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 ebook
THE GUILFORD PRESS
 Feedback from Self‑Practice/Self‑Reflection (SP/SR) Participants

“As a professional I have worked with schema therapy [ST] for many years. Experiencing
[ST SP/SR] has helped me with personal issues that other therapies hadn’t reached
before. It has broadened my overview of the therapeutic process. And it has deepened my
understanding of the approach, values, and many elements of schema therapy. In all, [ST
SP/SR] has expanded my capacity for being precise in my work. Thereby it has added to my
professionalism as a therapist—­so I can warmly recommend this to other therapists.”
—SP/SR participant, Netherlands

“[SP/SR] was useful because it provided the space to think with others about the impact of
the work. It felt like a safe space to do this because there were connections with others,
but also the anonymity of not working together on a daily basis. I felt that the small-group
self-­reflections were most useful, as it was good to be able to use others’ thinking and
understanding of the modes in considering real issues. It is interesting that the same modes
I struggle with in my work and personal life I want to avoid attending to (or I get stuck
there) when I work with clients.” —SP/SR participant, Australia

“In ST terms, having had the experience of identifying underlying schemas, their activation,
and the triggering of various modes as a client is extremely helpful to being able to connect
with our clients and to understand some of their fear and even skepticism in engaging in
experiential interventions.” —SP/SR participant, United Kingdom

“Reflecting upon my experience as the client in therapy, in addition to being helpful to

my overall emotional functioning and well-being, gave me a felt understanding of some of
my clients’ experiences. I could genuinely encourage clients to allow themselves to grieve
losses by crying as I could reassure them that they would stop at some point, allaying their
stated fear that if they started crying, they would never stop. I could also say with authority
that using a physical intervention to release anger a client was not entirely aware of could
lead to some important information, as I had had the experience of being surprised at the
depth of my own anger when I when I engaged in one of the self-­practice exercises.”
—SP/SR participant, United States

“I think that self-­therapy is an integral part of education and that it is essential to the goal of
knowing one’s own triggers. This knowing allows me to be able to distinguish between my
feelings (connected with my history) and the feelings of my patient, then to be able to come
back to being attuned with where my patient is. It was a very important day for me and a
great learning experience.” —SP/SR participant, Russia

“I have found it enriching and very helpful to have this experiential self-­practice. Even
though as a therapist you already have a cognitive understanding of the model and how it
applies to you generally, I could feel that the SP/SR techniques work on a different level—
one that I could not have reached cognitively. I will feel more comfortable doing this work
with my patients now.” —SP/SR participant, Germany
EXPERIENCING SCHEMA THERAPY
FROM THE INSIDE OUT
 SELF-­PRACTICE/SELF-­REFLECTION GUIDES
FOR PSYCHOTHERAPISTS
James Bennett-­Levy, Series Editor

This series invites therapists to enhance their effectiveness “from the inside out” using self-­
practice/self-­reflection (SP/SR). Books in the series lead therapists through a structured three-
stage process of focusing on a personal or professional issue they want to change, practicing
therapeutic techniques on themselves (self-­practice), and reflecting on the experience (self-­
reflection). Research supports the unique benefits of SP/SR for providing insights and skills not
readily available through more conventional training procedures. The approach is suitable for
therapists at all levels of experience, from trainees to experienced supervisors. Series volumes
have a large-size format for ease of use and feature reproducible worksheets and forms that
purchasers can download and print. Initial releases cover cognitive-­behavioral therapy, schema
therapy, and compassion-­focused therapy; future titles will cover acceptance and commitment
therapy and other evidence-­based treatments.

Experiencing CBT from the Inside Out:

A Self-­Practice/Self-­Reflection Workbook for Therapists
James Bennett-­Levy, Richard Thwaites, Beverly Haarhoff,
and Helen Perry

Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out:

A Self-­Practice/Self-­Reflection Workbook for Therapists
Joan M. Farrell and Ida A. Shaw

Experiencing Compassion-Focused Therapy from the Inside Out:

A Self-Practice/Self-Reflection Workbook for Therapists
Russell L. Kolts, Tobyn Bell, James Bennett-Levy, and Chris Irons
 Experiencing
Schema Therapy
from the Inside Out
A Self-­Practice/Self-­Reflection
Workbook for Therapists

Joan M. Farrell
Ida A. Shaw

Foreword by
Wendy T. Behary and Jeffrey E. Young

THE GUILFORD PRESS

New York  London
Copyright © 2018 The Guilford Press
A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.
370 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1200, New York, NY 10001
www.guilford.com

All rights reserved

Except as indicated, no part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

LIMITED DUPLICATION LICENSE

These materials are intended for use only by qualified mental health professionals.

The publisher grants to individual purchasers of this book nonassignable permission to reproduce
all materials for which permission is specifically granted in a footnote. This license is limited to you,
the individual purchaser, for personal use only. This license does not grant the right to reproduce
these materials for resale, redistribution, electronic display, or any other purposes (including but
not limited to books, pamphlets, articles, video- or audiotapes, blogs, file-­sharing sites, Internet
or intranet sites, and handouts or slides for lectures, workshops, or webinars, whether or not a fee
is charged). Permission to reproduce these materials for these and any other purposes must be
obtained in writing from the Permissions Department of Guilford Publications.

The authors have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information
that is complete and generally in accord with the standards of practice that are accepted at the time of
publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes in behavioral, mental health,
or medical sciences, neither the authors, nor the editor and publisher, nor any other party who has been
involved in the preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information contained herein
is in every respect accurate or complete, and they are not responsible for any errors or omissions or the
results obtained from the use of such information. Readers are encouraged to confirm the information
contained in this book with other sources.

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data is available from the publisher.

ISBN 978-1-4625-3328-2 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-4625-3550-7 (hardcover)

 About the Authors

Joan M. Farrell, PhD, is Codirector of the Schema Therapy Institute Midwest–­

Indianapolis Center and Research Director of the Center for Borderline Personality
Disorder Treatment and Research, Indiana University–­Purdue University Indianapolis
(IUPUI). She is Adjunct Professor of Psychology at IUPUI and served for 25 years as
Clinical Professor in Psychiatry at Indiana University School of Medicine, where she
developed and directed an inpatient schema therapy (ST) program for borderline per-
sonality disorder (BPD). Dr. Farrell is coprincipal investigator of an international study
of ST for BPD underway in five countries and was principal investigator of a study of
group ST for BPD, for which she was awarded a National Institute of Mental Health
grant. A Certified Schema Therapist Trainer/Supervisor in individual and group ST,
she is Coordinator for Training and Certification on the Executive Board of the Inter-
national Society of Schema Therapy. Dr. Farrell is the codeveloper of group ST, with
Ida A. Shaw, with whom she has worked since the 1980s. They provide ST training and
self-­practice/self-­reflection workshops nationally and internationally and have written
two prior books as well as numerous book chapters and research articles.

Ida A. Shaw, MA, is Codirector of the Schema Therapy Institute Midwest–­Indianapolis

Center and a Certified Schema Therapist Trainer/Supervisor in individual, group, and
child/adolescent ST. She is Training Director of the Center for Borderline Personality
Disorder Treatment and Research, IUPUI, and a member of the Training and Certi-
fication Advisory Board of the International Society of Schema Therapy. With a back-
ground in experiential psychotherapy and developmental psychology, Ms. Shaw is the
main clinical supervisor of an international multisite trial of group ST and supervises
the practice component of additional research projects on avoidant personality disorder,
dissociative disorders, complex trauma, and child/­adolescent treatment.
v
 Series Editor’s Note

E xperiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out is the second book in The Guilford
Press’s Self-­Practice/Self-­Reflection Guides for Psychotherapists series. Research in
a number of countries has shown that therapists who take the time to practice therapy
techniques on themselves and reflect on their experience say that self-­practice/self-­
reflection (SP/SR) has been one of the most meaningful and important parts of their pro-
fessional development. These therapist observations are supported by a growing body of
quantitative and qualitative evidence suggesting the value of SP/SR.
Once Guilford gave the green light to the SP/SR series, our thoughts turned to
which therapies and which writers. Schema therapy (ST) immediately came to mind.
ST has a coherent theory, well-­developed practical strategies and applications, and a
growing evidence base. Furthermore, ST places prime importance on the therapeutic
relationship. For ST to be effective, schema therapists need to understand not only their
own schemas (e.g., unrelenting standards, failure, and/or self-­sacrifice) and how these
may affect their role as therapist, but also how their schemas might mesh with or be
reactive to client schemas. Therefore, a self-­experiential and self-­reflective approach to
understanding one’s own schemas is particularly valuable for schema therapists. Addi-
tionally, ST has important conceptual understandings and practical skills that may be
learned and integrated better when they are experienced and embodied from the inside
out.
Choosing whom we should approach to write the book was an easy task. I had
already been fortunate enough to attend ST workshops run by Joan Farrell and Ida
Shaw. Not only were their trainings highly self-­experiential—­exactly the orientation
that was needed for an SP/SR book—but Joan and Ida had clearly immersed themselves
vii
viii Series Editor’s Note

in ST practices. They had no inhibitions about referring to their own schemas and how
these interacted with their clients’ schemas, and in spontaneous role plays they demon-
strated an exemplary level of skill honed through many years of clinical experience. Joan
and Ida walked the walk, and I was delighted when they jumped at the idea of writing
this book.
For any budding schema therapist, this is a wonderful guidebook to learn the ropes.
But, equally, for more experienced therapists, working through the modules will pro-
vide new insights and understandings, and new angles on therapy. Time and again we
have found in our SP/SR research that experienced therapists seem to benefit just as
much from SP/SR as novice therapists.
The fruits of Joan and Ida’s professional and personal experience of many years have
been poured into Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out. Drink well, and
you will find that your skills as a schema therapist—­and as a human being outside of the
clinical context—­will reach new levels of insight, integration, and intelligent application.

James Bennett-­Levy
 Foreword

S chema therapy (ST) is an evidence-­based approach that assesses the narrative linger-
ing beneath the client’s self-­defeating life patterns and carefully addresses the mal-
adaptive modes and self-­defeating patterns that emerge in the treatment room (Young,
Klosko, & Weishaar, 2003). Through integrated strategies from various bodies of work,
ST can effectively heal and reorganize biased beliefs and emotions informed by early
unmet needs and the temperamental makeup residing in memory and sensory systems
by replacing them with corrective and adaptive emotional experiences.
As therapists, we are not immune to the subjective and intersubjective reactions that
can emerge from our own early life experiences and schema-­driven reactions to here-
and-now events. If left unexamined and unhealed, these life themes (early maladaptive
schemas) and coping modes can lead to frustration for both the client and therapist,
and poor treatment outcomes. The activation of emotional distress that emerges during
challenging moments in the treatment room can undermine the sturdiness of the most
competent therapist. In an attempt to regain stability and deal with the distractions
of tense and “stuck” feelings, we may find ourselves unawares on a familiar emotional
trajectory, where acutely reactive states trigger maladaptive coping modes—that is, giv-
ing in, avoiding, punishing, detaching, or defending ourselves with our clients. This
wonderful book provides a way to work through your own schemas in both personal and
professional contexts.
The Self-­
Practice/Self-­Reflection Guides for Psychotherapists series, edited by
James Bennett-­Levy, is a remarkably important contribution to the clinician’s library,
with empirical validation of the benefits of practitioner self-work founded in cognitive-­
behavioral therapy versions of self-­practice/self-­reflection. We are delighted that our
ix
x Foreword

dear friends and colleagues Joan Farrell and Ida Shaw were invited to contribute to
this invaluable series and have written this unequivocally instrumental book based on
their global travels, research, and clinical and supervisory work with ST. Not only are
these authors masterfully creative clinicians and implementers of research, they are
also renowned international trainers with longstanding experience in effectively dealing
with the challenges of difficult treatment populations, especially those with borderline
personality disorder. The wide spectrum of vignettes in Experiencing Schema Therapy
from the Inside Out is sure to resonate with the reader, as will the commonly shared
burdens of our longstanding internalized messengers—­ones that may promote shame
and inadequacy; demand perfection, autonomy, stifled authenticity, and supreme sac-
rifice; or propose powerless surrendering to disconnection, mistrust, and the forfeiting
of control.
With beautifully clear and articulate voices, thoughtfully relevant case examples,
and elaborately helpful diagrams and illustrations, the authors show us how to apply
strategies for schema mode identification and specific skills for forging awareness of our
triggers while promoting healing of our emotional beliefs and responses.
Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out offers the therapist-­reader
an important guide for engaging the meaningful healing strategies that can lead to a
reduction and weakening of defeating life patterns, while fortifying healthy and adap-
tive ones. We the therapists are offered an opportunity to adopt a firmer foothold when
facing the challenges of disruptive moments in treatment and remain postured in our
competent Healthy Adult modes, able to render the care necessary for effectively meet-
ing the unmet needs of our clients—­even our most challenging ones.
We are happy to share our support and to express our confidence in this book as a
timeless and treasured resource.

Wendy T. Behary, LCSW

Founder and Clinical Director,
The Cognitive Therapy Center of New Jersey
and The New Jersey Institute of Schema Therapy

Jeffrey E. Young, PhD

Founder and Clinical Director,
Schema Therapy Institute of New York
 Acknowledgments

W e are grateful for the invitation of James Bennett-­Levy to write this volume, for his
generosity in sharing reference material, and for his feedback on the manuscript
version of this book. His assistance and support have been invaluable and led to a much
better book. He paved the way for self-­practice/self-­reflection (SP/SR) in cognitive-­
behavioral therapy and laid an important foundation with his volume in this series. We
would like to acknowledge the ongoing support from and opportunities for discussion of
this work with Jeff Young, Wendy Behary, Paul Kasyanik, Gerhard Zarbock, Eckhard
Roediger, Dave Edwards, Heather Fretwell, and Denise Davis. In addition, we thank
Jeff and Wendy for their foreword and Eckhard, Dave, Heather, and Denise for their
reviews. The Guilford Press’s editors were patient and supportive throughout this pro-
cess. We particularly want to thank Kitty Moore, Carolyn Graham, the very thorough
copyeditor Margaret Ryan, and Editorial Project Manager Anna Brackett.
This book would not have been possible without the numerous therapists who par-
ticipated in the SP/SR workshops we have offered around the world. We appreciate their
feedback on this volume. Our supervisees have also taught us much in the course of our
work with them.
We also acknowledge the support and love of our three little darling Yorkies, Ziggy,
Zoe, and Zach, who sat under our laptops and in our laps as we labored through this
bear of a book.

xi
 Contents

C H A P T ER 1 • Introducing Experiencing Schema Therapy 1

from the Inside Out

C H A P T ER 2 • The Conceptual Model of Schema Therapy 7

C H A P T ER 3 • Guidance for Participants 33

C H A P T ER 4 • Guidance for Facilitators 50

• Introduction to the Workbook Modules 61

PA R T I • Connection and Safety: Setting the Stage 63

for Schema Therapy Self‑Practice

M O D UL E 1 • Connection and Safety 65

M O D UL E 2 • Establishing Your Baseline 76

PA R T II • Understanding Your Identified Problem: 91

Using Schema Therapy Concepts

M O D UL E 3 • Understanding the Development 93

of Your Early Maladaptive Schemas
xiii
xiv Contents

M O D UL E 4 • Stories of Childhood Experience and Assessment Imagery 101

M O D UL E 5 • Your Schema Therapy Self‑Conceptualization 111

PA R T III • Planning Change: Self‑Monitoring, 125

Problem Analysis, and Goals

M O D UL E 6 • The Operation of Modes in Your Current Life 127

M O D UL E 7 • Your Schema Therapy Change Plan 139

PA R T I V • The Beginning of Change: Mode Awareness 151

and Mode Management

M O D UL E 8 • Awareness of Your Maladaptive Coping Modes 153

M O D UL E 9 • A Management Plan for Your Maladaptive Coping Modes 162

M O D UL E 10 • Awareness of Your Dysfunctional Critic Modes 174

M O D UL E 11 • A Management Plan for Your Dysfunctional Critic Modes 185

M O D UL E 12 • Strengthening Your Healthy Adult Mode 195

M O D UL E 13 • Reviewing Progress and Planning Further Change 205

PA R T V • Experiential Mode Change Work 221

M O D UL E 14 • Awareness of Your Angry or Impulsive/Undisciplined 223

Child Mode

M O D UL E 15 • Awareness of Your Vulnerable Child Mode 235

M O D UL E 16 • A Management Plan for Your Vulnerable Child Mode 247

M O D UL E 17 • Fighting Your Dysfunctional Critic Modes 257

M O D UL E 18 • Healing Your Vulnerable Child Mode 269

 Contents xv

PA R T V I • Maintaining and Strengthening Change 281

M O D UL E 19 • Finding and Strengthening Your Happy Child Mode 283

M O D UL E 2 0 • Strengthening Your Access to the Healthy Adult Mode 292

PA R T V II • Summary Self‑Reflective Questions 307

• References 311

• Index 315

Purchasers of this book can download and print select handouts

and forms at www.guilford.com/farrell-­forms
(see copyright page for details).
 CH A P TER 1

Introducing Experiencing Schema

Therapy from the Inside Out

W elcome to Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out: A Self-­Practice/Self-­

Reflection Workbook for Therapists. This work is the result of many years of facili-
tating therapist groups with the goal of applying schema therapy (ST) to oneself and then
reflecting on the process of that experience—­what it means for you personally and what
it means for you professionally in terms of understanding your clients’ experiences and
the ways you work with them. Both of us believe that the self-­practice/self-­reflection
(SP/SR) process is an important, if not critical, component of psychotherapy training.
The self-­practice component is only half of the SP/SR experience. The other equally
important component is self-­reflection. The reflective questions move the SP/SR par-
ticipant from personal experience to the professional implications. This is the difference
between SP/SR and personal therapy, which focuses primarily on the personal experi-
ence. SP/SR is designed as a targeted, focused training strategy that makes an explicit
link between the personal and the professional with a focus on both (Bennett-­Levy,
Thwaites, Haarhoff, & Perry 2015).
We have led 1-day ST SP/SR programs in ten countries over the last 10 years as
part of the ST training we provide. Our belief in the benefits of SP/SR is based on our
personal experience, feedback from psychotherapists in our trainings, as well as the
research findings that support it (summarized in Bennett-­Levy et al., 2015). We have
both experienced a SP/SR-type group and personal individual therapy. We consider the
self-­practice of ST as a possibly ongoing, lifelong process. We feel that the work we did
in our training years contributed to strengthening our Healthy modes and allowing us
to stay grounded during the years that we worked with challenging and creative clients
with severe personality disorders. The feedback from participating therapists, which
is excerpted at the beginning of the book, has been very positive in terms of therapist
self-­awareness, understanding ST interventions, and in a better understanding of clients’
1
2 Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out

experiences. As practicing psychotherapists and educators, the opportunity to write this

volume and bring the experience of ST to an even larger group of therapists was very
appealing to us. We know of no other SP/SR workbook using ST interventions.
In this chapter, we provide a brief introduction to SP/SR, discuss the rationale
for including this component in ST training more specifically, briefly summarize the
research evaluating SP/SR, and provide a “floor plan” of the rest of the book.

What Is SP/SR?

SP/SR is a training program for psychotherapists that combines guided self-­practice

with written self-­reflection. It provides a structured experience of using ST interven-
tions on yourself, followed by questions to assist your self-­reflection. The self-­reflective
questions include reflection on your experience of the intervention, how you think this
experience will affect your understanding of and work with clients, and how it affects
your understanding of ST. The steps that we go through in the 20 modules of the pro-
gram are essentially the same progression that we use in ST with clients. The difference
in this therapist workbook, compared to our client workbooks, is that we provide some
information on the “whys” of the interventions and directions on implementing them in
your practice, while still holding the focus on your experience. For more information on
ST and the implementation of ST interventions, see Farrell and Shaw (2012) and Farrell,
Reiss, and Shaw (2014).

The Rationale for SP/SR

The workbook is designed to be of benefit to a wide range of therapists and students

of psychology. You may be interested in learning more about ST, you may be at the
beginning of training in ST, or you may be an experienced certified schema therapist
and supervisor. Psychotherapists undergoing self-­psychotherapy is a tradition that dates
back to Freud. Traditional individual therapy focuses on the self of the therapist. The
ability of the therapist to identify, reflect upon, and constructively utilize the content of
his or her beliefs, assumptions, emotions, and behaviors, triggered by the interpersonal
process of the therapeutic relationship, is seen as an important part of successful treat-
ment outcome in cognitive therapy (Safran & Segal, 1996). Most psychotherapists who
undertake training in ST have the experience of completing a self-­assessment, including
the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) and the Schema Mode Inventory (SMI), which
allow them to identify their early maladaptive schemas and schema modes. They also
formulate their own ST case conceptualization using the same format as clients. Being
able to recognize and respond to one’s own schema activation and mode triggering when
working with a client is a fundamental part of training and supervision in ST. Haarhoff
(2006) identified the most common schemas found in therapists in training to be themes
of unrelenting standards, entitlement, and self-­sacrifice. She suggests that it is important
 Introduction 3

in therapists’ training and supervision to facilitate understanding about the potential

therapy-­interfering effects of these schemas being activated in work with clients. She
speculated that the entitlement schema might be an overcompensation for the discom-
fort of the learner’s position. Self-­reflection is an essential part of ST supervision. The
conscious understanding of one’s own emotions, feelings, thoughts, and attitudes at the
time of their occurrence and the ability to continuously follow and recognize them are
among the most important abilities of both therapists and supervisors.
The importance of the self of the therapist is emphasized in the ST model. The ST
model postulates that psychological problems in adulthood originate from deficits in
core needs being met in childhood and adolescence. Consequently, gaps in emotional
learning occur, which in cases of healthy development are filled by parents or early care-
givers. In ST, unmet needs and developmental gaps (e.g., insecure attachment) are filled
through corrective emotional experiences with the therapist (or group). For this rea-
son, Young (Young, Klosko, & Weishaar, 2003) named the therapist style of ST “limited
reparenting.” In limited reparenting, a schema therapist must be able to be present and
attuned to the client, and be a Good Parent who, within professional bounds, is warm,
caring, and validating; supports emotional awareness and expression; sets limits when
needed; and ultimately supports autonomy. These functions require a good deal of self-­
awareness in the therapist, comfort with his or her own and the client’s emotions, and
interpersonal skills. Self-­therapy is encouraged and at times strongly recommended for
psychotherapists in ST training. Therapists receive credit for these hours toward inter-
national certification as a schema therapist. A day of group ST self-­practice is a required
part of the certification process for group ST. In addition, dyadic or group role-play
practice is a large component of ST training, which gives therapists another opportunity
to experience the interventions, albeit by playing a client role. The focus on role play in
the training of schema therapists is supported by the finding that therapists whose train-
ing includes a large amount of intervention practice have better treatment outcomes
than those whose training is primarily didactic (Ten Napel-­Schutz, Tineke, Bamelis, &
Arntz, 2016). The self-­reflection component employed here facilitates specific reflection
on how your experience of self-­practice affects both your understanding of your clients
and your future practice with them. Thus, it goes beyond the focus on personal self-­
awareness of individual psychotherapy for therapists and specifically focuses the effects
of SP/SR on professional practice. SP/SR has the potential to benefit both your personal
and professional lives.

Research Findings: The Benefits of SP/SR for Psychotherapists

Our belief in the benefits of SP/SR from many years of leading workshops has been
strengthened by the empirical validation provided by the research of Bennett-­Levy and
associates for the cognitive-­behavioral therapy (CBT) version of these programs. The
empirical validation of CBT SP/SR is thoroughly described in Bennett-­Levy et al. (2015)
and recent journal articles (Davis, Thwaites, Freeston, & Bennett-­Levy, 2015; Haarhoff,
4 Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out

Thwaites, & Bennett-­Levy, 2015; Farrand, Perry, & Linsley, 2010) We briefly summa-
rize those findings here and refer you to the original publications for more detail.
The growing body of empirical research evaluating SP/SR for CBT demonstrates
that the program enhances understanding of the model, CBT skills, confidence as a
therapist, and belief in the model. Participants report “a deeper sense of knowing” the
therapy. They also report enhanced reflective skills, a key metacognitive competency
important for therapists’ continued learning. SP/SR has also demonstrated changes
in therapist attitude toward clients, with enhanced interpersonal skills and increased
empathy for clients. Participants report insights and changes in the “personal self”
and the “therapist self,” enhanced reflective capacity, and use a more individualized
approach to each client.
Through self-­practice, therapists experience the difficulties of change that clients
are asked to take on. There appear to be benefits for both novice and experienced prac-
titioners. Psychotherapists with less experience report benefits in the area of declarative
knowledge and intervention skills. Those with more experience report benefits in inter-
personal skills, enhanced artistry, and metacompetencies such as flexibility and reflec-
tive capacity. There are even some therapist reports that SP/SR may also increase thera-
pist resilience and decrease the propensity for burnout (Haarhoff, 2006). Bennett-­Levy
et al. (2015) suggest that SP/SR has the potential to play an important and unique role in
therapist training and development because it integrates declarative understanding with
procedural skills, integrates the conceptual with the interpersonal and technical, and
enhances communication between the personal and therapist selves. Although as yet
untested, it is reasonable to assume that the same effects would be found for ST SP/SR.

An Orientation to the Chapters and Modules of the Workbook

In Chapter 2, we provide a summary of the conceptual model and the interventions of

ST. This is a helpful summary for those who have not completed ST training and a frame
of reference for the workbook for those familiar with ST. We refer you to some of the key
texts on the ST model for further study. We suggest Schema Therapy: A Practitioner’s
Guide (Young et al., 2003) for theory and The Schema Therapy Clinician’s Guide (Farrell
et al., 2014) and Schema Therapy in Practice (Arntz & Jacob, 2012) for interventions. For
interest in treating specific disorders, we recommend Disarming the Narcissist (Behary,
2014) and Group Schema Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder (Farrell & Shaw,
2012). The Wiley–­Blackwell Handbook of Schema Therapy (van Vreeswijk, Broersen, &
Nadort, 2012) is another excellent resource, with chapters on various areas of ST written
by many of the leading ST experts.
Chapter 3 addresses you as a participant and provides suggestions about how to
approach the workbook modules and the process of self-­reflection. Therapists do not
necessarily know how to reflect. This section contains a structure for self-­reflection and
suggestions for building your reflective skills. Self-care is also addressed, as this is still
a neglected area in the training of therapists and one for which we think it is important
 Introduction 5

to develop an individual plan. Taken together the first three chapters are designed to
enhance your engagement with SP/SR and to support your efforts to derive the most
benefit from Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out. It is crucial to read
Chapter 3 before beginning the modules, as it addresses the critical topic of developing
a “safety plan” for yourself.
Chapter 4 describes the use of the workbook in a group format. We have presented
SP/SR to groups of therapists ranging from psychology interns and psychiatry residents
to experienced ST supervisors. For all, the experience is one that leads to both new self-­
awareness and increased awareness of their clients’ experience in ST. The experience
of one’s Vulnerable Child mode being triggered in an exercise increases a therapist’s
understanding of the courage it takes for our clients to connect with this mode. Facilitat-
ing an SP/SR program is not that different for ST supervisors than ST group supervision,
as ST supervisors must fill the roles of supervisor, mentor, and a therapist using limited
reparenting. Facilitating a SP/SR group is different from leading a client group, but we
have found that the reparenting stance—­for example, stating that “you will be protected
when in the Vulnerable Child mode”—is equally important for therapists and clients to
hear. A key element in fostering engagement with the SP/SR process is ensuring that
participants feel safe in sharing self-­reflections. In Chapter 4 we discuss the guidelines
that we have found useful for both SP/SR facilitators and participants.
The 20 modules of ST SP/SR are presented in six parts that are based roughly upon
the phases of ST: bonding and safety, assessment and conceptualization, mode change
work (divided into cognitive, experiential [emotion-­focused], and behavioral pattern-­
breaking interventions), and autonomy. The progression of the modules mirrors the steps
through which we proceed with clients. The modules are consecutive, and we suggest
that you follow them in order as they build on each other. There are some important
differences in this therapist workbook compared to our client workbooks. We provide
information on the “whys” of the intervention and on implementing the interventions in
“Notes” sections. Examples are given for each exercise based on three therapist exam-
ples, which we describe in Chapter 3, and there are self-­reflective questions for each
module. Since this is a self-­practice workbook, another difference is that in Module 13
you will review the work you have done so far and decide whether to go forward with a
deeper level of experiential work for the Child modes or skip to the Healthy mode work
of Modules 19 and 20.

The Modules of the Workbook

Part I. Setting the Stage for Doing Self-­Practice/Self-­Reflection

Part II. Understanding Your Identified Problem Using Schema Therapy Concepts
Part III. Planning Change: Self-­Monitoring, Problem Analysis, and Goals
Part IV. The Beginning of Change: Mode Awareness and Mode Management
Part V. Experiential Mode Change Work
Part VI. Maintaining and Strengthening Change
6 Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out

The Structure of the Workbook Modules

Module 1 provides some safety measures to use as you go through the workbook. These
should be included in your personal safety plan, as described in Chapter 3. Module 2
has self-­assessment questionnaires on quality of life and selected questions from the
YSQ and the SMI. The remaining workbook modules are organized under the following
sections:

• Notes: additional theoretical or clinical material for psychotherapists that put the
module into the context of ST.
• Example: from one of the three therapists.
• Exercise: the self-­practice section.
• Self-­Reflective Questions.
• Therapy Assignment (not every module has this section).

Some of the modules have more than one exercise. You may decide to do one exer-
cise per session and return the next time to the second exercise. Thus, you may spend a
week on one of the modules, and 3 weeks on another that has more exercises. Go at your
own pace. We suggest that you decide the number of hours you are willing to commit
per week and then stick to it.

Your Engagement in SP/SR

Engagement in the SP/SR process is highly correlated with the level of benefit (Bennett-­
Levy & Lee, 2014). It is not surprising that engagement would affect benefit with SP/SR,
just as it does for clients in ST. Some of the factors found to affect engagement include
whether participation is mandatory (e.g., a requirement of a training program), optional
(e.g., at the workplace but without any checks), and the amount of safety and protec-
tion of privacy provided. We suggest that if you decide to use the workbook, it means
that you are able to commit some amount of regular, consistent time to it and to use the
medium (self-led, in pairs, or group) that provides the safety and privacy that you need.
It is something that you can do in stages, as we suggest in the evaluation of Module 13. It
may be time to do some of the cognitive work, but not the emotion-­focused or experien-
tial work. Of course, keep in mind that to meet adherence requirements for ST, all three
components must be integrated: cognitive, experiential, and behavioral pattern break-
ing. We expect that this work will make a difference in your personal life and therapist
life just as it has for many therapists before you.
 CH A P TER 2

The Conceptual Model

of Schema Therapy

I n Chapter 1, we introduced you to the use of SP/SR for therapists, providing the ratio-
nale, potential benefits, and a summary of the research findings. The purpose of this
chapter is to summarize the model, core concepts, stages, and interventions of ST that
comprise the content of this workbook.

Background

ST grew out of efforts by Young and others to more effectively treat clients with per-
sonality disorders and those who fail to respond to, or relapse after, traditional cogni-
tive therapy (Young, 1990; Young et al., 2003; Arntz, 1994; Farrell & Shaw, 1994, 2012;
Farrell et al., 2014). Young developed the conceptual model of ST focused on individual
therapy (Young et al., 2003).
At the same time, independently we developed a group model, initially focused on
treating clients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) (Farrell & Shaw, 1994, 2012;
Farrell et al., 2014; Zarbock, Rahn, Farrell & Shaw, 2011). We focused on developing
experiential interventions to fill gaps in emotional learning and to provide corrective
emotional experiences related to attachment and emotional regulation. Like Young, we
used a limited reparenting therapist style expanded to meet a group’s needs, includ-
ing limited corrective family experiences. We moved from a focus on schemas to using
Young’s mode concept, and our model is recognized as a group version of ST. Recently,
adaptations of ST for children and adolescents (Loose, Graf, & Zarbock, 2013; Romanova,
Galimzyanova, & Kasyanik, 2014) and couples (Simone-­DiFranscesco, Roediger, & Ste-
vens, 2015) have been developed.
7
8 Experiencing Schema Therapy from the Inside Out

ST is a comprehensive, theoretically coherent model. Although ST strategically

integrates interventions of other psychotherapy models, such as cognitive-­behavioral,
gestalt, and emotion-­focused therapy, it remains unique. ST is consistent with the
research of attachment theory, developmental psychology (e.g., Bowlby’s attachment
theory [summarized in Cassidy & Shaver, 1999]), and neurobiology (Siegel, 1999). One of
the unique aspects of ST is its full integration of experiential, cognitive, and behavioral
pattern-­breaking interventions to accomplish the goals of treatment. All three types of
intervention are necessary for adherence to the ST model. We speculate that the large
treatment effect sizes for individual, group, and combination ST, described below, are
due, in part, to this integrative approach that facilitates improved functioning as well as
reduced symptoms and facilitates long-­lasting personality change in clients.

The Empirical Validation of ST

The effectiveness of ST for clients with BPD has been validated empirically in several
large-scale studies of individual ST: Giesen-­Bloo et al., (2006); Nadort et al., 2009); one
randomized controlled trial (RCT) of group ST (Farrell, Shaw, & Webber, 2009), and sev-
eral pilot studies (Reiss, Lieb, Arntz, Shaw, & Farrell, 2014; Dickhaut & Arntz, 2014). ST
has demonstrated effectiveness in a large multisite trial for Cluster C disorders (Bamelis,
Evers, Spinhoven & Arntz,2014), a study of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); Cock-
ram, Drummond, & Lee, 2010), mixed personality disorder (Muste, Weertman, & Clas-
sen, 2009) and one for forensic clients with personality disorders (Bernstein et al., 2012).
The effectiveness of ST reported in these studies includes improved function and qual-
ity of life as well as reductions in key symptoms and global severity of psychopathology.
These findings have led to growing use of ST and additional studies worldwide to
evaluate its effectiveness with other disorders. Studies underway to research group and
individual ST in combination include BPD (Wetzelaer et al., 2014), avoidant personal-
ity disorder and social phobia (Baljé et al., 2016), mixed personality disorders (Simpson,
Skewes, van Vreeswijk, & Samson, 2015), and complex trauma (Younan, May, & Farrell,
in press); studies of individual ST are underway for clients with depression (Renner, Arntz,
Peeters, Lobbestael, & Huibers, 2016; Malogiannis et al., 2014), clients with geriatric
issues (Videler, Rossi, Schoevaars, van der Feltz-­Cornelis & van Alphen, 2014), and clients
with dissociative identity disorder (Shaw, Farrell, Rijkeboer, Huntjens, & Arntz, 2015).
The ST treatment programs being evaluated vary in length from 20 sessions to a
tapering schedule over 2 years and are conducted in a variety of levels of care (inpatient,
day hospitals, weekly outpatient) and treatment settings (public and private hospitals,
outpatient clinics, and forensic contexts).
ST is an approach that is rated positively by both clients and therapists (de Klerk,
Abma, Bamelis, & Arntz, 2017; Spinhoven, Giesen-­Bloo, van Dyck, Kooiman & Arntz,
2007). In addition, there is growing evidence for the cost effectiveness of ST in the indi-
vidual modality (van Asselt et al., 2008; Bamelis et al., 2015).
 The Conceptual Model of Schema Therapy 9

Key ST Concepts
Core Childhood Needs
The ST model asserts that the etiology of difficulties in adult life lies in the extent to
which the core developmental needs of childhood go unmet. These basic needs are for:

• Attachment
• Freedom to express, and validation of, emotions and needs
• Realistic limits to foster self-­control
• Autonomy, competence, and identity
• Spontaneity and play

Figure 2.1 summarizes the etiology of psychopathology in the ST model.

CHILDHOOD ENVIRONMENT interacts with TEMPERAMENT.

WHEN CORE CHILDHOOD NEED(S) ARE PARTIALLY OR NOT MET,

EARLY MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS (EMS) DEVELOP.

WHEN EMS ARE ACTIVATED BY SITUATIONS,

THOUGHTS, FEELINGS, and MEMORIES,
SCHEMA MODES ARE TRIGGERED.

CHILD MODES
Innate response
Emotional reaction
to unmet need

MODES “FLIP.”
CRITIC MODES DISTRESS COPING MODE
Negative judgment INCREASES. Fight–flight–freeze
or punishment related Effort to not experience
to the need and feelings these emotions

RESULT: Adult needs

are not met and/or
negative consequences
occur = psychological
problems and disorders
develop.

FIGURE 2.1. The etiology of psychological problems and disorders in ST concepts.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
cables all over the world being 2937, with a total length of 291,137
nautical miles.
Before describing the actual working of a submarine cable, a few
words on cable-laying may be of interest. Before the cable-ship
starts, another vessel is sent over the proposed course to make
soundings. Galvanized steel pianoforte wire is used for sounding,
and it is wound in lengths of 3 or 4 nautical miles on gun-metal
drums. The drums are worked by an engine, and the average speed
of working is somewhere about 100 fathoms a minute in descending,
and 70 fathoms a minute in picking up. Some idea of the time
occupied may be gained from a sounding in the Atlantic Ocean
which registered a depth of 3233 fathoms, or nearly 3½ miles. The
sinker took thirty-three minutes fifty seconds in descending, and
forty-five minutes were taken in picking up. The heavy sinker is not
brought up with the line, but is detached from the sounder by an
ingenious contrivance and left at the bottom. The sounder is fitted
with an arrangement to bring up a specimen of the bottom, and also
a sample of water; and the temperature at any depth is ascertained
by self-registering thermometers.
When the soundings are complete the cable-ship takes up her
task. The cable is coiled in tanks on board, and is kept constantly
under water to prevent injury to the gutta-percha insulation by
overheating. As each section is placed in the tank, the ends of it are
led to a test-box, and labelled so that they can be easily recognized.
Insulated wires run from the test-box to instruments in the testing-
room, so that the electrical condition of the whole cable is constantly
under observation. During the whole time the cable is being laid its
insulation is tested continuously, and at intervals of five minutes
signals are sent from the shore end to the ship, so that a fault is
instantly detected. The cable in its tank is eased out by a number of
men, and mechanics are posted at the cable drums and brakes,
while constant streams of water cool the cable and the bearings and
surfaces of the brakes. The tension, as shown by the dynamometer,
is at all times under careful observation. When it becomes necessary
to wind back the cable on account of some fault, cuts are made at
intervals of a quarter or half a mile, tests being made at each cutting
until the fault is localized in-board. As soon as the cable out-board is
found “O.K.,” the ends are spliced up and the paying-out begins
again. If the cable breaks from any cause, a mark-buoy is lowered
instantly on the spot, and the cable is grappled for. This may take a
day or two in good weather, but a delay of weeks may be caused by
bad weather, which makes grappling impossible.
The practical working of a submarine cable differs in many
respects from that of a land telegraph line. The currents used in
submarine telegraphy are extremely small, contrary to the popular
impression. An insulated cable acts like a Leyden jar, in the sense
that it accumulates electricity and does not quickly part with it, as
does a bare overhead wire. In the case of a very long cable, such as
one across the Atlantic, a current continues to flow from it for some
time after the battery is disconnected. A second signal cannot be
sent until the electricity is dissipated and the cable clear, and if a
powerful current were employed the time occupied in this clearing
would be considerable, so that the speed of signalling would be slow.
Another objection to a powerful current is that if any flaw exists in the
insulation of the cable, such a current is apt to increase the flaw, and
finally cause the breakdown of the line.
The feebleness of the currents in submarine telegraphy makes it
impossible to use the ordinary land telegraph receiver, and a more
sensitive instrument known as the “mirror receiver” is used. This
consists of a coil of very fine wire, in the centre of which a tiny
magnetic needle is suspended by a fibre of unspun silk. A magnet
placed close by keeps the needle in one position when no current is
flowing. As the deflections of the needle are extremely small, it is
necessary to magnify them in some way, and this is done by fixing to
the needle a very small mirror, upon which falls a ray of light from a
lamp. The mirror reflects this ray on to a sheet of white paper
marked with a scale, and as the mirror moves along with the needle
the point of light travels over the paper, a very small movement of
the needle causing the light to travel some inches. The receiving
operator sits in a darkened room and watches the light, which moves
to the right or to the left according to the direction of the current. The
signals employed are the same as those for the single-needle
instrument, a movement to the left indicating a dot, and one to the
right a dash. In many instruments the total weight of magnet and
mirror is only two or three grains, and the sensitiveness is such that
the current from a voltaic cell consisting of a lady’s silver thimble with
a few drops of acidulated water and a diminutive rod of zinc, is
sufficient to transmit a message across the Atlantic.
The mirror receiver cannot write down its messages, and for
recording purposes an instrument invented by Lord Kelvin, and
called the “siphon recorder,” is used. In this instrument a coil of wire
is suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet, and to it is
connected by means of a silk fibre a delicate glass tube or siphon.
One end of the siphon dips into an ink-well, and capillary attraction
causes the ink to fill the siphon. The other end of the siphon almost
touches a moving paper ribbon placed beneath it. The ink and the
paper are oppositely electrified, and the attraction between the
opposite charges causes the ink to spurt out of the siphon in very
minute drops, which fall on to the paper. As long as no current is
passing the siphon remains stationary, but when a current flows from
the cable through the coil, the latter moves to one side or the other,
according to the direction of the current, and makes the siphon move
also. Consequently, instead of a straight line along the middle of the
paper ribbon, a wavy line with little peaks on each side of the centre
is produced by the minute drops of ink. This recorder sometimes
refuses to work properly in damp weather, owing to the loss of the
opposite charges on ink and paper, but a later inventor, named
Cuttriss, has removed this trouble by using a siphon kept constantly
in vibration by electro-magnetism. The ordinary single-needle code is
used for the siphon recorder.
 CHAPTER XVIII
THE TELEPHONE

In our younger days most of us have amused ourselves with a toy

telephone consisting of a long piece of string having each end
passed through the bottom of a little cardboard box, and secured by
a knot. If the string is stretched tightly this arrangement enables
whispered words to be heard at a distance of 20 or 30 yards. Simple
as is this little toy, yet it is probable that many people would be rather
nonplussed if asked suddenly to explain how the sounds travel along
the string from one box to the other. If the toy had some complicated
mechanism most likely every one would want to know how it worked,
but the whole thing is so extremely simple that generally it is
dismissed without a thought.
If we strike a tuning-fork and then hold it close to the ear, we
hear that it produces a sound, and at the same time, from a slight
sensation in the hand, we become aware that the fork is in vibration.
As the fork vibrates it disturbs the tiny particles of air round it and
sets them vibrating, and these vibrations are communicated from
one particle to another until they reach the drum of the ear, when
that also begins to vibrate and we hear a sound. This is only another
way of saying that the disturbances of the air caused by the
vibrations of the tuning-fork are propagated in a series of waves,
which we call “sound waves.” Sound is transmitted better through
liquids than through the air, and better still through solids, and this is
why words spoken so softly as to be inaudible through the air at a
distance of, say, 100 feet, can be heard fairly distinctly at that
distance by means of the string telephone. The sound reaches us
along the string in exactly the same way as through the air, that is,
by means of minute impulses passed on from particle to particle.
 A more satisfactory arrangement than the string telephone
consists of two thin plates of metal connected by a wire which is
stretched very tightly. Words spoken close to one plate are heard by
a listener at the other plate up to a considerable distance. Let us try
to see exactly what takes place when this apparatus is used. In the
act of speaking, vibrations are set up in the air, and these in turn set
up vibrations in the metal plate. The vibrations are then
communicated to the wire and to the metal plate at the other end,
and finally the vibrations of this plate produce vibrations in the air
between the plate and the listener, and the sound reaches the ear.
This simple experiment shows the remarkable fact that a plate of
metal is able to reproduce faithfully all the vibrations communicated
to it by the human voice, and from this fact it follows that if we can
communicate the vibrations set up in one plate by the voice, to
another plate at a distance of 100 miles, we shall be able to speak to
a listener at the further plate just as if he were close to us. A
stretched string or wire transmits the vibrations fairly well up to a
certain distance, but beyond this distance the vibrations become
weaker and weaker until no sound at all reaches the air. By the aid of
electricity, however, we can transmit the vibrations to a tremendous
distance, the range being limited only by the imperfections of our
apparatus.
The first attempt at the construction of an electric telephone, that
is an instrument by means of which the vibrations set up by the voice
or by a musical instrument are transmitted by electricity, was made in
1860 by Johann Philipp Reis, a teacher in a school at Friedrichsdorf,
in Germany. His transmitting apparatus consisted of a box having a
hole covered by a tightly stretched membrane, to which was
attached a little strip of platinum. When the membrane was made to
vibrate by sounds produced close to the box, the strip of platinum
moved to and fro against a metal tip, which closed the circuit of a
battery. The receiver was a long needle of soft iron round which was
wound a coil of wire, and the ends of the needle rested on two little
bridges of a sounding box. The vibrations of the membrane opened
and closed the circuit at a great speed, and the rapid magnetization
of the needle produced a tone of the same pitch as the one which
set the membrane vibrating. This apparatus transmitted musical
sounds and melodies with great accuracy, but there is considerable
difference of opinion as to whether it was able to transmit speech.
Professor Sylvanus Thompson distinctly states that Reis’s telephone
could and did transmit speech, but other experts dispute the fact. We
probably shall be quite safe in concluding that this telephone did
transmit speech, but very imperfectly. In any case it is certain that
the receiver of this apparatus is not based on the same principle as
the modern telephone receiver.
Some years later Graham Bell, Professor of Vocal Physiology in
the University of Boston, turned his attention to the electric
transmission of speech, probably being led to do so from his
experiments in teaching the deaf and dumb. His apparatuses shown
at an exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, consisted of a tube having
one end open for speaking into, and the other closed by a tightly
stretched membrane to which was attached a very light steel bar
magnet. The vibrations set up in the membrane by the voice made
the little magnet move to and fro in front of the poles of an electro-
magnet, inserted in a battery circuit, thus inducing currents of
electricity in the coils of the latter magnet. The currents produced in
this way varied in direction and strength according to the vibratory
movements of the membrane, and being transmitted along a wire
they produced similar variations in current in another electro-magnet
in the receiver. The currents produced in this manner in the receiver
set up vibrations in a metal diaphragm in front of the magnet poles,
and so the words spoken into the transmitter were reproduced.
Since the year 1876 the telephone has developed with
remarkable rapidity, and an attempt to trace its growth would involve
a series of detailed descriptions of closely similar inventions which
would be quite uninteresting to most readers. Now, therefore, that we
have introduced the instruments, and seen something of its principle
and its early forms, it will be most satisfactory to omit the
intermediate stages and to go on to the telephone as used in recent
years. The first telephone to come into general use was the invention
of Graham Bell, and was an improved form of his early instrument
just described. A case or tube of ebonite, which forms the handle of
the instrument, contains a steel bar magnet having a small coil of
insulated wire at the end nearest the mouthpiece of the tube, the
ends of the coil passing along the tube to be connected to the line
wires. Close to the coil end of the magnet, and between it and the
mouthpiece, is fixed a diaphragm of thin sheet-iron. A complete outfit
consists of two of these instruments connected by wires, and it will
be noticed that no battery is employed.
The air vibrations set up by the voice make the diaphragm
vibrate also, so that it moves backwards and forwards. These
movements are infinitesimally small, but they are sufficient to affect
the lines of force of the magnet to such an extent that rapidly
alternating currents of varying degrees of strength are set up in the
coil and sent along the line wire. On arriving at the receiver these
currents pass through the coil and produce rapid variations in the
strength of the magnet, so that instead of exerting a uniform
attraction upon the iron diaphragm, the magnet pulls it with
constantly varying force, and thus sets it vibrating. The air in front of
the diaphragm now begins to vibrate, and the listener hears a
reproduction of the words spoken into the transmitter. The way in
which the fluctuations of the current make the second diaphragm
vibrate exactly in accordance with the first is very remarkable, and it
is important to notice that the listener does not hear the actual voice
of the speaker, but a perfect reproduction of it; in fact, the second
diaphragm speaks.
The reader probably will be surprised to be told that the
transmitter and the receiver of a magneto-electric telephone are
respectively a dynamo and electric motor of minute proportions. We
provide a dynamo with mechanical motion and it gives us electric
current, and by sending this current through an electric motor we get
mechanical motion back again. In the transmitter of the telephone
just described, the mechanical motion is in the form of vibrations of
the metal diaphragm, which set up currents of electricity in the coil of
wire round the magnet, so that the transmitter is really a tiny dynamo
driven by the voice. The receiver is provided with electric current
from the transmitter, and it converts this into mechanical motion in
the diaphragm, so that the receiver is a little electric motor.
 Transmitters of the type just described work well over short
distances, but the currents they produce are too feeble for
transmission over a very long wire, and on this account they have
been superseded by transmitters on the microphone principle. A
microphone is an instrument for making extremely small sounds
plainly audible. If a current is passed through a box containing loose
bits of broken carbon, it meets with great resistance, but if the bits of
carbon are compressed their conducting power is considerably
increased. Even such slight differences in pressure as are produced
by vibrating the box will affect the amount of current passing through
the carbon. If this current is led by wires to an ordinary telephone
receiver the arrangement becomes a simple form of microphone.
The vibrations of the box vary the resistance of the carbon, and the
corresponding variations in the current set up vibrations in the
receiver, but in a magnified form. The smallest sound vibrations alter
the resistance of the carbon, and as these vibrations are magnified
in the receiver, the reproduced sound is magnified also. The
footsteps of a fly may be heard quite distinctly by means of a good
microphone, and the ticks of a watch sound like the strokes of a
hammer.
By means of this power of magnifying
vibrations a microphone transmitter can
be used on a line of tremendous length,
where an ordinary Bell transmitter would
be utterly useless. The general features
of this transmitter, Fig. 31, are a
diaphragm and a block of carbon
separated slightly from one another, the
intervening space being filled with
granules of carbon. These are enclosed
in a case of ebonite having a mouthpiece
in front and two terminals behind, one
Fig. 31.—Diagram of
terminal being connected with the carbon Microphone Transmitter.
block and the other with the diaphragm.
From these terminals wires are led to a
battery and to the receiver, which is of the Bell type. The current has
to pass through the carbon granules, and the movements of the
diaphragm when set in vibration by the voice vary the pressure upon
the granules, and in this way set up variations in the current. Carbon
dust also may be used instead of granular carbon, and then the
instrument is called a “dust transmitter.”
It is usual to have a transmitter and a receiver
on one handle for the greater convenience of the
user. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 32, and it
will be seen that when the user places the receiver
to his ear the transmitting mouthpiece is in position
for speaking. The microphone with its carbon dust
is placed at A, just below the mouthpiece, and the
earpiece or receiver B contains a little magnet and
coil with a diaphragm in front, so that it is really a
Bell instrument. A little lever will be noticed at C.
This is a switch which brings the transmitter into
circuit on being pressed with the finger.
It is now time to see something of the
arrangement and working of telephone systems.
As soon as the telephone became a commercially
Fig. 32.— practicable instrument the necessity for some
Combined means of inter-communication became evident,
Telephone and the telephone exchange was brought into
Transmitter and being. The first exchange was started in 1877, in
Receiver.
Boston, but this was a very small affair and it was
run on very crude lines. When one subscriber
wished to communicate with another he had to call up an operator,
who received the message and repeated it to the person for whom it
was intended; there was no direct communication between the
various subscribers’ instruments. As the number of users increased
it became necessary to devise some system whereby each
subscriber could call the attention of an operator at the central
station, and be put into direct communication with any other
subscriber without delay; and the exchange system of to-day, which
fulfils these requirements almost to perfection, is the result of gradual
improvements in telephone methods extending over some thirty-five
years.
 When a subscriber wishes to telephone, he first must call up the
operator at the exchange. Until comparatively recently this was done
by turning a handle placed at the side of the instrument. This handle
operated a little dynamo, and the current produced caused a shutter
at the exchange to drop and reveal a number, just as in the electric
bell indicator, so that the operator knew which instrument was
calling. As soon as the operator answered the call, the shutter
replaced itself automatically. The signal to disconnect was given in
the same way, but the indicator was of a different colour in order to
prevent confusion with a call signal. These handle-operated
telephones are still in common use, but they are being replaced by
instruments which do away with handle-turning on the part of the
subscriber, and with dropping shutters at the exchange. In this latest
system all that the subscriber has to do is to lift his telephone from its
rest, when a little electric lamp lights up at the exchange; and when
he has finished his conversation he merely replaces the telephone,
and again a little lamp glows.
We must now see what happens at the exchange when a call is
made. Each operator has control of a number of pairs of flexible
cords terminating in plugs, the two cords of each pair being
electrically connected. The plugs rest on a shelf in front of the
operator, and the cords pass through the shelf and hang down below
it. If a plug is lifted, the cord comes up through the shelf, and it is
drawn back again by a weight when the plug is not in use. Two
lamps are provided for each pair of cords, one being fixed close to
each cord. The two wires leading from each subscriber’s instrument
are connected to a little tube-shaped switch called a “jack,” and each
jack has a lamp of its own. When a subscriber lifts his telephone
from its rest a lamp glows, and the operator inserts one plug of a pair
into the jack thus indicated, and the lamp goes out automatically.
She then switches on her telephone to the caller and asks for the
number of the subscriber to whom he wishes to speak; and as soon
as she gets this she inserts the other plug of the pair into the jack
belonging to this number. By a simple movement she then rings up
the required person by switching on the current to his telephone bell.
 Here comes in the use of the two lamps connected with the
cords. As long as the subscribers’ telephones are on their rests the
lamps are lighted, but as soon as they are lifted off the lamps go out.
The caller’s telephone is of course off its rest, and so the lamp
connected with the first cord is not lit; but until the subscriber rung up
lifts his instrument to answer the call, the lamp of the second cord
remains lit, having first lighted up when the plug was inserted in the
jack of his number. When the second lamp goes out the operator
knows that the call has been responded to, and that the two
subscribers are in communication with each other. Having finished
their conversation, both subscribers replace their instruments on the
rests, whereupon both lamps light up, informing the operator that she
may disconnect by pulling out the plugs.
It is manifestly impossible for one operator to attend to the calls
of all the subscribers in the exchange, and so a number of operators
are employed, each one having to attend to the calls of a certain
number of subscribers. At the same time it is clear that each
operator may be called upon to connect one of her subscribers to
any other subscriber in the whole exchange. In order to make this
possible the switchboard is divided into sections, each having as
many jacks as there are lines in the exchange, so that in this respect
all the sections are multiples of each other, and the whole
arrangement is called a “multiple switchboard,” the repeated jacks
being called “multiple jacks.” Then there are other jacks which it is
not necessary to duplicate. We have seen that when a subscriber
calls the exchange a lamp glows, and the operator inserts a plug into
the jack beside the lamp, in order to answer the call and ascertain
what number is required. These are called “answering jacks,” and
the lamp is the line signal. It is usual to have three operators to each
section of the switchboard, and each operator has charge of so
many answering jacks, representing so many subscribers. At the
same time she has access to the whole section, so that she can
connect any of her subscribers to any other line in the exchange.
When a number is called for, the operator must be able to tell at
once whether the line is free or not. The jack in her section may be
unoccupied, but she must know also whether all the multiple jacks
belonging to that number are free, for an operator at another section
may have connected the line to one of her subscribers. To enable an
operator to ascertain this quickly an electrical test is provided. When
two lines are connected, the whole of the multiple jacks belonging to
each are charged with electricity, and if an operator at any section
touches one of these jacks with a plug, a current through her
receiver makes a click, and on hearing the click she knows that the
line is engaged. The testing takes an extremely short time, and this
is why a caller receives the reply, “Number engaged,” so promptly
that he feels inclined to doubt whether the operator has made any
attempt at all to connect him up to the number.
In order that an operator may have both hands free to
manipulate the plugs, her telephone receiver is fixed over one ear by
a fastening passing over her head, and the transmitter is hung from
her shoulders so as to be close to her mouth.
In telegraphy it is the rule to employ the earth for the return part
of the circuit, but this is not customary in telephony. The telephone is
a much more sensitive instrument than the telegraph, and a
telephone having an earth return is subject to all kinds of strange
and weird noises which greatly interfere with conversation. These
noises may be caused by natural electrical disturbances, or by the
proximity of telegraph and other wires conveying electric currents.
On this account telephone lines are made with a complete metallic
circuit. As in telegraphy, protection from lightning flashes is afforded
by lightning arresters. The current for the working of a telephone
exchange is supplied from a central battery of accumulators, and
also from dynamos.
 PLATE XII.

By permission of Craven Brothers Ltd.

LARGE ELECTRIC TRAVELLING CRANE AT A RAILWAY WORKS.

Although the manual exchange telephone system of to-day

works with remarkable efficiency, it has certain weak points. For
instance, if an operator cares to do so, she can listen to
conversations between subscribers, so that privacy cannot be
assured. As a matter of fact, the operators have little time for this
kind of thing, at any rate during the busy hours of the day, and as a
rule they are not sufficiently interested in other people’s affairs to
make any attempt to listen to their remarks. The male operators who
work through the slack hours of the night are occasionally guilty of
listening. Some time ago the writer had to ring up a friend in the very
early morning, and during the conversation this gentleman asked
what time it was. Before the writer had time to get a word out, a deep
bass voice from the exchange replied, “Half-past two.” Little incidents
of this sort remind one that it is not wise to speak too freely by
telephone. Then again operators are liable to make wrong
connexions through faulty hearing of the number called for, and
these are equally annoying to the caller and to the person rung up in
mistake. Many other defects might be mentioned, but these are
sufficient to show that the manual system is not perfect.
For a long time inventors have been striving to do away with all
such defects by abolishing the exchange operators, and substituting
mechanism to work the exchanges automatically, and during the last
few years the system of the Automatic Electric Company, of
Chicago, has been brought to great perfection. This system is in
extensive use in the United States, and is employed in two or three
exchanges in this country. Unfortunately the mechanism of this
system is extremely complicated, so that it is impossible to describe
it fully in a book of this kind; but some idea of the method of working
may be given without entering into technical details.
Each subscriber’s telephone instrument is fitted with a dial which
turns round on a pivot at its centre. This dial has a series of holes
round its circumference, numbered consecutively from 1 to 9, and 0.
Suppose now a subscriber wishes to speak to a friend whose
telephone number is 2583. He removes the receiver from its hook,
places his finger in the hole marked 2, and turns the dial round in a
clockwise direction until his finger comes in contact with a stop. He
then removes his finger, and the dial automatically returns to its
original position. He then places his finger in the hole marked 5, and
again turns the dial as far as the stop, and when the dial has
returned to the normal position he repeats the process with his finger
placed successively in the holes marked 8 and 3. He now places the
receiver to his ear, and by the time he has done this the automatic
mechanism at the exchange has made the necessary connexions,
and has rung the bell of subscriber number 2583. On completing the
conversation each subscriber returns his receiver to its hook, and the
exchange mechanism returns to its normal position.
The turning of the dial by the finger coils up a spring, and this
spring, acting along with a speed governor, makes the dial return to
its first position at a certain definite speed as soon as the finger is
removed. During this retrograde movement a switch automatically
sends out into the line a certain number of impulses, the number
being determined by the hole in which the finger is placed. In the
case supposed, groups of two, five, eight, and three impulses
respectively would be sent out, each group separated from the next
by an interval during which the subscriber is turning the dial.
Now let us see what takes place at the exchange. The
subscriber’s instrument is connected to a mechanical arrangement
known as a “line switch.” This switch is brought into play by the act of
removing the receiver from its hook, and it then automatically
connects the subscriber’s line to what is called a “first selector”
switch. The group of two impulses sent out by the first turning of the
dial raises this first selector two steps, and it then sweeps along a
row of contacts connected to “trunks” going to the 2000 section.
Passing by occupied trunks, it finds an idle one, and so connects the
line to an idle “second selector.” This selector is operated by the
second group of impulses, five in number, and after being raised five
steps it acts like the first selector, and finds an idle trunk leading to
the 2500 section. This places the caller’s line in connexion with still
another switch called a “connector,” and this switch, operated by the
remaining groups of eight and three impulses, finds the required tens
section, and selects the third member of that section. If the number
2583 is disengaged, the connector switch now sends current from
the central battery to this instrument, thus ringing its bell, and it also
supplies speaking current to the two lines during the conversation,
restores the exchange mechanism to its original condition as soon
as the conversation is ended and the subscribers have hung up their
receivers, and registers the call on the calling subscriber’s meter. If
the connector finds the number engaged, it sends out an intermittent
buzzing sound, to inform the caller of the fact. All these operations
take time to describe, even in outline, but in practice they are carried
out with the utmost rapidity, each step in the connecting-up process
taking only a small fraction of a second.
For ordinary local calls the automatic system requires no
operators at all, but for the convenience of users there are usually
two clerks at the exchange, one to give any information required by
subscribers, and the other to record complaints regarding faulty
working. For trunk calls, the subscriber places his finger in the hole
marked 0, and gives the dial one turn. This connects him to an
operator at the trunk switchboard, who makes the required
connexion and then calls him up in the usual way.
It might be thought that the complex mechanism of an automatic
exchange would constantly be getting out of order, but it is found to
work with great smoothness. Each automatic switchboard has a
skilled electrician in attendance, and he is informed instantly of any
faulty working by means of supervisory lamps and other signals.
Even without these signals the attendant would be quickly aware of
any breakdown, for his ear becomes so accustomed to the sounds
made by the apparatus during the connecting-up, that any abnormal
sound due to faulty connecting attracts his attention at once.
However detected, the faults are put right immediately, and it often
happens that a defective line is noted and repaired before the
subscriber knows that anything is wrong.
On account of its high speed in making connexions and
disconnexions, its absolute accuracy, and its privacy, the automatic
telephone system has proved most popular wherever it has been
given a fair trial. Its advantages are most obvious in large city
exchanges where the traffic during business hours is tremendously
heavy, and it is probable that before very long the automatic system
will have replaced manual methods for all such exchanges.
The telephone system is more highly developed in the United
States than in this country, and some of the exchanges have been
made to do a great deal more than simply transmit messages. For
instance, in Chicago there is a system by which a subscriber, on
connecting himself to a special circuit, is automatically informed of
the correct time, by means of phonographs, between the hours of 8
a.m. and 10 p.m. New York goes further than this however, and has
a regular system of news circulation by telephone. According to
Electricity, the daily programme is as follows: “8 a.m., exact
astronomical time; 8 to 9 a.m., weather reports, London Stock
Exchange news, special news item; 9 to 9.30 a.m., sales,
amusements, business events; 9.45 to 10 a.m., personal news,
small notices; 10 to 10.30 a.m., New York Stock Exchange and
market news; 11.30 a.m. to 12 noon, local news, miscellaneous; 12
noon, exact astronomical time, latest telegrams, military and
parliamentary news; 2 to 2.15 p.m., European cables; 1.15 to 2.30
p.m., Washington news; 2.30 to 2.45 p.m., fashions, ladies’ news;
2.45 to 3.15 p.m., sporting and theatrical news; 3.15 to 3.30 p.m.,
closing news from Wall Street; 3.30 to 5 p.m., musical news, recitals,
etc.; 5 to 6 p.m., feuilleton sketches, literary news; 8 to 10.30 p.m.,
selected evening performance—music, opera, recitations.”
Considering the elaborate nature of this scheme one might imagine
that the subscription would be high, but as a matter of fact it is only
six shillings per month.
The telephone has proved of great value in mine rescue work, in
providing means of communication between the rescue party and
those in the rear. This end is achieved by means of a portable
telephone, but as the members of a rescue party often wear oxygen
helmets, the ordinary telephone mouthpiece is of no use. To
overcome this difficulty the transmitter is fastened round the throat.
The vibrations of the vocal cords pass through the wall of the throat,
and thus operate the transmitter. The receiver is fixed over one ear
by means of suitable head-gear, and the connecting wire is laid by
the advancing rescuers. A case containing some hundreds of feet of
wire is strapped round the waist, and as the wearer walks forward
this wire pays itself out automatically.
By the time that the telephone came to be a really practical
instrument, capable of communicating over long distances on land,
the Atlantic telegraph cable was in operation, and an attempt was
made to telephone from one continent to the other by means of it,
but without success. In speaking of submarine telegraphy in Chapter
XVII. we saw that the cable acts like a Leyden jar, and it was this fact
that made it impossible to telephone through more than about 20
miles of cable, so that transatlantic telephony was quite out of the
question. It was evident that little progress could be made in this
direction unless some means could be devised for neutralizing this
capacity effect, as it is called, of the cable, and finally it was
discovered that this could be done by inserting at intervals along the
cable a number of coils of wire. These coils are known as “loading
coils,” and a cable provided with them is called a “loaded cable.”
Such cables have been laid across various narrow seas, such as
between England and France, and England and Ireland, and these
have proved very successful for telephonic communication. The
problem of transatlantic telephony however still remains to be
solved. Experiments have been made in submarine telephony over a
bare iron cable, instead of the usual insulated cable. Conversations
have been carried on in this way without difficulty between Seattle,
Washington, U.S.A., and Vashon Island, a total distance of about 11
miles, and it is possible that uninsulated cables may play an
extremely important part in the development of submarine telephony.
 CHAPTER XIX
SOME TELEGRAPHIC AND TELEPHONIC
INVENTIONS

In telegraphy messages not only may be received, but also

recorded, by the Morse printer or one of its modifications, but in
ordinary telephony there is no mechanical method of recording
messages. This means that we can communicate by telephone only
when we can call up somebody to receive the message at the other
end, and if no one happens to be within hearing of the telephone bell
we are quite helpless. This is always annoying, and if the message is
urgent the delay may be serious. Several arrangements for
overcoming this difficulty by means of automatic recording
mechanism have been invented, but the only really successful one is
the telegraphone.
This instrument is the invention of Waldemar Poulsen, whose
apparatus for wireless telegraphy we shall speak of in the next
chapter. The telegraphone performs at the same time the work of a
telephone and of a phonograph. In the ordinary type of phonograph
the record is made in the form of depressions or indentations on the
surface of a cylinder of wax; these indentations being produced by a
stylus actuated by vibrations set up in a diaphragm by the act of
speaking. In the telegraphone the same result is obtained entirely by
electro-magnetic action. The wax cylinder of the phonograph is
replaced by a steel wire or ribbon, and the recording stylus by an
electro-magnet. The steel ribbon is arranged to travel along over two
cylinders or reels kept in constant rotation, and a small electro-
magnet is fixed midway between the cylinders so that the ribbon
passes close above it. This magnet is connected to the telephone
line, so that its magnetism fluctuates in accordance with the
variations in the current in the line. We have seen that steel retains
magnetism imparted to it. In passing over the electro-magnet the
steel ribbon is magnetized in constantly varying degrees,
corresponding exactly with the variations in the line current set up by
the speaker’s voice, and these magnetic impressions are retained by
the ribbon. When the speaker has finished, the telephone line is
disconnected, the ribbon is carried back to the point at which it
started, and the apparatus is connected to the telephone receiver.
The ribbon now moves forward again, and this time it acts like the
speaker’s voice, the varying intensity of its magnetic record
producing corresponding variations in the strength of the magnet, so
causing the receiver diaphragm to reproduce the sounds in the
ordinary way.
The magnetic record made in this manner is fairly permanent,
and if desired it may be reproduced over and over again. In most
cases, however, a permanent record is of no value, and so the
magnetic impressions are obliterated in order that the ribbon may be
used to take a new record. This can be done by passing a
permanent magnet along the ribbon, but it is more convenient to
have an automatic obliterating arrangement. This consists of another
electro-magnet fixed close to the recording magnet, so that the
ribbon passes over it before reaching the latter. The obliterating
magnet is connected with a battery, and its unvarying magnetism
destroys all traces of the previous record, and the ribbon passes
forward to the recording magnet ready to receive new impressions.
For recording telephone messages the telegraphone is attached
to the telephone instrument, and by automatically operated switches
it is set working by a distant speaker. It records all messages
received during the absence of its owner, who, on his return,
connects it to his receiver, and thus hears a faithful reproduction of
every word. By speaking into his instrument before going out, the
owner can leave a message stating the time at which he expects to
return, and this message will be repeated by the telegraphone to
anybody ringing up in the meantime. The most recent forms of
telegraphone are capable of recording speeches over an hour in