in a statistics course is to keep up with the material. Each new
topic builds on previous topics. If you have learned the previous material, then the
new topic is just one small step forward. Without the proper background, however,
the new topic can be a complete mystery. If you find that you are falling behind, get
help immediately.
■ You will learn (and remember) much more if you study for short periods several
times per week rather than try to condense all of your studying into one long session.
Distributed practice is best for learning. For example, it is far more effective to study
and do problems for half an hour every night than to have a single three-and-a-half-
hour study session once a week. We cannot even work on writing this book without
frequent rest breaks.
■ Do some work before class. Stay a little bit ahead of the instructor by reading the
appropriate sections before they are presented in class. Although you may not fully
understand what you read, you will have a general idea of the topic, which will make
the lecture easier to follow. Also, you can identify material that is particularly confus-
ing and then be sure the topic is clarified in class.
■ Pay attention and think during class. Although this advice seems obvious, often it is
not practiced. Many students spend so much time trying to write down every example
presented or every word spoken by the instructor that they do not actually understand
and process what is being said. Check with your instructor—there may not be a need
to copy every example presented in class, especially if there are many examples like
PREFACE xv
it in the text. Sometimes, we tell our students to put their pens and pencils down for a
moment and just listen.
■ Test yourself regularly. Do not wait until the end of the chapter or the end of
the week to check your knowledge. As you are reading the textbook, stop and
do the examples. Also, stop and do the Learning Checks at the end of each sec-
tion. After each lecture, work some of the end-of- chapter problems. Review the
Demonstration problems, and be sure you can define the Key Terms. If you are
having trouble, get your questions answered immediately—reread the section, go
to your instructor, or ask questions in class. By doing so, you will be able to move
ahead to new material.
■ Do not kid yourself! Avoid denial. Many students observe their instructor solving
problems in class and think to themselves, “This looks easy, I understand it.” Do you
really understand it? Can you really do the problem on your own without having to
leaf through the pages of a chapter? Although there is nothing wrong with using ex-
amples in the text as models for solving problems, you should try working a problem
with your book closed to test your level of mastery.
■ We realize that many students are embarrassed to ask for help. It is our biggest chal-
lenge as instructors. You must find a way to overcome this aversion. Perhaps contact-
ing the instructor directly would be a good starting point, if asking questions in class
is too anxiety-provoking. You could be pleasantly surprised to find that your instruc-
tor does not yell, scold, or bite! Also, your instructor might know of another student
who can offer assistance. Peer tutoring can be very helpful.
■ Contact Us
Over the years, the students in our classes and other students using our book have given us
valuable feedback. If you have any suggestions or comments about this book, you can write
to either Professor Emeritus Frederick Gravetter, Professor Emeritus Larry Wallnau, or
Professor Lori-Ann Forzano at the Department of Psychology, The College at Brockport,
SUNY, 350 New Campus Drive, Brockport, New York 14420. You can also contact Profes-
sor Emeritus Gravetter directly at fgravett@brockport.edu.
Ancillaries
Ancillaries for this edition include the following.
■ MindTap® Psychology MindTap® Psychology for Gravetter/Wallnau/Forzano’s
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, Ninth Edition is the digital learn-
ing solution that helps instructors engage and transform today’s students into criti-
cal thinkers. Through paths of dynamic assignments and applications that you can
personalize, real-time course analytics, and an accessible reader, MindTap helps you
turn cookie cutter into cutting edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into
higher-level thinkers. As an instructor using MindTap you have at your fingertips
the right content and unique set of tools curated specifically for your course, such as
video tutorials that walk students through various concepts and interactive problem
tutorials that provide students opportunities to practice what they have learned, all
in an interface designed to improve workflow and save time when planning lessons
and course structure. The control to build and personalize your course is all yours,
focusing on the most relevant material while also lowering costs for your students.
Stay connected and informed in your course through real time student tracking that
xvi PREFACE
provides the opportunity to adjust the course as needed based on analytics of interac-
tivity in the course.
■ Aplia An online interactive learning solution that ensures students stay involved
with their coursework and master the basic tools and concepts of statistical analysis.
Created by a research psychologist to help students excel, Aplia’s content engages
students with questions based on real-world scenarios that help students understand
how statistics applies to everyday life. At the same time, all chapter assignments are
automatically graded and provide students with detailed explanations, making sure
they learn from and improve with every question.
■ Online Instructor’s Manual The manual includes learning objectives, key terms, a
detailed chapter outline, a chapter summary, lesson plans, discussion topics, student
activities, “What If” scenarios, media tools, a sample syllabus, and an expanded test
bank. The learning objectives are correlated with the discussion topics, student activi-
ties, and media tools.
■ Online PowerPoints Helping you make your lectures more engaging while effec-
tively reaching your visually oriented students, these handy Microsoft PowerPoint®
slides outline the chapters of the main text in a classroom-ready presentation. The
PowerPoint® slides are updated to reflect the content and organization of the new
edition of the text.
■ Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero® Cengage Learning Testing,
powered by Cognero®, is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and
manage test bank content. You can create multiple test versions in an instant and
deliver tests from your LMS in your classroom.
Acknowledgments
It takes a lot of good, hard-working people to produce a book. Our friends at Cengage
have made enormous contributions to this textbook. We thank: Marta Lee-Perriard, Prod-
uct Director; Carly McJunkin, Product Manager; Kimiya Hojjat, Product Assistant; Carol
Samet, Senior Content Project Manager; and Vernon Boes, Art Director. Special thanks go
to Linda Man, our Content Developer, and to Lynn Lustberg who led us through produc-
tion at MPS.
Reviewers play an important role in the development of a manuscript. Accordingly, we
offer our appreciation to the following colleagues for their assistance: Patricia Tomich,
Kent State University; Robert E. Wickham, University of Houston; Jessica Urschel, West-
ern Michigan University; Wilson Chu, California State University, Long Beach; Melissa
Platt, University of Oregon; Brian Detweiler-Bedell, Lewis and Clark College.
Finally, our heartfelt thanks to our spouses and children: Debbie Gravetter; Charlie,
Ryan, and Alex Forzano; and Naomi and Nico Wallnau. This book could not have been
written without their patience and support.
Frederick J Gravetter
Larry B. Wallnau
Lori-Ann B. Forzano
A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S
FREDERICK J GRAVETTER is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The

College at Brockport, State University of New York. While teaching at
Brockport, Dr. Gravetter specialized in statistics, experimental design, and
cognitive psychology. He received his bachelor’s degree in mathematics
from M.I.T. and his Ph.D. in psychology from Duke University. In addi-
tion to publishing this textbook and several research articles, Dr. Gravetter
coauthored Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences and Statistics for
the Behavioral Sciences.
LARRY B. WALLNAU is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The College

at Brockport, State University of New York. While teaching at Brockport,
he published numerous research articles in biopsychology and has provided
editorial consultation for journals. With Dr. Gravetter, he coauthored Statis-
tics for the Behavioral Sciences. Dr. Wallnau received his bachelor’s degree
from the University of New Haven and his Ph.D. in psychology from the
State University of New York at Albany. He has taken up running and has
competed in races in New York and New England. He takes great pleasure in
adopting neglected and rescued dogs.
LORI-ANN B. FORZANO is Professor of Psychology at The College at

Brockport, State University of New York, where she regularly teaches under-
graduate and graduate courses in research methods, learning, the psychology
of eating, and statistics. She earned a Ph.D. in experimental psychology from
the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where she also received her
B.S. in psychology. Dr. Forzano’s research examines impulsivity and self-
control in adults and children. Her research has been published in the Journal
of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Learning and Motivation, and The
Psychological Record. Dr. Forzano has also coauthored Research Methods for
the Behavioral Sciences.
xvii
CH A P T ER
Introduction to Statistics
1
1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

1-2 Variables and Measurement
1-3 Three Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics
1-4 Statistical Notation
Summary
Focus on Problem Solving
Demonstration 1.1
Problems
2 CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to Statistics
1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

LE ARN IN G O BJ EC TIVE S
1. Define the terms population, sample, parameter, and statistic; describe the relation-
ships between them; and identify examples of each.
2. Define the two general categories of statistics, descriptive and inferential, and
describe how they are used in a typical research study.
3. Describe the concept of sampling error and explain how sampling error creates the
fundamental problem that inferential statistics must address.
■ Introduction
Before we begin our discussion of statistics, we ask you to read the following paragraph
taken from the philosophy of Wrong Shui (Candappa, 2000).
The Journey to Enlightenment
In Wrong Shui, life is seen as a cosmic journey, a struggle to overcome unseen and
unexpected obstacles at the end of which the traveler will find illumination and
enlightenment. Replicate this quest in your home by moving light switches away
from doors and over to the far side of each room.*
Why did we begin a statistics book with a bit of twisted philosophy? In part, we simply
wanted to lighten the mood with a bit of humor—starting a statistics course is typically not
viewed as one of life’s joyous moments. In addition, the paragraph is an excellent counter-
example for the purpose of this book. Specifically, our goal is to do everything possible to
prevent you from stumbling around in the dark by providing lots of help and illumination
as you journey through the world of statistics. To accomplish this, we begin each section
of the book with clearly stated learning objectives and end each section with a brief quiz
to test your mastery of the new material. We also introduce each new statistical procedure
by explaining the purpose it is intended to serve. If you understand why a new procedure is
needed, you will find it much easier to learn.
The objectives for this first chapter are to provide an introduction to the topic of statis-
tics and to give you some background for the rest of the book. We discuss the role of statis-
tics within the general field of scientific inquiry, and we introduce some of the vocabulary
and notation that are necessary for the statistical methods that follow.
As you read through the following chapters, keep in mind that the general topic of
statistics follows a well-organized, logically developed progression that leads from basic
concepts and definitions to increasingly sophisticated techniques. Thus, each new topic
serves as a foundation for the material that follows. The content of the first nine chapters,
for example, provides an essential background and context for the statistical methods pre-
sented in Chapter 10. If you turn directly to Chapter 10 without reading the first nine chap-
ters, you will find the material confusing and incomprehensible. However, if you learn and
use the background material, you will have a good frame of reference for understanding
and incorporating new concepts as they are presented.
■ Definitions of Statistics
By one definition, statistics consist of facts and figures such as the average annual snowfall
in Denver or Derek Jeter’s lifetime batting average. These statistics are usually informative
*Candappa, R. (2000). The Little Book of Wrong Shui. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing.
Reprinted by permission.
SECTION 1-1 | Statistics, Science, and Observations 3
and time-saving because they condense large quantities of information into a few simple fig-
ures. Later in this chapter we return to the notion of calculating statistics (facts and figures),
but for now we concentrate on a much broader definition of statistics. Specifically, we use the
term statistics to refer to a general field of mathematics. In this case, we are using the term
statistics as a shortened version of statistical procedures. For example, you are probably
using this book for a statistics course in which you will learn about the statistical techniques
that are used to summarize and evaluate research results in the behavioral sciences.
Research in the behavioral sciences (and other fields) involves gathering information.
To determine, for example, whether college students learn better by reading material on
printed pages or on a computer screen, you would need to gather information about stu-
dents’ study habits and their academic performance. When researchers finish the task of
gathering information, they typically find themselves with pages and pages of measure-
ments such as test scores, personality scores, and opinions. In this book, we present the
statistics that researchers use to analyze and interpret the information that they gather.
Specifically, statistics serve two general purposes:
1. Statistics are used to organize and summarize the information so that the researcher
can see what happened in the research study and can communicate the results to
others.
2. Statistics help the researcher to answer the questions that initiated the research by
determining exactly what general conclusions are justified based on the specific
results that were obtained.
The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,

summarizing, and interpreting information.
Statistical procedures help ensure that the information or observations are presented
and interpreted in an accurate and informative way. In somewhat grandiose terms, statistics
help researchers bring order out of chaos. In addition, statistics provide researchers with a
set of standardized techniques that are recognized and understood throughout the scientific
community. Thus, the statistical methods used by one researcher will be familiar to other
researchers, who can accurately interpret the statistical analyses with a full understanding
of how the statistics were done and what the results signify.
■ Populations and Samples

Research in the behavioral sciences typically begins with a general question about a specific
group (or groups) of individuals. For example, a researcher may want to know what factors
are associated with academic dishonesty among college students. Or a researcher may want
to examine the amount of time spent in the bathroom for men compared to women. In the
first example, the researcher is interested in the group of college students. In the second
example, the researcher wants to compare the group of men with the group of women. In sta-
tistical terminology, the entire group that a researcher wishes to study is called a population.
A population is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.
As you can well imagine, a population can be quite large—for example, the entire set
of women on the planet Earth. A researcher might be more specific, limiting the population
for study to women who are registered voters in the United States. Perhaps the investigator
would like to study the population consisting of women who are U.S. senators. Popula-
tions can obviously vary in size from extremely large to very small, depending on how the
investigator defines the population. The population being studied should always be identi-
fied by the researcher. In addition, the population need not consist of people—it could be a
population of rats, corporations, parts produced in a factory, or anything else an investiga-
tor wants to study. In practice, populations are typically very large, such as the population
of college sophomores in the United States or the population of small businesses.
Because populations tend to be very large, it usually is impossible for a researcher to
examine every individual in the population of interest. Therefore, researchers typically select
a smaller, more manageable group from the population and limit their studies to the individ-
uals in the selected group. In statistical terms, a set of individuals selected from a population
is called a sample. A sample is intended to be representative of its population, and a sample
should always be identified in terms of the population from which it was selected.
A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to

represent the population in a research study.
Just as we saw with populations, samples can vary in size. For example, one study might
examine a sample of only 10 students in a graduate program and another study might use a
sample of more than 10,000 people who take a specific cholesterol medication.
So far we have talked about a sample being selected from a population. However, this is
actually only half of the full relationship between a sample and its population. Specifically,
when a researcher finishes examining the sample, the goal is to generalize the results back
to the entire population. Remember that the research started with a general question about
the population. To answer the question, a researcher studies a sample and then generalizes
the results from the sample to the population. The full relationship between a sample and a
population is shown in Figure 1.1.
■ Variables and Data

Typically, researchers are interested in specific characteristics of the individuals in the pop-
ulation (or in the sample), or they are interested in the factors that may influence individuals
THE POPULATION
All of the individuals of interest
The results
The sample
from the sample
is selected from
are generalized
the population
to the population
F I G U R E 1.1 THE SAMPLE

The relationship between The individuals selected to
a population and a sample. participate in the research study
or their behaviors. For example, a researcher may be interested in the influence of televi-
sion commercials on people’s fast-food preferences. As new commercials appear on TV,
do people’s food choices also change? Something that can change or have different values
is called a variable.
A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for

different individuals.
Once again, variables can be characteristics that differ from one individual to anoth-
er, such as weight, gender, personality, or fast-food preferences. Also, variables can be
environmental conditions that change such as temperature, time of day, or television
commercials.
To demonstrate changes in variables, it is necessary to make measurements of the vari-
ables being examined. The measurement obtained for each individual is called a datum,
or more commonly, a score or raw score. The complete set of scores is called the data set
or simply the data.
Data (plural) are measurements or observations. A data set is a collection of

measurements or observations. A datum (singular) is a single measurement or
observation and is commonly called a score or raw score.
Before we move on, we should make one more point about samples, populations, and
data. Earlier, we defined populations and samples in terms of individuals. For example,
we discussed a population of college students and a sample of cholesterol patients. Be
forewarned, however, that we will also refer to populations or samples of scores. Because
research typically involves measuring each individual to obtain a score, every sample (or
population) of individuals produces a corresponding sample (or population) of scores.
■ Parameters and Statistics

When describing data it is necessary to specify whether the data come from a population
or a sample. A characteristic that describes a population—for example, the average score
for the population—is called a parameter. A characteristic that describes a sample is called
a statistic. Thus, the average score for a sample is an example of a statistic. Typically, the
research process begins with a question about a population parameter. However, the actual
data come from a sample and are used to compute sample statistics.
A parameter is a value—usually a numerical value—that describes a population.

A parameter is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the
population.
A statistic is a value—usually a numerical value—that describes a sample. A
statistic is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the sample.
Every population parameter has a corresponding sample statistic, and most research
studies involve using statistics from samples as the basis for answering questions about
population parameters (Figure 1.1). As a result, much of this book is concerned with the
relationship between sample statistics and the corresponding population parameters. In
Chapter 7, for example, we examine the relationship between the mean obtained for a
sample and the mean for the population from which the sample was obtained.
■ Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

Although researchers have developed a variety of different statistical procedures to orga-
nize and interpret data, these different procedures can be classified into two general
categories. The first category, descriptive statistics, consists of statistical procedures that
are used to simplify and summarize data.
Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and

simplify data.
Descriptive statistics are techniques that take raw scores and organize or summarize
them in a form that is more manageable. Often the scores are organized in a table or a graph
so that it is possible to see the entire set of scores. Another common technique is to sum-
marize a set of scores by computing an average. Note that even if the data set has hundreds
of scores, the average provides a single descriptive value for the entire set.
The second general category of statistical techniques is called inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics are methods that use sample data to make general statements about a
population.
Inferential statistics consist of techniques that allow us to study samples and then
make generalizations about the populations from which they were selected.
Because populations are typically very large, it usually is not possible to measure
everyone in the population. Therefore, a sample is selected to represent the population.
By analyzing the results from the sample, we hope to make general statements about the
population. Typically, researchers use sample statistics as the basis for drawing conclusions
about population parameters. One problem with using samples, however, is that a sample
provides only limited information about the population. Although samples are generally
representative of their populations, a sample is not expected to give a perfectly accurate
picture of the whole population. Thus, there usually is some discrepancy between a sample
statistic and the corresponding population parameter. This discrepancy is called sampling
error, and it creates the fundamental problem that inferential statistics must address.
Sampling error is the naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists

between a sample statistic and the corresponding population parameter.
The concept of sampling error is illustrated in Figure 1.2. The figure shows a population
of 1,000 college students and two samples, each with five students who were selected from
the population. Notice that each sample contains different individuals who have different
characteristics. Because the characteristics of each sample depend on the specific people in
the sample, statistics will vary from one sample to another. For example, the five students
in sample 1 have an average age of 19.8 years and the students in sample 2 have an average
age of 20.4 years.
It is also very unlikely that the statistics obtained for a sample will be identical to the
parameters for the entire population. In Figure 1.2, for example, neither sample has sta-
tistics that are exactly the same as the population parameters. You should also realize that
Figure 1.2 shows only two of the hundreds of possible samples. Each sample would con-
tain different individuals and would produce different statistics. This is the basic concept
of sampling error: sample statistics vary from one sample to another and typically are
different from the corresponding population parameters.
FIGURE 1.2
A demonstration of sampling error. Two
samples are selected from the same population.
Notice that the sample statistics are different Population
of 1000 college students
from one sample to another, and all of the
sample statistics are different from the Population
opulation Parameters
corresponding population parameters. The Average Age 5 21.3 years
natural differences that exist, by chance, Average IQ 5 112.5
between a sample statistic and a population 65% Female, 35% Male
parameter are called sampling error.
Sample #1 Sample #2
Eric Tom
Jessica Kristen
Laura Sara
Karen Andrew
Brian John
Sample St
Statistics Sample St
Statistics
Average Age 5 19.8 Average Age 5 20.4
Average IQ 5 104.6 Average IQ 5 114.2
60% Female, 40% Male 40% Female, 60% Male
One common example of sampling error is the error associated with a sample pro-
portion. For example, in newspaper articles reporting results from political polls, you
frequently find statements such as this:
Candidate Brown leads the poll with 51% of the vote. Candidate Jones has 42% approval,
and the remaining 7% are undecided. This poll was taken from a sample of registered vot-
ers and has a margin of error of plus-or-minus 4 percentage points.
The “margin of error” is the sampling error. In this case, the percentages that are
reported were obtained from a sample and are being generalized to the whole population.
As always, you do not expect the statistics from a sample to be perfect. There always
will be some “margin of error” when sample statistics are used to represent population
parameters.
■ Statistics in the Context of Research

The following example shows the general stages of a research study and demonstrates
how descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are used to organize and interpret the
data. At the end of the example, note how sampling error can affect the interpretation of
experimental results, and consider why inferential statistical methods are needed to deal
with this problem.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Figure 1.3 shows an overview of a general research situation and demonstrates the roles
that descriptive and inferential statistics play. The purpose of the research study is to
address a question that we posed earlier: Do college students learn better by study-
ing text on printed pages or on a computer screen? Two samples are selected from
the population of college students. The students in sample A are given printed pages
of text to study for 30 minutes and the students in sample B study the same text on a
computer screen. Next, all of the students are given a multiple-choice test to evaluate
their knowledge of the material. At this point, the researcher has two sets of data: the
scores for sample A and the scores for sample B (see the figure). Now is the time to
begin using statistics.
Step 1
Experiment: Population of
Compare two College
studying methods Students
Data
Test scores for the Sample A Sample B
students in each Read from printed Read from computer
sample pages screen
25 26 28 20 22 27
27 21 27 23 17 23
30 28 24 25 28 21
19 23 26 22 19 22
29 26 22 18 24 19
Step 2
Descriptive statistics: 20 25 30 20 25 30
Organize and simplify
Average Average
Score = 26 Score = 22
Step 3 The sample data show w a 4-point dif

difference
Inferential statistics: between the two methods of studying. However,
Interpret results there are two ways to interpret the results.
1. Ther
There e actually is no dif
diffe
ference between
the two studying methods, and the sample
dif rence is due to chance (sampling error).
diffe
2. Ther
There really is a dif
difference between
the two methods, and the sample data
accurately reflect
ect this dif
difference.
FIGURE 1.3 The goal of inferential statistics is to help researchers
The role of statistics in research. decide between the two interpretations.
First, descriptive statistics are used to simplify the pages of data. For example, the
researcher could draw a graph showing the scores for each sample or compute the aver-
age score for each sample. Note that descriptive methods provide a simplified, organized
description of the scores. In this example, the students who studied printed pages had
an average score of 26 on the test, and the students who studied text on the computer
averaged 22.
Once the researcher has described the results, the next step is to interpret the outcome.
This is the role of inferential statistics. In this example, the researcher has found a difference
of 4 points between the two samples (sample A averaged 26 and sample B averaged 22).
The problem for inferential statistics is to differentiate between the following two
interpretations:
1. There is no real difference between the printed page and a computer screen, and
the 4-point difference between the samples is just an example of sampling error
(like the samples in Figure 1.2).
2. There really is a difference between the printed page and a computer screen, and
the 4-point difference between the samples was caused by the different methods
of studying.
In simple English, does the 4-point difference between samples provide convincing
evidence of a difference between the two studying methods, or is the 4-point difference just
chance? The purpose of inferential statistics is to answer this question. ■
LE ARN IN G CH ECK LO1 1. A researcher is interested in the fast-food eating habits of American college
students. A group of 50 students is interviewed and the researcher finds
that these students eat an average of 2.3 commercially prepared meals
per week. For this study, the average of 2.3 meals is an example
of a .
a. parameter
b. statistic
c. population
d. sample
LO1 2. A researcher is curious about the average distance traveled by Canada geese
during peak fall migration in the state of New York. The entire group of
Canada geese in the state is an example of a .
a. sample
b. statistic
c. population
d. parameter
LO2 3. What term is used for the statistical techniques that use sample data
to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample was
obtained?
a. population statistics
b. sample statistics
c. descriptive statistics
d. inferential statistics
LO3 4. The SAT is standardized so that the average score on the verbal test is 500 each
year. If you select a group of 100 graduating seniors who have taken the verbal
SAT, what value would be obtained for their average score?
a. 500
b. greater than 500
c. less than 500
d. around 500 but probably not equal to 500
AN S WE R S 1. b 2. c 3. d 4. d
1-2 Variables and Measurement

LE ARN IN G O BJ EC TIVE S
4. Explain why operational definitions are developed for constructs and identify the
two components of an operational definition.
5. Describe discrete and continuous variables and identify examples of each.
6. Define real limits and explain why they are needed to measure continuous
variables.
7. Compare and contrast the four scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio) and identify examples of each.
The scores that make up the data from a research study are the result of observing and
measuring variables. For example, a researcher may finish a study with a set of IQ scores,
personality scores, or reaction-time scores. In this section, we take a closer look at the vari-
ables that are being measured and the process of measurement.
■ Constructs and Operational Definitions

Some variables, such as height, weight, and eye color are well-defined, concrete entities
that can be observed and measured directly. On the other hand, many variables studied
by behavioral scientists are internal characteristics that people use to help describe and
explain behavior. For example, we say that a student does well in school because he or
she is intelligent. Or we say that someone is anxious in social situations, or that someone
seems to be hungry. Variables like intelligence, anxiety, and hunger are called constructs,
and because they are intangible and cannot be directly observed, they are often called
hypothetical constructs.
Although constructs such as intelligence are internal characteristics that cannot be
directly observed, it is possible to observe and measure behaviors that are representative
of the construct. For example, we cannot “see” intelligence but we can see examples of
intelligent behavior. The external behaviors can then be used to create an operational defi-
nition for the construct. An operational definition defines a construct in terms of external
behaviors that can be observed and measured. For example, your intelligence is measured
and defined by your performance on an IQ test, or hunger can be measured and defined by
the number of hours since last eating.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
spectators and the lantern. The images are made to appear
approaching and receding, by removing the lantern further from the
screen, or bringing it nearer to it. This is a great advantage over the
arrangements of the magic lantern, and by it the most astonishing
effects are often produced.
Dissolving Views.
The dissolving views, by which one landscape or scene appears to
pass into the other while the scene is changing, are produced by
using two magic lanterns, placed side by side, and that can be
inclined towards each other when necessary, so as to mix the rays of
light, proceeding from the lenses of each, together, which produces
that confusion of images, in which one view melts, as it were, into
the other, which gradually becomes clear and distinct.
How to Raise a Ghost.

The magic lantern or phantasmagoria may be used in a number of
marvelous ways, but in none more striking than in raising an
apparent specter. Let an open box, about three feet long, a foot and
a half broad, and two feet high, be prepared. At one end of this place
a small swing dressing-glass, and at the other let a magic lantern be
fixed, with the lenses in a direction towards the glass. A glass should
now be made to slide up and down in the groove to which a cord and
pulley should be attached, the end of the cord coming to the lower
part of the left hand side. On this glass the most hideous specter that
can be imagined may be painted, but in a squat or contracted
position, and when all is done, the lid of the box must be prepared by
raising a kind of gable at the end of the box, and in its lower part an
oval hole should be cut sufficiently large to suffer the rays reflected
from the glass to pass through them. On the top or the box place a
chafing-dish, upon which put some burning charcoal. Now light the
lamp in the lantern, sprinkle some powdered camphor or white
incense on the charcoal, adjust the slide on which the specter is
painted, and the image will be thrown upon the smoke. In performing
the feat the room must be darkened, and the box should be placed
on a high table, that the hole through which the light comes may not
be noticed.
To Imitate a Mirage.
Provide a glass tumbler two-thirds full of water, and pour spirits of
wine upon it; or pour into a tumbler some syrup, and fill it up with
water; when mixed, the object seen through it will be inverted.
Two-fold Reflections.
Provide a circular piece of glass, and with a common awl, moistened
with spirits of turpentine, pierce the center of the glass; hold it
encircled with the fingers and thumb in the sunshine, or the strong
light of a lamp, when these striking effects will be produced: If the
glass be red, the hole pierced in the middle will be reflected green; if
the glass be green, the spot will be red; if blue, orange; and if yellow,
indigo.
The Thaumatrope.
Cut out a piece of card-board of circular form, and affix to it six
pieces of string, three on each side. Paint on one side of the card a
bird, and on the other a cage, taking care to paint the bird upside
down, or the desired effect will not be produced. When showing the
toy, take hold of the center strings, between the forefinger and
thumb, and twirl the card rapidly around, and the bird will appear
snugly ensconced in its cage. The principle on which this effect is
produced is, that the image of any object received on the retina or
optic nerve is retained on the mind about eight seconds after the
object causing the impression is withdrawn, being the memory of the
object; consequently, the impression of the painting on one side of
the card is not obliterated ere the painting on the other side is
brought before the eye. It is easy to understand from this fact how
both are seen at once. Many objects will suit the thaumatrope, such
as a juggler throwing up two balls on one side, and two balls on the
other; and according to the pairs of strings employed, he will appear
to throw up two, three, or four balls; the body and legs of a man on
one side, and the arms and head on another; a horse and his rider; a
mouse and trap. But we leave it to the ingenuity of our readers to
devise for themselves.
PNEUMATIC AMUSEMENTS.
The branch of the physical sciences which relates to the air and its
various phenomena is called Pneumatics. By it we learn many
curious particulars. By it we find that the air has weight and pressure,
color, density, elasticity, compressibility, and some other properties
with which we shall endeavor to make the young reader acquainted,
by many pleasing experiments, earnestly impressing upon him to
lose no opportunity of making physical science his study.
To show that the air has weight and pressure, the common leather
sucker by which boys raise stones will show the pressure of the
atmosphere. It consists of a piece of soft but firm leather, having a
piece of string drawn through its center. The leather is made quite
wet and pliable, and then its under part is placed upon the stone and
stamped down by the foot. This pressing of the leather excludes the
air from between the leather and the stone, and by pulling the string
a vacuum is left underneath its center; consequently the weight of
the air about the edges of the leather not being counterbalanced by
any air between it and the stone, enables the boy to lift it.
The Magic Tumbler.

The air which for about forty miles surrounds our earth has a definite
weight; and although we can neither see nor feel it, we are
conscious of its presence by the momentary operation of breathing.
The weight of a column of air one inch square, and forty miles high,
is about fifteen pounds.
The reason why we are not crushed down by this enormous weight
is because we are surrounded on all sides by it, and as the pressure
of weight is equal all around, it becomes, as far as we are personally
concerned, insensible.
That the air does exert a definite pressure, in consequence of its
weight, may be easily proved by any one with the above simple
apparatus—only a tumbler and a sheet of paper. Fill a tumbler quite
full of water, and carefully draw over its top a sheet of clean letter
paper, and be careful to see that there are no bubbles of air in the
water; place your hand over the paper while inverting it, and when
the glass is mouth downward the water will be kept in, until the paper
becomes wet through. The air pressing against the mouth of the
tumbler is of greater weight than the contained water, and so, until
some air can get in to supply the place of the water, it cannot fall out.
The Weight of the Air Proved by a Pair of

Bellows.
Shut the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows, and after having
squeezed the air out of them, if they are perfectly air-tight, we shall
find that a very great force, even some hundreds of pounds, is
necessary for separating the boards. They are kept together by the
weight of the heavy air which surrounds them, in the same manner
as if they were surrounded by water.
The Revolving Serpent.

This illustration represents an amusing and instructive experiment,
which proves the ascension of heated air by rendering its effects
visible, and it may also be used to test the direction of the currents in
our rooms and dwellings. To construct one, a piece of card-board is
taken and cut in the form of a spiral, and to give effect it may be
painted to represent a serpent. Then prepare a stand, having a
needle in its upper end, and suspend the serpent from its center on
the needle. If this be now placed over a stove, or the tail of the
serpent suspended by a bit of thread over a lamp, the heated air
ascending through it will cause it to revolve in a very amusing
manner. Two serpents may be made to turn in opposite directions,
by pulling out one from the one side, and the other in the reverse
direction, so that their heads may point toward each other when
suspended.
To Put a Lighted Candle Under Water.

Procure a good-sized cork, or bung; upon this place a small, lighted
taper; then set it afloat in a pail of water. Now, with a steady hand,
invert a large drinking glass over the light, and push it carefully down
into the water. The glass being full of air, prevents the water from
entering it. You may thus see the candle burn under water, and bring
it up again to the surface, still alight. This experiment, simple as it is,
serves to elucidate that useful contrivance called the diving-bell,
being performed on the same principle.
The largest drinking-glass holds but half a pint, so that your diving
light soon goes out for the want of air. As an average, a burning
candle consumes as much air as a man, and he requires nearly a
gallon of air every minute, so that, according to the size of the glass
over the flame, you can calculate how many seconds it will remain
alight; of course, a large flame requires more air than a small one.
For this, and several other experiments, a quart bell-glass is very
useful, but being expensive it is not found in every parlor laboratory:
one is, however, easily made from a green glass pickle-bottle; get a
glazier to cut off the bottom, and you have a bell-glass that Chilton
would not reject.
To Place Water in a Drinking-Glass Upside Down.

Procure a plate, a tumbler, and a small piece of tissue or silver
paper. Set the plate on a table, and pour water in it up to the first rim.
Now slightly crumple up the paper, and place it in the glass; then set
it on fire. When it is burnt out, or rather just as the last flame
disappears, turn the glass quickly upside down into the water.
Astonishing! the water rushes with great violence into the glass! Now
you are satisfied that water can be placed in a drinking-glass upside
down. Hold the glass firm, and the plate also. You can now reverse
the position of the plate and glass, and thus convince the most
skeptical of the truth of your pneumatic experiment. Instead of
burning paper, a little brandy or spirits of wine can be ignited in the
glass; the result of its combustion being invisible, the experiment is
cleaner.
AMUSEMENTS IN MECHANICS.
There is no subject so important as mechanics, as its principles are
founded upon the properties of matter and the laws of motion; and,
knowing something of these, the tyro will lay the foundation of all
substantial knowledge.
The properties of matter are the following: Solidity (or
impenetrability), divisibility, mobility, elasticity, brittleness, malleability,
ductility and tenacity.
The laws of motion are as follows:
1. Every body continues in a state of rest, or uniform rectilineal
motion, unless affected by some extraneous force.
2. The change of motion is always proportionate to the impelling
force.
3. Action and reaction are always equal and contrary.
Experiment of the Law of Motion.

In shooting at “taw,” if the marble be struck “plump,” as it is called, it
moves forward exactly in the same line of direction; but if struck
sideways, it will move in an oblique direction, and its course will be in
a line situated between the direction of its former motion and that of
the force impressed. It is called the resolution of forces.
Balancing.
The center of gravity in a body is that part about which all the other
parts equally balance each other. In balancing a stick upon the
finger, or upon the chin, it is necessary only to keep the chin or finger
exactly under the point which is called the center of gravity.
The Balanced Coin.

It seems to be an astounding statement that a quarter, or other piece
of money, can be made to spin on the point of a needle. To perform
this experiment, procure a bottle, cork it, and in the cork place a
needle. Now take another cork and cut a slit in it, so that the edge of
the coin will fit into the slit; next place two forks in the cork, and
placing the edge of the coin on the needle, it will spin around without
falling off. The reason is this: that the weight of the forks projecting
as they do so much below the coin, brings the center of gravity of the
arrangement much below the point of suspension, or the point of the
needle, and therefore the coin remains perfectly safe and upright.
The Spanish Dancer.

The laws which govern the motion of bodies are capable of many
pleasing illustrations, and the example which we now give of causing
rotary motion is very interesting and easily performed.
Take a piece of card, and cut out a little figure, and paste or gum it in
an erect position on the inside of a watch-glass. Then procure a
black japanned waiter, or a clean plate will do, and, holding it in an
inclined position, place the figure and watch-glass on it, and they will,
of course, slide down. Next let fall a drop of water on the waiter,
place the watch-glass on it, and again incline the waiter, and instead
of the watch-glass sliding down, it will begin to revolve. It will
continue to revolve with increasing velocity, obeying the inclination
and position of the plane, as directed by the hand of the
experimentalist. The reason of this is, in the first place, in
consequence of the cohesion of the water to the two surfaces, a new
force is introduced, by which an unequal degree of resistance is
imparted to different parts of the watch-glass in contact with the
waiter, and, consequently, in its effort to slide down, it revolves.
Again, if the drop of water be observed, it will be seen that it
undergoes a change of figure; a film of water, by capillary action, is
drawn to the foremost portion of the glass, while, by the centrifugal
force, a body of water is thrown under the under part of it. The effect
of both these actions is to accelerate the motion, or, in other words,
to gradually increase the speed.
The Mechanical Bucephalus.
The illustration of the horse furnishes a very good solution of a
popular paradox in mechanics: Given, a body having a tendency to
fall by its own weight; required, how to prevent it from falling by
adding to it a weight on the same side on which it tends to fall. Take
a horse in an erect position, the center of gravity of which is
somewhere about the middle of its body. It is evident, therefore, that
were it placed on its hinder legs, on a table, the line of its direction,
or center, would fall considerably beyond its base, and the horse
would fall on the ground; but to prevent this, there is a stiff wire
attached to a weight or bullet, connected with the body of the horse,
and by this means a horse prances on a table without falling off; so
that the figure that was incapable of supporting itself, is actually
prevented from falling by adding a weight to its unsupported end.
This seems almost impossible, but when we consider that in order to
have the desired effect, the wire must be bent, and the weight be
further under the table than the horse’s feet are on it, the mystery is
solved, as it brings the total weight of bullet and horse in such a
position that the tendency is rather to make it stand up than to let it
fall down.
The Revolving Image.

This little figure may be made to balance itself amusingly. Get a
piece of wood, about two inches long; cut one end of it into the form
of a man’s head and shoulders, and let the other end taper off to a
fine point. Next furnish the little gentleman with a pair of wafters,
shaped like oars, instead of arms, but they must be more than
double the length of his body; stick them in his shoulders, and he is
complete. When you place him on the tip of your finger, if you have
taken care to make the point exactly in the center, he will stand
upright. By blowing on the waiters he may be made to turn around
very quickly. It is explained by the reasons that were given in the
experiment of the “balanced coin.”
The Bridge of Knives.

Place three glasses in the form of a triangle, and arrange the
handles of three knives upon them. Nos. 1, 2, and 3, the blade of No.
1 over that of No. 2, and that over No. 3, which rests on No. 1. The
bridge so made will be self-supported.
The Parlor Boomerang.

The boomerang is a weapon used by the savages of Australia. By
them it is made of a flat piece of hard wood. The peculiarity of this
instrument is, that in whatever direction it is thrown, it will return to
the place from whence it started, in a curve. The Australian
aborigines use it with great dexterity, making it travel around a house
and return to their feet, or they can throw it on the ground so that it
will fly into the air, form a perfect arc over their heads, and strike
them on the back. This curious instrument can be made in miniature,
and is a very amusing toy for the parlor.
Get a piece of tolerably stiff cardboard, and cut from it a figure
resembling a boomerang.
The next thing is to propel it through the air so that it will return to
your feet; to do this, lay the boomerang on a flat book, allowing one
end to project about an inch; then, holding the book to a slight angle,
strike the projecting end of the boomerang with a piece of stick, or
heavy pen-holder, when it will fly across the room and return to your
feet.
The Balanced Turk.

A decanter or bottle is first obtained, and in its cork is placed a
needle; on this is balanced a ball of wood, having a cork or wooden
figure cut out, standing on the top. From the ball project two wires,
bent semicircularly, having at their extremities two bullets. Push the
bullets, and the whole will turn around on the needle, the figure
standing upright all the while; and, twist it about from side to side as
much as you like, it will always regain its erect position. The two
bullets in this case cause the center of gravity to fall below the ball
on which the figure is placed, and, in consequence, as the center of
gravity always assumes the lowest position, it cannot do so without
making the figure stand erect, or, in other words, until the bullets
themselves are equally balanced. Any boy may whittle one of these
toys out with a jack-knife.
The Complacent Vizier.

Among the novelties which scientific investigation has added to our
toys, are several figures which will raise themselves upright when
thrown down, and regain the erect position, notwithstanding their
equilibrium is disturbed. The figures themselves are made of the pith
of elder trees, or any other very light substance. Each is placed on
half a bullet, or may be made to stand on its head, by making its cap
of lead. Their appearance is very droll when they are moved about,
as they seem every moment to be falling over, and yet continually
right themselves. The philosophy of this is, that the center of gravity
being in the base, and always trying to assume the lowest position, it
keeps the figures upright. However much the equilibrium is
disturbed, it will always try to regain its original position.
ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS.
As the principal object of these articles is to enable the young reader
to learn something in his sports, and to understand what he is doing,
we shall, before proceeding to the curious tricks and feats connected
with the science of numbers, present him with some arithmetical
aphorisms, upon which most of the following examples are founded:
Aphorisms of Number.
1. If two even numbers be added together, or subtracted from each
other, their sum or difference will be an even number.
2. If two uneven numbers be added or subtracted, their sum or
difference will be an even number.
3. The sum or difference of an even and an uneven number added
or subtracted will be an uneven number.
4. The product of two even numbers will be an even number, and the
product of two uneven numbers will be an uneven number.
5. The product of an even and uneven number will be an even
number.
6. If two different numbers be divisible by any one number, their sum
and their difference will also be divisible by that number.
7. If several different numbers, divisible by 3, be added or multiplied
together, their sum and their product will also be divisible by 3.
8. If two numbers divisible by 9, be added together, their sum of the
figures in the amount will be either 9 or a number divisible by 9.
9. If any number be multiplied by 9, or by any other number divisible
by 9, the amount of the figures of the product will be either 9 or a
number divisible by 9.
10. In every arithmetical progression, if the first and last term be
each multiplied by the number of terms, and the sum of the two
products be divided by 2, the quotient will be the sum of the series.
11. In every geometric progression, if any two terms be multiplied
together, their product will be equal to that term which answers to the
sum of these two indices. Thus, in the series:
1 2 3 4 5
2 4 8 16 32
If the third and fourth terms, 8 and 16, be multiplied together, the
product, 128, will be the seventh term of the series. In like manner, if
the fifth term be multiplied into itself, the product will be the tenth
term; and if that sum be multiplied into itself, the product will be the
twentieth term. Therefore, to find the last, or twentieth term of a
geometric series, it is not necessary to continue the series beyond a
few of the first terms.
Previous to the numerical recreations, we shall here describe certain
mechanical methods of performing arithmetical calculations, such as
are not only in themselves entertaining, but will be found more or
less useful to the young reader.
To Find a Number Thought of.

FIRST METHOD.
EXAMPLE.
Let a person think of a number, say 6
1. Let him multiply by 3 18
2. Add 1 19
3. Multiply by 3 57
4. Add to this the number thought of 63
Let him inform you what is the number produced; it will always end
with 3. Strike off the 3, and inform him that he thought of 6.
SECOND METHOD.
EXAMPLE.
Suppose the number thought of to be 6
1. Let him double it 12
2. Add 4 16
3. Multiply by 5 80
4. Add 12 92
5. Multiply by 10 920
Let him inform you what is the number produced. You must then, in
every case, subtract 320; the remainder is, in this example, 600;
strike off the 2 ciphers, and announce 6 as the number thought of.
THIRD METHOD.
Desire a person to think of a number—say 6. He must then proceed:
EXAMPLE.
1. To multiply this number by itself 36
2. To take 1 from the number thought of 5
3. To multiply this by itself 25
4. To tell you the difference between this 11
product and the former
You must then add 1 to it 12
And halve this number 6
Which will be the number thought of.
FOURTH METHOD.
Desire a person to think of a number—say 6. He must then proceed
as follows:
EXAMPLE.
1. Add 1 to it 7
2. Multiply by 3 21
3. Add 1 again 22
4. Add the number thought of 28
Let him tell you the figures produced 28
5. You then subtract 4 from it 24
6. And divide by 4 6
Which you can say is the number he thought of.
FIFTH METHOD.
EXAMPLE.
Suppose the number thought of be 6
1. Let him double it 12
2. Desire him to add to this a number you tell 16
him—say 4
3. To halve it 8
You can then tell him that if he will subtract from this the number he
thought of, the remainder will be, in the case supposed, 2.
Note.—The remainder is always half the number you tell him to add.
To Discover Two or More Numbers that a Person

has Thought of.
FIRST CASE.
Where each of the numbers is less than 10. Suppose the numbers
thought of were 2, 3, 5.
EXAMPLE.
1. Desire him to double the first number, 4
making
2. To add one to it 5
3. To multiply by 5 25
4. To add the second number 28
There being a third number, repeat the
process.
5. To double it 56
6. To add 1 to it 57
7. To multiply by 5 285
8. To add the third number 290
And to proceed in the same manner for as many numbers as were
thought of. Let him tell you the last sum produced (in this case, 290).
Then, if there were two numbers thought of, you must subtract 5; if
three, 55; if four, 555. You must here subtract 55; leaving a
remainder of 235, which are the numbers thought of, 2, 3, and 5.
SECOND CASE.
Where one or more of the numbers are 10, or more than 10, and
where there is an odd number of numbers thought of.
Suppose he fixes upon five numbers, viz., 4, 6, 9, 15, 16.
He must add together the numbers as follows, and tell you the
various sums:
1. The sum of the 1st and 2d 10
2. The sum of the 2d and 3d 15
3. The sum of the 3d and 4th 24
4. The sum of the 4th and 5th 31
5. The sum of the 1st and last 20
You must then add together the 1st, 3d, and 5th sums, viz., 10 + 24
+ 20 = 54, and the 2d and 4th, 15 + 31 = 46; take one from the other,
leaving 8. The half of this is the first number, 4; if you take this from
the sum of the 1st and 2d you will have the 2d number, 6; this taken
from the sum of the 2d and 3d will give you the 3d, 9; and so on for
the other numbers.
THIRD CASE.
Where one or more of the numbers are 10, or more than 10, and
where an even number of numbers has been thought of.
Suppose he fixes on six numbers, viz: 2, 6, 7, 15, 16, 18. He must
add together the numbers as follows, and tell you the sum in each
case:
1. The sum of the 1st and 2d 8
2. The sum of the 2d and 3d 13
3. The sum of the 3d and 4th 22
6. The sum of the 2d and last 24
You must then add together the 2d, 4th, and 6th sums, 13 + 31 + 24
= 68, and the 3d and 5th sums, 22 + 34 = 56. Subtract one from the
other, leaving 12; the 2d number will be 6, the half of this; take the 2d
from the sum of the 1st and 2d, and you will get the 1st; take the 2d
from the sum of the 2d and 3d, and you will have the 3d, and so on.
How Many Counters Have I in My Hands?

A person having an equal number of counters in each hand, it is
required to find how many he has altogether.
Suppose he has 16 counters, or 8 in each hand. Desire him to
transfer from one hand to the other a certain number of them, and to
tell you the number so transferred. Suppose it be 4, the hands now
contain 4 and 12. Ask him how many times the smaller number is
contained in the larger; in this case it is three times. You must then
multiply the number transferred, 4, by the 3, making 12, and add the
4, making 16; then divide 16 by the 3 minus 1; this will bring 8, the
number in each hand.
In most cases fractions will occur in the process; when 10 counters
are in each hand and if four be transferred, the hands will contain 6
and 14.
He will divide 14 by 6 and inform you that the quotient is 2 1/3.
You multiply 4 by 2 1/3, which is 9 1/3.
Add four to this, making 13 1/3 equal to 40/3.
Subtract 1 from 2 1/3, leaving 1 1/3 or 4/3.
Divide 40/3 by 4/3, giving 10, the number in each hand.
The Three Travelers.

Three men met at a caravansary or inn, in Persia; and two of them
brought their provisions along with them, according to the custom of
the country; but the third, not having provided any, proposed to the
others that they should eat together, and he would pay the value of
his proportion. This being agreed to, A produced 5 loaves, and B 3
loaves, all of which the travelers ate together, and C paid 8 pieces of
money as the value of his share, with which the others were
satisfied, but quarreled about the division of it. Upon this the matter
was referred to the judge, who decided impartially. What was his
decision?
At first sight it would seem that the money should be divided
according to the bread furnished; but we must consider that as the 3
ate 8 loaves, each one ate 2 2/3 loaves of the bread he furnished.
This from 5 would leave 2 1/3 loaves furnished the stranger by A; and
3 - 2 2/3 = 1/3 furnished by B, hence 2 1/3 to 1/3 = 7 to 1, is the ratio in
which the money is to be divided. If you imagine A and B to furnish,
and C to consume all, then the division will be according to amounts
furnished.
The Money Game.

A person having in one hand a piece of gold, and in the other a piece
of silver, you may tell in which hand he has the gold, and in which
the silver, by the following method: Some value, represented by an
even number, such as 8, must be assigned to the gold; and a value
represented by an odd number, such as 3, must be assigned to the
silver; after which, desire the person to multiply the number in the
right hand by any even number whatever, such as 2, and that in the
left by an odd number, as 3; then bid him add together the two
products, and if the whole sum be odd, the gold will be in the right
hand, and the silver in the left; if the sum be even, the contrary will
be the case.
To conceal the artifice better, it will be sufficient to ask whether the
sum of the two products can be halved without a remainder, for in
that case the total will be even, and in the contrary case odd.
It may be readily seen that the pieces, instead of being in the two
hands of the same person, may be supposed to be in the hands of
two persons, one of whom has the even number, or piece of gold,
and the other the odd number, or piece of silver. The same
operations may then be performed in regard to these two persons,
as are performed in regard to the two hands of the same person,
calling the one privately the right, and the other the left.
The Philosopher’s Pupils.
To find a number of which the half, fourth, and seventh, added to
three, shall be equal to itself.
This was a favorite problem among the ancient Grecian
arithmeticians, who stated the question in the following manner: “Tell
us, illustrious Pythagoras, how many pupils frequent thy school?”
“One-half,” replied the philosopher, “study mathematics, one-fourth
natural philosophy, one-seventh preserve silence, and there are
three females besides.”
The answer is 28: 14 + 7 + 4 + 3 = 28.
The Certain Game.

Two persons agree to take, alternately, numbers less than a given
figure, for example, 11, and to add them together till one of them has
reached a certain sum, such as 100. By what means can one of
them infallibly attain to that number before the other?
The whole artifice in this consists in immediately making choice of
the numbers, 1, 12, 23, 34, and so on, or of a series which
continually increases by 11, up to 100. Let us suppose that the first
person, who knows the game, makes choice of 1, it is evident that
his adversary, as he must count less than 11, can at most reach 11,
by adding 10 to it. The first will then take 1, which will make 12; and
whatever number the second may add, the first will certainly win,
provided he continually add the number which forms the complement
of that of his adversary to 11; that is to say, if the latter take 8, he
must take 3; if 9, he must take 2; and so on. By following this
method, he will infallibly attain to 89, and it will then be impossible for
the second to prevent him from getting first to 100; for whatever
number the second takes he can attain only to 99; after which the
first may say—“and 1 makes 100.” If the second take 1 after 89, it
would make 90, and his adversary would finish by saying—“and 10
make 100.” Between two persons who are equally acquainted with
the game, he who begins must necessarily win.
The Dice Guessed Unseen.
A pair of dice being thrown, to find the number of points on each die
without seeing them. Tell the person who cast the dice to double the
number of points upon one of them, and add 5 to it; then to multiply
the sum produced by 5, and to add to the product the number of
points upon the other die. This being done, desire him to tell you the
amount, and having thrown out 25, the remainder will be a number
consisting of two figures, the first of which, to the left, is the number
of points on the first die, and the second figure, to the right, the
number of the other. Thus:
Suppose the number of points of the first die which comes up to be
2, and that of the other 3; then, if to 4, the double of the points of the
first, there be added 5, and the sum produced, 9, be multiplied by 5,
the product will be 45; to which, if 3, the number of points on the
other die, be added, 48 will be produced, from which, if 25 be
subtracted, 23 will remain; the first figure of which is 2, the number of
points on the first die, and the second figure 3, the number on the
other.
The Famous Forty-five.

How can number 45 be divided into four such parts that, if to the first
part you add 2, from the second part you subtract 2, the third part
you multiply by 2, and the fourth part you divide by 2, the sum of the
addition, the remainder of the subtraction, the product of the
multiplication, and the quotient of the division, be all equal?
The first is 8; to which 2, the sum is 10
add
The second 12; subtract 2, the remainder 10
is is
The third is 5; multiplied 2, the product is 10
by
The fourth is 20; divided by 2, the quotient is 10
45
Required to subtract 45 from 45, and leave 45 as a remainder.

Download pdf Essentials Of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9Th Frederick J Gravetter ebook full chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download pdf Essentials Of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9Th Frederick J Gravetter ebook full chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Essentials of Statistics for the

Behavioral Sciences, 9th Frederick J.

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J.

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter

Cengage Advantage Books Essentials of Statistics for

Fundamental statistics for the behavioral sciences, 9th

Essential Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 4th Edition

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1

CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35

CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57

CHAPTER 5 z-Scores: Location of Scores and Standardized Distributions 119

CHAPTER 6 Probability 143

CHAPTER 7 Probability and Samples: The Distribution of Sample Means 169

CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197

CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237

CHAPTER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267

CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301

CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329

CHAPTER 13 Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 371

CHAPTER 14 Correlation and Regression 421

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1

CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35

CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57

z-Scores: Location of Scores

CHAPTER 6 Probability 143

6-4 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 163

Probability and Samples: The Distribution

CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197

CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237

CHAP TER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267

CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301

Demonstration 11.2 324

CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329

Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis

CH A P T ER 14 Correlation and Regression 421

14-5 Alternatives to the Pearson Correlation 441

The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

Other examples of specific and noteworthy revisions include:

Chapter 12 One redundant example of an ANOVA has been eliminated to simplify

■ Matching the Text to Your Syllabus

FREDERICK J GRAVETTER is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The

LARRY B. WALLNAU is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The College

LORI-ANN B. FORZANO is Professor of Psychology at The College at

1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,

■ Populations and Samples

A population is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.

A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to

■ Variables and Data

F I G U R E 1.1 THE SAMPLE

A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for

Data (plural) are measurements or observations. A data set is a collection of

■ Parameters and Statistics

A parameter is a value—usually a numerical value—that describes a population.

■ Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and