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Groundwater
Development and
Management
Issues and Challenges in South Asia
Groundwater Development and Management
Pradip K. Sikdar
Editor

Groundwater Development
and Management
Issues and Challenges in South Asia
Editor
Pradip K. Sikdar
Department of Environment Management
Indian Institute of Social Welfare &
Business Management
Kolkata, India

Co-published by Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, with Capital

Publishing Company, New Delhi, India.

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Mahaveer Street, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India.

ISBN 978-3-319-75114-6 ISBN 978-3-319-75115-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75115-3

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© Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, India 2019

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Preface

Groundwater is the most preferred source of water in different user sectors in

South Asia due to its near-universal availability, dependability, and low capital
cost. The increasing dependence on groundwater as a reliable source of water has
resulted in indiscriminate extraction in various parts of South Asia without taking
into account the recharging capacities of aquifers and other environmental
factors. The irrigation sector remains the major consumer of groundwater in
India, accounting for 92% of its annual withdrawal. The development of ground-
water in India is highly uneven and shows considerable variations from place to
place. Meeting the growing demand for water is further constrained by the
deteriorating groundwater quality. In the past, a major advantage of using
groundwater was that it normally required little or no treatment, but this is no
longer the case. High arsenic, fluoride, chloride, nitrate, etc. concentrations,
primarily as a result of increased agricultural production since the 1960s, affect
many groundwater supplies. The same is true for pesticides that are widely used
for weed control in agriculture, on roads, and railways, and that are also used to
control pests in agriculture and industry. Perhaps the greatest threat to South Asia
and India’s water resources, and as a consequence also water supply and the
environment, may come from the changing climate. However, there is great
uncertainty about what the effects on water resources will be from climate
change. From a groundwater perspective, it could cause a long-term decline in
aquifer storage, increased frequency, and severity of droughts and floods as well
as the mobilization of pollutants due to seasonally high water tables and saline
intrusion in coastal aquifers.
Management of groundwater resources in South Asia is an extremely complex
challenge. The highly uneven distribution of groundwater and its utilization make it
impossible to have a single management strategy for the region as a whole. Any
strategy for scientific management of groundwater resources should involve a
combination of supply-side and demand-side measures depending on the regional
setting. The likely adverse impacts of global climate change on the availability and
quality of groundwater also demand significant political attention at the international
and national levels. Groundwater management also calls for a paradigm shift from
v
vi Preface

development strategy to management strategy against the backdrop of several

million operating groundwater abstraction structures in South Asia to ensure food
and energy security in the region.
This book is organized in twenty-three chapters, which not only highlight the
problems of groundwater management in South Asia, in general, and in India, in
particular, but also provides solutions using both traditional and modern techniques.
The first two chapters cover the problems and challenges in groundwater manage-
ment in South Asia and India. The next five chapters deal with the various tools that
are used in understanding the geology, structure, 3D configuration of the aquifer
systems, and groundwater flow and pollutant transport, such as geophysical tech-
niques, environmental isotopes, geostatistics, remote sensing, geographical infor-
mation system, and numerical modeling. Chapters 8 and 9 describe the development
and management of the coastal aquifer systems and springs in hilly regions for
community water supply. Drilling, construction, design, and development of wells
are very important for a sustainable supply of groundwater from different geological
formations; these are covered in Chap. 10. Chapter 11 deals with pumping tests and a
field method to analyze pumping test data to determine the cardinal aquifer param-
eters, such as hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, and storage coefficient; and
safe spacing between two pumping wells. The next five chapters cover the quality of
groundwater with respect to arsenic and fluoride, their impact on the food chain and
human health, and the methods of treatment of arsenic and fluoride contaminated
groundwater. The likely adverse impacts of global climate change on the availability
and quality of groundwater also invite significant political attention at the interna-
tional and national levels, which are covered in Chap. 17. Aspects related to
rainwater harvesting, artificial recharging, and development and management of
baseflow for public water supply in semi-arid areas are included in the next two
chapters. The subject of groundwater governance has been addressed in Chaps. 20,
21, and 22 encompassing economics, pricing, jurisdiction, legislation, policy and
regulations, legal framework, and community participation. The final chapter of this
book depicts a road-map to evolve a paradigm to ensure safety and security of
groundwater-based water supply.
This book addresses the various technical aspects of groundwater development
and management and offers a meaningful and feasible guidance for better managing
the stressed groundwater resources in South Asia including India. The book will
serve as a guide to those who are concerned with various aspects of groundwater
science like researchers, academics, professionals, and students in diverse fields like
geology, geophysics, hydrology, environmental science, environmental engineering,
environmental management, civil engineering, and irrigation engineering. Others
who will benefit from this book are administrators, policy makers, and economists
who are also concerned with the formulation and evaluation of plans for the
development and management of groundwater resources.
The editor conveys his appreciation to all the authors of this book for their
invaluable contributions. Without their contributions and support, this book would
not have been possible. The editor is thankful to the Director of the Indian Institute of
Preface vii

Social Welfare and Business Management for providing the infrastructural facilities.
The editor also thanks the Publisher Capital Publishing Company and Co-publisher
Springer for their kind support and great efforts in bringing the book to fruition.

Kolkata, India Pradip K. Sikdar

Contents

1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management

in South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Pradip K. Sikdar
2 Groundwater Resources of India: Potential,
Challenges and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Dipankar Saha and Ranjan K. Ray
3 Application of Geophysical Techniques
in Groundwater Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Bimalendu B. Bhattacharya
4 Environmental Isotopes in Groundwater Applications . . . . . . . . . . 77
Sudhir Kumar
5 Geostatistics in Groundwater Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Bhabesh C. Sarkar
6 Application of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information
System in Groundwater Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Surajit Chakraborty
7 Numerical Groundwater Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Pradip K. Sikdar
8 Development and Management of Coastal Aquifer
System Through Seawater Intrusion Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Subrata Halder
9 Spring Protection and Management: Context, History
and Examples of Spring Management in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Jared Buono
10 Water Well Drilling, Well Construction and Well Development . . . 243
Ashis Chakraborty
ix
x Contents

11 Pumping Test for Aquifers: Analysis and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Pradip K. Sikdar
12 Arsenic in Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
John M. McArthur
13 Arsenic Contaminated Irrigation Water and Its Impact
on Food Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Saroj K. Sanyal
14 Fluoride Pollution in Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Paulami Sahu
15 Human Health Hazards Due to Arsenic and Fluoride
Contamination in Drinking Water and Food Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Gautam Ghosh and Dipak K. Mukhopadhyay
16 Arsenic and Excess Fluoride Removal in Public Water
Supply: Key Issues and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Arunabha Majumder
17 Impact of Climatic Stress on Groundwater Resources
in the Coming Decades Over South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Rajib Chattopadhyay, Surajit Chakraborty, and Atul K. Sahai
18 Rainwater Harvesting and Artificial Recharge of Groundwater . . . 421
Ajoy Kumar Misra
19 Hydrogeological Assessment for Development and Management
of Baseflow for Public Water Supply in Semi-arid and Fluoride
Affected Hard Rock Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Pradip K. Sikdar, Shouri Dutta, Saheb Das, Surajit Chakraborty,
and Utsab Ghosal
20 Groundwater Pricing and Groundwater Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Achiransu Acharyya
21 Legislation for Effective Groundwater Management
in South Asian Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Tapan K. Ray
22 Catalyzing Peoples’ Participation for Groundwater
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Ayan Biswas
23 Way Forward and Future Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Pradip K. Sikdar

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Contributors

Achiransu Acharyya Department of Economics, Visva Bharati (A Central Uni-

versity), Santiniketan, India
Bimalendu B. Bhattacharya S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Salt
Lake, Kolkata, India
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India
Ayan Biswas Asia Hub, Akvo, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Jared Buono Eco-Hydrologist and Independent Consultant, Ruby, NY, USA
Ashis Chakraborty Central Ground Water Board, Faridabad, India
Surajit Chakraborty Department of Environment Management, Indian Institute of
Social Welfare and Business Management, Kolkata, India
Rajib Chattopadhyay Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, India
Saheb Das Centre for Ground Water Studies, Kolkata, India
Shouri Dutta Department of Environment Management, Indian Institute of Social
Welfare and Business Management, Kolkata, India
Utsab Ghosal Department of Environment Management, Indian Institute of Social
Welfare and Business Management, Kolkata, India
Gautam Ghosh Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, India
Subrata Halder State Water Investigation Directorate, Department of Water
Resources Investigation & Development, Government of West Bengal, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
Sudhir Kumar National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India

xi
xii Contributors

Arunabha Majumder School of Water Resources Engineering, Jadavpur Univer-

sity, Kolkata, India
Arsenic & Fluoride Task Force, Government of West Bengal, Kolkata, India
All India Institute of Hygiene & Public Health, Government of India, Kolkata, India
John M. McArthur Department of Earth Science, University College London,
London WC1E 6BT, UK
Ajoy Kumar Misra Central Ground Water Board, Kolkata, India
Dipak K. Mukhopadhyay Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, India
Ranjan K. Ray Central Ground Water Board, Faridabad, India
Tapan K. Ray State Water Investigation Directorate, Department of Water
Resources Investigation & Development, Government of West Bengal, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
Dipankar Saha Central Ground Water Board, Faridabad, India
Atul K. Sahai Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, India
Paulami Sahu School of Environment & Sustainable Development, Central Uni-
versity of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
Saroj K. Sanyal Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West
Bengal, India
Bhabesh C. Sarkar Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technol-
ogy (ISM), Dhanbad, India
Pradip K. Sikdar Department of Environment Management, Indian Institute of
Social Welfare and Business Management, Kolkata, India
About the Editor

Professor Pradip K. Sikdar received his education at the University of Calcutta

(Geology/Hydrogeology) and the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK (Inte-
grated Coastal Zone Management). A teacher by profession and a hydrogeologist by
education, he was a Senior Scientist and Executive Secretary at the Centre for Study
of Man and Environment, Kolkata, and a Lecturer at the Department of Applied
Geology, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, before joining the Indian Institute of
Social Welfare and Business Management at the Department of Environment Man-
agement in 2000. Currently as a Professor at the Department of Environment
Management, he is actively engaged in research and teaching of groundwater
hydrology and environmental impact assessment. He has over 28 years of experience
in project management and implementation, field and research work in groundwater
systems including the application of computer models in the scientific evaluation of
hydrogeologic systems, and groundwater resources development and protection. He
also provides technical and management advice on a wide range of subjects dealing
with watershed management: natural resources development; and environmental
management issues to industries, consultant groups, and NGOs. He has carried out
extensive research on arsenic contamination in groundwater of the Bengal Basin,
and his primary interest in arsenic is to explain the spatial distribution of
As-pollution in aquifers of the Bengal Basin. His present research also deals with
the sustainability of water supply in the fluoride affected and semi-arid regions of
West Bengal and the design of groundwater abstraction structures.
Professor Sikdar supervises several students for Master, Doctoral, and Post-
doctoral research work. Up until now, five research students have been conferred
the Ph.D. degree under his guidance. He is also Visiting Faculty at the Departments
of Geology and Environmental Science of the University of Calcutta and at the
Department of Geology of the Presidency University, where he teaches Hydrogeol-
ogy and Water Resource Management. He has delivered several lectures in national
and international conferences, seminars, workshops, UGC-sponsored refresher
courses, etc. He is serving as a reviewer for many national and international journals.
He is a member of several national and international professional institutions and

xiii
xiv About the Editor

societies, and is also on the Board of Editors of some leading national journals. He
was a Member of the CGWB State-Level Technical Evaluation Committee and West
Bengal Fact-Finding Commission on Environment. He has published more than
100 research papers in international and national journals, conference proceedings,
books, and 35 project reports. He has authored the book “Groundwater of West
Bengal: Assessment, Development and Management” (in Bengali) and co-authored
the book “A Text Book of Environment”. He has also edited two books on
“Interlinking of Indian Rivers.” He is the recipient of the 22nd Dewang Mehta
Business School Award 2014 for the “Best Professor in Water Resources Manage-
ment” and Groundwater Science Excellence Award in 2015 by the International
Association of Hydrogeologists – India Chapter in appreciation of his achievements
in the field of groundwater in India.
Chapter 1
Problems and Challenges for Groundwater
Management in South Asia

Pradip K. Sikdar

1 Introduction

South Asia represents the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as
Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu
Kush. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land by West
Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. South Asia covers about 5.1
million km2, which is 11.51% of the Asian continent or 3.4% of the world’s land
surface area. The region is home to about 39.5% of Asia’s population and over 24%
of the world’s population, making it both the most populous and the most densely
populated geographical region in the world. The important rivers of South Asia are
Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra. These rivers have contributed to the rise and
prosperity of some of the earliest civilizations in history and today are the source
of livelihood for millions. The South Asian river basins, most of which have their
source in the Himalayas, support rich ecosystems and irrigate millions of hectares of
fields, thereby supporting some of the highest population densities in the world.
The climate of this vast region varies considerably from area to area from tropical
monsoon in the south to temperate in the north. The variety is influenced by not only
the altitude, but also by factors such as proximity to the sea coast and the seasonal
impact of the monsoons. Southern parts are mostly hot in summers and receive rain
during monsoon periods. The northern belt of Indo-Gangetic plains also is hot in
summer, but cooler in winter. The mountainous north is colder and receives snowfall
at higher altitudes of Himalayan ranges. As the Himalayas block the north-Asian

P. K. Sikdar (*)
Department of Environment Management, Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business
Management, Kolkata, India
e-mail: p_sikdar@hotmail.com

© Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, India 2019 1

P. K. Sikdar (ed.), Groundwater Development and Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75115-3_1
2 P. K. Sikdar

bitter cold winds, the temperatures are considerably moderate in the plains. South
Asia is largely divided into four broad climate zones (Olive 2005). They are (i) dry
subtropical continental climate between the northern Indian edge and northern
Pakistani uplands, (ii) equatorial climate between the far south of India and south-
west Sri Lanka, (iii) tropical climate in most of the peninsula with variations such as
hot sub-tropical climate in northwest India, cool winter hot tropical climate in
Bangladesh and tropical semi-arid climate in the centre, and (iv) alpine climate in
the Himalayas.
Maximum relative humidity of over 80% has been recorded in Khasi and Jaintia
Hills and Sri Lanka, while the area adjoining Pakistan and western India records
lower than 20%. Climate of South Asia is largely characterized by monsoons. Two
monsoon systems exist in the region (Tyson 2002). They are (i) summer monsoon
when wind blows from southwest to most of parts of the region and accounts for
70%–90% of the annual precipitation, and (ii) winter monsoon when wind blows
from northeast. The warmest period of the year (March to mid-June) precedes the
monsoon season. In the summer the low pressures are centered over the Indus-
Gangetic Plain and high wind from the Indian Ocean blows towards the centre. The
monsoon season is relatively cooler because of cloud cover and rain. In early June
the jet streams vanish above the Tibetan Plateau, low pressure over the Indus Valley
deepens and the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves in. This change
results in depressions in the Bay of Bengal which brings in rain from June to
September (Olive 2005).

2 Hydrogeological Framework

The behaviour of groundwater in South Asia is highly complicated due to the

occurrence of diversified geological formations with considerable lithological and
chronological variations, complex tectonic framework, climatological dissimilarities
and various hydrochemical conditions. Studies carried out over the years have
revealed that aquifer groups in alluvial/soft rocks even transcend the surface basin
boundaries. The hydrogeological framework of the countries of South Asia is briefly
described below.

2.1 India

In India groundwater occurs broadly in two groups of rock formations depending on

characteristically different hydrogeological and hydrodynamical conditions. They
are porous formations (unconsolidated and semi-consolidated) and fissured
formations.
The unconsolidated formations are alluvial sediments of river basins, coastal and
deltaic tracts where groundwater occurs in primary porosity. These are by far the
most significant groundwater reservoirs for large scale and extensive development.
1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management in South Asia 3

The hydrogeological environment and groundwater regime conditions in the Ganga-

Brahmaputra basin indicate the existence of potential aquifers having enormous
fresh groundwater resources. Bestowed with high incidence of rainfall and covered
by a thick pile of porous sediments, these groundwater reservoirs get replenished
every year and are being used heavily. The semi-consolidated formations normally
occur in narrow valleys or structurally faulted basins. The Gondwanas, Lathis,
Tipams, Cuddalore sandstones and their equivalents are the most extensive produc-
tive aquifers. Under favourable situations, these formations give rise to free flowing
wells. In select tracts of northeastern India, these water-bearing formations are quite
productive. The Upper Gondwanas, which are generally arenaceous, constitute
prolific aquifers.
The fisssured formations occupy almost two-third of the country. Groundwater in
these formations occurs in secondary porosity except vesicular volcanic rocks where
it occurs in primary porosity. From the hydrogeological point of view, fissured rocks
are broadly classified into four types. They are (i) igneous and metamorphic rocks
excluding volcanic and carbonate rocks, (ii) volcanic rocks, (iii) consolidated sed-
imentary rocks and (iv) carbonate rocks. The first type consists of granites, gneisses,
charnockites, khondalites, quartzites, schists and associated phyllites, slates, etc.
These rocks possess negligible primary porosity but develop secondary porosity
and hydraulic conductivity due to fracturing and weathering. Groundwater yield
depends on rock type, grade of metamorphism and degree of weathering and
fracturing. The predominant types of the volcanic rocks are the basaltic lava flows
of Deccan Plateau. The Deccan Traps have usually poor to moderate hydraulic
conductivity depending on the presence of primary and secondary porosity. The
consolidated sedimentary rocks occur in Cuddapahs, Vindhyans and their equiva-
lents. The formations consist of conglomerates, sandstones, shales, slates and
quartzites. The presence of bedding planes, joints, contact zones and fractures
control the groundwater occurrence, movement and yield. The carbonate rocks
consist of mainly limestones and dolomites in the Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Bijawar
group of rocks. In carbonate rocks, the circulation of water creates solution cavities.
The solution activity leads to widely contrasting permeability within short distances
through which turbulent flow of groundwater takes place.
The estimated replenishable groundwater resources in India as estimated by the
Central Ground Water Board is 432 billion cubic metres (BCM) of which nearly
60% of the resources has already been developed. Major utilization of groundwater
resources, nearly 80%, is in the agriculture sector.

2.2 Pakistan

The lndus Plain in Pakistan was formed by sediment deposits from the River lndus
and its tributaries, and it is underlain by a highly transmissive unconfined aquifer. In
the Punjab, most groundwater supplies are fresh. The main exceptions are the areas
of saline groundwater in the centre of the interfluviums (‘doab’), particularly those
4 P. K. Sikdar

between Multan and Faisalabad, around Sargodha, and in the south-eastern part of
the province. In the southern part of the lndus Plain, in Sindh, groundwater supplies
are more problematic. With the exception of a small strip along the River Indus,
groundwater supplies are highly saline. The discharge from the aquifers in Sindh is
generally less than that in Punjab (Survey of Pakistan 1989). Supplies are even less
in the eastern deserts and the western limestone ridges bordering the lndus Plain.
Balochistan and North West Frontier Province are geologically more complex. In
Balochistan, land formations consist of limestone, sandstone, and shale formations
alternating with sand, silt, and gravel deposits. The aquifers are confined and
generally yield only limited quantities of water. The quality of groundwater is
unsuitable for agriculture in parts of Balochistan, particularly in some of the coastal
areas, in patches in the large, alluvial Kacchi plain in the east, and in several valleys
in the uplands. Although the picture for North West Frontier Province resembles that
of Balochistan, irrigation with groundwater in North West Frontier Province is more
recent and, until recently, less extensive. This is due to the less arid conditions and
ample surface water resources. Another difference is in the areas around Bannu and
Mardan, where there are thick and extensive aquifers. In Bannu, however, the fresh
water is overlain by saline water.
Total groundwater resources in Pakistan has been estimated to be 57 BCM out of
which 30 to 40% is considered unsuitable for agriculture. Nearly 1.1 million
tubewells (agricultural wells) are among the major causes of rapidly depleting
groundwater levels. The over-exploitation of the confined aquifer has caused such
an alarming situation that in the forseeable future the supply from groundwater may
dry up in Quetta, the capital of Baluchistan. Large scale groundwater abstraction has
posed considerable threat to soil and groundwater quality.

2.3 Bangladesh

The deposits of thick unconsolidated Pliestocene and Holocene alluvial sediments of

the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) delta system form one of the most produc-
tive aquifer systems in the world. The aquifer gets fully recharged each year by
monsoonal rains and floods. Deeper aquifers below the shallow zones of saline water
intrusion are exploited in the coastal regions. Jones (1985) suggested that fresh water
may also be available from older Tertiary rocks down to depths of 1800 m. The main
aquifers in Bangladesh are (i) Late Pliestocene to Holocene coarse sands, gravels and
cobbles of the Tista and Brahmaputra mega fans and basal fan delta gravels along the
incised Brahmaputra channel (MMP 1977; UNDP 1982; MMP 1983), (ii) Late
Pliestocene to Holocene braided river coarse sand and gravels deposited along the
incised palaeo-Ganga, lower Brahmaputra and Meghna main channels (UNDP 1982;
MMP 1983; Davies et al. 1988; Davies and Exley 1992; MMI 1992), (iii) Early to
Middle Pliestocene stacked fluvial main channel made of medium to coarse sand at
>150 m depth in the Khulna, Noakhali, Jessore/Kushtia and western moribund
Ganga delta areas in the subsiding delta basin (UNDP 1982), (iv) Early to Middle
1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management in South Asia 5

Pliestocene red-brown medium to fine sands that underlie grey Holocene medium to
fine sands in the Old Brahmaputra and Chandina areas (UNDP 1982; MMP 1983;
MMI 1992; Davies and Exley 1992), and (v) Early to Middle Pliestocene coarse to
fine fluvial sands of the Dupi Tila Formation that underlie the Madhupur and Barind
Tracts, capped by deposits of Madhupur Clay Residuum (Welsh 1966).
In most of the groundwater studies undertaken in Bangladesh, the aquifer system
has not been divided stratigraphically. Conceptual models of hydrogeological con-
ditions based on simple lithological units have been used to assess the hydraulic
properties of aquifers and tubewell designs to depth of about 150 m. The aquifers
have been divided into two groups according to colour and degree of weathering
(Clark and Lea 1992). They are (i) the grey sediments mainly deposited during the
last 20 ka, and (ii) the red brown sediments mainly older than 100 ka with iron oxides
cements and grey smectitic clays. Hydraulic conductivities determined for grey
sediments are estimated to be in the range 0.4–100 m/day. Those for red brown
sediments are in the range 0.2–50 m/day (UNDP 1982). These give a ratio of
hydraulic conductivities of 2:1 for grey-brown sediments. In general, the regional
groundwater flow in the aquifers of Bangladesh is from north to south with local
variation near major rivers. National Water Plan Phase-II estimated average ground-
water as 21 cubic kilometres in 1991 (Sengupta et al. 2012). More than 60 per cent of
the groundwater in Bangladesh contains naturally occurring arsenic, with concen-
tration levels often significantly exceeding World Health Organisation’s (WHO)
standard of 10 μg/L.

2.4 Afghanistan

According to United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Develop-

ment (United Nations 1986) the aquifers in Afghanistan can be divided into three
categories. They are (i) alluvial and colluvial unconsolidated to semi-consolidated
aquifers comprising about 20% of the total mapped aquifers and containing about
70% of the available groundwater resources, (ii) limestone and dolomite aquifers
making up only 15% of the total mapped aquifers and containing about 20% of the
available groundwater resources, and (iii) the remaining 65% of aquifers are low
permeability units that contain about 10% of the available groundwater resources.
The three hydrogeological regions in Afghanistan are the Great Southern Plain
(Siestan Basin) in the south, the Central Highland Region including the Hindu Kush
mountain range and its associated ranges, and the Northern Plain (Amu Darya Basin)
(United Nations 1986).
The intermontane stream basins of the Central Highland Region are
hydrogeologically most significant (Gellasch 2014). These basins are fault con-
trolled and filled with a variety of unconsolidated materials ranging from alluvial,
colluvial, lacustrine and glacial deposits. The aquifers in these basins contain good
amount of fresh water. The most important of the intermontane basins include those
near the cities of Ghazni, Khowst (Khost), Jalalabad and Kabul (United Nations
6 P. K. Sikdar

1986). Of these basins, the Kabul Basin has been studied most extensively since
2001 (Broshears et al. 2005; Akbari et al. 2007; Lashkaripour and Hussaini 2008;
Houben et al. 2009a, b; Mack et al. 2010). The Kabul Basin geology consists of
consolidated rocks in the mountains surrounding the basin with unconsolidated
sediments in the basin serving as the principal aquifer system. There are four aquifers
in the Kabul Basin consisting mainly of sand and gravel which become slightly
cemented with increasing depth. The Paghman-Darulaman basin has two aquifers
lying along the course of River Paghman and the upper course of River Kabul. The
other two aquifers are located in Logar Basin and the southern part of the Kabul
Basin and follow the course of River Logar and the lower course of River Kabul.
The general groundwater flow direction is from western or south-western basin
margin, through the basin centre, to the eastern basin margin. Locally the thickness
of the aquifer can be up to 80 m (Bockh 1971). The Kabul, Paghman and Logar
aquifers provide most of the drinking water to the residents of Kabul. The hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifers varies from 2.3  10 5 to 1.3  10 3 m/s and can be
classified as permeable to very permeable (Himmelsbach et al. 2005). Each of these
three aquifers near Kabul is capped by a loess layer that varies between 1 and 5 m in
thickness and helps to protect groundwater from contaminants migrating downward
from the surface. The loess also inhibits infiltration and impacts recharge. The Kunar
River valley in eastern Afghanistan is another basin that contains an important
aquifer system. According to Banks and Soldal (2002), these intermontane basins
are similar to two other thoroughly studied locations: the intermontane trough
between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus in Azerbaijan and the intermontane trough
of the Altiplano, between the Cordilleras Oriental and Occidental of Bolivia. The
total groundwater recharge has been estimated to be 10,650  106 m3/year and the
total groundwater usage is 2800  106 m3/year (Uhl 2003).

2.5 Nepal

Nepal is among the richest in terms of water resource availability. Water resources are
abundant throughout the country in the form of snow covers, rivers, springs, lakes and
groundwater. The total renewable water resource of the country is estimated to be
237 km3/year (225 km3/year for surface water sources and 12 km3/year for groundwater
sources) and per capita water availability for 2001 was 9600 m3/capita/year (http://www.
wepa-db.net/policies/state/nepal/state.htm, accessed on February 2017).
Groundwater is abundant in the aquifers of the Terai and the Kathmandu Valley.
About 50% of the water used in the city of Kathmandu is derived from groundwater.
Groundwater availability is more limited in the populated hilly regions because of the
lower permeability of the indurated and crystalline rock types. In the Kathmandu
Valley (area around 500 square kilometres), groundwater is abstracted from two main
aquifers within the thick alluvial sediment sequence. A shallow unconfined aquifer
occurs at >10 m depth and a deep confined aquifer occurs at around 310–370 m
(Khadka 1993). The transmissivity value ranges between 163 and 1056 m2/day for the
1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management in South Asia 7

shallow aquifer and 22.5 and 737 m2/day for the deep aquifer (Pandey and Kazma
2011) indicating that the shallow aquifer has a better capacity to transmit water.
Exploitation of these aquifers, especially the shallow aquifer, has increased rapidly
in recent years as a result of the increasing urbanisation of the region. Recent
abstraction of groundwater from the deep aquifer has led to a decrease in the
groundwater level by around 15–20 m since the mid 1980s (Khadka 1993). Below
the alluvial sediments in the Kathmandu Valley, karstic limestone aquifers also exist.
A small number of natural springs issue from these and are used for water supply in the
southern part of the valley. The limestone aquifer has not been developed and has
received little hydrogeological attention. Shallow and deep aquifers are also present in
the young alluvial sediments throughout most of the Terai region (Jacobson 1996).
The shallow aquifer appears to be unconfined and well developed in most areas,
although it is thin or absent in Kapilvastu and Nawalparasi (Upadhyay 1993). The
deep aquifer of the Terai region is reported to be artesian (Basnyat 2001).

2.6 Sri Lanka

Six main types of groundwater aquifers have been identified and characterized in Sri
Lanka. They are (i) shallow karstic aquifer of Jaffna Peninsula, (ii) deep confined
aquifer, (iii) coastal sand aquifers, (iv) alluvial aquifers, (v) shallow regolith aquifer
of the hard rock region, and (vi) south western lateritic (Cabook) aquifer. In 1985,
the internal renewable groundwater resources were estimated at 7.8 km3, most
(estimated at 7 km3/year) returning to the river systems and being included in the
surface water resources estimate of 50 km3/year (http://www.eoearth.org/view/arti
cle/156991/, accessed on February 2017).
The shallow karstic aquifer of the Jaffna peninsula is composed of Miocene
limestone and is intensively used. The aquifer is 100 to 150 m thick, distinctly
bedded and well jointed. The shallow groundwater forms mounds or lenses floating
over the saline water. These water mounds or lenses reach their peak during the
monsoon rains of November–December (Panabokke and Perera 2005).
The deep confined aquifers occur within the sedimentary limestone and sandstone
formations of the northwest coastal plain and are least utilized. These aquifers are
more than 60 m deep and have a relatively high recharge rate. The deep aquifer is
highly faulted and it separates the aquifer into a series of isolated blocks thus forming
seven distinct groundwater basins. The shallow coastal sand aquifer occurs on the
coastal beaches and spits in the Kalpitiya Peninsula and the Mannar Island in the
north west of Sri Lanka and on raised beaches of Nilaveli-Kuchchaweli, Pulmoddai
and Kalkuda in the north-eastern region. The shallow coastal aquifers occupy about
1250 sq. km and are intensively used for drinking, domestic, agriculture and tourism
industry.
The alluvial aquifers occur on both coastal and inland flood plains, inland river
valleys of varying size, and old buried river beds and is unconfined in nature. The
deeper and larger alluvial aquifers occur along the lower reaches of the major rivers
8 P. K. Sikdar

that cut across the various coastal plains. Rivers such as Mahaweli Ganga, Kelani
Ganga, Deduru Oya, Mi Oya, Kirindi Oya and Malwathu Oya have broad and deep
alluvial beds of variable texture and gravel content in their lower reaches. Old buried
riverbeds with high groundwater yield are present in the lower part of River Kelani.
The alluvial formations of these larger rivers may vary between 10 and 35 m
thickness, and may extend to several hundreds of meters on either side of the
riverbeds. A reliable volume of groundwater can be extracted from these alluvial
aquifers throughout the year and are intensively used at present.
Groundwater potential in the hard rock region of Sri Lanka is limited because of
the low groundwater storage capacity and transmissivity of the underlying crystal-
line basement hard rock (Sirimanne 1952). Groundwater is found in the weathered
rock zone, or the regolith, as well as in the deeper fracture zone. The weathered zone
generally ranges from 2 to 10 m in thickness, while the fracture zone is located at
depths of more than 30–40 m (Panabokke 2003). This shallow regolith aquifer is
mainly confined to a narrow belt along the inland valley systems of this undulating
mantled plain landscape, and despite its low yield and transmisivity, it has provided
the basic minimum water needs for village settlements. The average thickness of the
regolith is not more than 10 m in this region. Recent developments in agro-well
farming in the north central provinces of the country are wholly dependant on this
shallow groundwater (Karunaratne and Pathmarajah 2002).
The laterite or cabook, aquifers which occur in southwestern Sri Lanka have
considerable water holding capacity depending on the depth of the Cabook Forma-
tion and is unconfined in nature. Due to the highly dissected nature of the macro
landscape in this region, the aquifer is highly fragmented into a number of discreet,
low mounds, within the residual landscape which is separated from each other by
intervening valley floors. This aquifer has been highly exploited due to rapid
expansion of industrial estates, urban housing schemes and bottled water projects
especially in the area of outer Colombo and adjacent districts.

2.7 Maldives

Groundwater in Maldives is found in freshwater lenses underlying the atolls and

floating on top of the saline water. Heavy abstraction of this as the main source of
drinking water has depleted the freshwater lenses, especially in the capital city of
Male, causing salt water intrusion. Groundwater is recharged by rainfall but becomes
contaminated while percolating through the soil, which is generally polluted with
organic and human wastes. A rough estimate of the groundwater resources, based on
an assumed 0.1 m/year recharge throughout the country (300 km2), is 0.03 km3/year,
which would be the only renewable resource of Maldives, though hardly exploitable
because of seawater intrusion and pollution (http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/
156968/, accessed on February 2017).
1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management in South Asia 9

2.8 Bhutan

Very little hydrogeological work has been done in Bhutan. A reconnaissance

hydrogeological work was carried out by Sikdar (2014) in Samdrup Jongkhar
town. The town shares border with Indian state of Assam in the South, Arunachal
Pradesh in the East, Pemagatshel Dzongkhag of Bhutan in the west and Trashigang
Dzongkhag of Bhutan in the north. The area consists of low to moderate altitude
denudation structural hills and is characterised by high run off, low infiltration to the
groundwater body and development of springs. Groundwater occurs under
unconfined condition within the weathered residuum of the underlying semi-
consolidated formation consisting of claystone/siltstone/sandstone. Groundwater
also occurs under semi-confined conditions within the fractures, joints and bedding
planes of the semi-consolidated formation. Geophysical investigation up to a depth
of 60 m by PRCS and ATWMC in 2010 reveals that in the northern part of the town
in the Pinchina area the aquifer comprising fine to coarse sand mixed with gravels,
pebbles and boulders (weathered/fractured sandstone?) extends up to a depth of 30 to
40 m followed by a low permeability bed made of clay (claystone or siltstone?). In
the industrial area of the town the aquifer extends up to a depth of 60 m. In the
southern part of the town the aquifer is thinner, extending up to a depth of 20 m
followed by a low permeability bed. At Dredulthang the aquifer has not been
recorded and the low permeability bed occurs at a depth of 3.5 m only. Central
Ground Water Board of India has reported the existence of two to three promising
aquifer zones down to the depth of maximum 200 m below ground level and the
aquifer shows various degree of lateral and vertical variation in the adjoining area of
Assam. It is expected that similar hydrogeological condition prevails in Samdrup
Jongkhar town. The master slope of the land surface is towards south and hence the
regional groundwater flow is also towards south.

3 Problems of Groundwater

South Asia is home to about a quarter of the global population, but has less than 5%
of the world’s annual renewable water resources. Low groundwater recharge
(Fig. 1.1), low per capita water availability, coupled with a very high relative level
of water use (dominated by irrigation), makes South Asia one of the most water
scarce regions of the world, and a region where scarcity impacts on economic
development (Fig. 1.2).
Since the 1970s, groundwater extraction has increased greatly in South Asia
especially for food security. For example, in India, groundwater irrigated areas
witnessed a spectacular increase from around 11.9 million hectare in 1970–1971
to 33.1 million hectare in 1998–1999, an increase of over 178%. The number of
groundwater extraction mechanism rose from less than one million in 1960 to almost
26–28 million in 2002. In Pakistan Punjab, the number of mechanized wells and tube
10 P. K. Sikdar

Groundwater recharge (mm/yr)

0-5
5-20
20-50
50-75
75-100
100-300
300-1000

Fig. 1.1 Long-term average groundwater recharge. (Source: Döll et al. 2002)

Economic water scarcity

Physical water scarcity
Approaching physical
water scarcity
Little or no water scarcity
Not estimated

Fig. 1.2 Global water stress. (Source: UNWWDR 2012)

1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management in South Asia 11

Fig. 1.3 Distribution of arsenic in groundwater in Asia. (Source: Brunt et al. 2004a)

wells increased from barely a few thousand in 1960 to 500 thousands in 2000.
Bangladesh saw an increase in the number of tube wells, from 93,000 in 1982–1983
to almost 800,000 in 1999–2000. The beneficial impacts of groundwater use are
increased productivity, food security, increased recharge, decreased flood intensity,
job creation, livelihood diversification, poverty alleviation and general economic
and social improvement. But in the long run, the impact of groundwater extraction
might be negative especially in over-exploitation situation, such as permanent
lowering of the water table, deterioration of water quality, saline intrusion in coastal
areas, etc.

3.1 Groundwater Quality

Groundwater quality in South Asia has progressively deteriorated due to increasing

withdrawals for various uses, increased use of agrochemicals, discharge of untreated
domestic sewage and industrial effluents. In parts of India, Bangladesh, Nepal and
Pakistan, high concentration of arsenic in groundwater is a menacing problem and
estimated 500 million people are at risk of being exposed to arsenic poisoning
through drinking water (Fig. 1.3). Long-term exposure to low levels of arsenic in
food and water produces adverse effects on human health that are often described by
the term arsenicosis. Early symptoms are non-specific effects such as muscular
weakness, lassitude and mild psychological effects. These are followed by charac-
teristic skin ailments such as changes in skin pigmentation and progressively painful
12 P. K. Sikdar

Fig. 1.4 Distribution of fluoride in groundwater in Asia. (Source: Brunt et al. 2004b)

skin lesions, known as keratosis. At the same time, arsenic causes a wide range of
other effects on health, including diseases of the liver and kidney, cardio-vascular
and peripheral vascular diseases, neurological effects, diabetes and chronic and acute
lung disease. Continued exposure to arsenic can lead to gangrene, cancers of the
skin, lung, liver, kidney and bladder, and thereby to death. High fluoride in ground-
water is another problem in India and Pakistan (Fig. 1.4). Consumption of water
having excess fluoride over a prolonged period leads to a chronic ailment known as
fluorosis. Dental fluorosis, also called “mottled enamel”, occurs when the fluoride
level in drinking water is marginally above 1.0 mg/L. Typical manifestations of
dental fluorosis are loss of shining and development of horizontal yellow streaks on
teeth. Since this is caused by high fluoride in or adjacent to developing enamel,
dental fluorosis develops in children born and brought up in endemic areas of
fluorosis. Skeletal fluorosis affects both adults and children and is generally
manifested after consumption of water with fluoride levels exceeding 3 mg/L.
Typical symptoms of skeletal fluorosis are pain in the joints and backbone. In severe
cases this can result in crippling the patient. Recent studies have shown that excess
intake of fluoride can also have certain non-skeletal health impacts such as gastro-
intestinal problems, allergies, anemia and urinary tract problems. Nutritional defi-
ciencies can enhance the undesirable effects of arsenic and fluoride. Anthropogenic
contamination in the form of heavy metals such as Cr, Pb, Mn and bacteriological
parameters has already made the groundwater unacceptable at many places.
1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management in South Asia 13

3.2 Over-Exploitation of Groundwater

Groundwater over-exploitation has occurred in most countries of South Asia which

has resulted in fall in groundwater levels, reduction of well yields, sea water
intrusion in coastal aquifers, land subsidence and transport of polluted water into
the aquifer. Generally, the fall of groundwater levels results in increased cost of
groundwater owing to the expenditure involved in deepening the wells and pumping
up water from the correspondingly increased depths. In some cases, over-
exploitation can lower the water table to such depths that the existing wells have
to be abandoned. Countries which are facing problems related to excessive with-
drawal of groundwater in certain locations include India, Bangladesh, Pakistan,
Maldives and Sri Lanka. For example, in Quetta, the state capital of Baluchistan
over-exploitation due to large scale development through private tube wells of the
confined aquifer has caused such an alarming situation that in the foreseeable future
even the supply from deep groundwater may dry up. In Kolkata, India (Sikdar et al.
2001) and Dhaka, Bangladesh (Hoque et al. 2007) because of over-abstraction of
groundwater from deep aquifers water level fails to recover fully due to monsoonal
recharge resulting in a long-term water level decline in the post-monsoon period and
change in groundwater flow pattern.

3.3 Seawater Intrusion

Seawater intrusion into coastal fresh water aquifers is another serious groundwater
problem. Since a large portion of South Asia’s population is located along the coasts
there are many problems of this kind in this region. When groundwater is pumped
from aquifers that are in hydraulic connection with the sea, the gradients that are set
up may induce a flow of salt water from the sea towards the well. The migration of
salt water into freshwater aquifers under the influence of groundwater development
is known as seawater intrusion. There is a tendency to indicate occurrence of any
saline or brackish water along the coastal formations to sea water intrusion.
Although seawater intrusion is a slow process, in an area where pumping is contin-
uous, it tends to be an irreversible process. As groundwater is extracted from the
wells, the salt water slowly moves through the water-bearing formations in the
direction of the wells and, unless corrective measures are taken, the salt water will
ultimately begin to contaminate the fresh water in the wells. Such contamination
manifests itself in a gradual increase in the salt content of the water being pumped. In
India, sea water intrusion is observed along the coastal areas of Gujarat and
Tamil Nadu.
14 P. K. Sikdar

3.4 Land Subsidence

Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of groundwater have been withdrawn
from certain types of rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The sediment compacts
because the water is partly responsible for holding up the ground. Decline of water
table or piezometric surface results in vertical compression of the subsurface mate-
rials (Bouwer 1977). Along with vertical compression, lateral compression may also
take place due to initiation or acceleration of lateral flow of groundwater. This lateral
movement also results in subsidence of the land surface. Any flow or overdraft of
groundwater in unconsolidated material should produce some movement of the land
surface. This movement is generally small, but may become very significant where
subsurface materials are thick and/or compressible and the groundwater level
declines appreciably (Sikdar et al. 1996). Land subsidence may not be noticeable
because it can occur over large areas rather than in a small spot. Over-exploitation of
groundwater in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh requires to be controlled so that
possibilities of land subsidence, a vulnerable environmental threat, can be avoided.

4 Groundwater Legislation

Groundwater legislation is concerned with the provision for the quantification,

planning, allocation and conservation of groundwater resources, including water
abstraction and use rights. It is also concerned with providing cooperative interaction
between water administrators and water users.
In India, groundwater is treated as a state subject as the Constitution of India does
not empower Central Government to directly deal with its management. The Gov-
ernment of India prepared a Model Bill for regulation of groundwater in 1970 and
circulated it to all states for implementation which advocated the view that govern-
ment has the right to regulate the extraction of groundwater which, therefore, should
not be regarded as private property like land. The bill was revised in 1992, 1996 and
2005. The main thrust of all the versions of the Model Bill is to constitute a state
groundwater authority which would identify the critical areas and would notify them
for regulation. Eleven states (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West
Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu-Kashmir, Karnataka, Assam and
Maharahtra) and three Union Territories (Lakshadweep, Pondicherry and Dadra-
Nagar Haveli) have so far enacted legislation for regulation of groundwater in their
states. A Central Ground Water Authority has also been constituted as a statutory
body under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 from January 1997 to regulate and
control development and management of groundwater resources in the country. The
Authority has been given wide powers including power to impose penalty on any
person, company, Government Department etc. The Authority has notified
162 places/blocks/mandals/talukas for control and regulation of groundwater.
1 Problems and Challenges for Groundwater Management in South Asia 15

In Bangladesh the first effort towards management of groundwater was in the

form of ‘Groundwater Management Ordinance 1985’. The ordinance was primarily
meant for management of groundwater used for irrigation purpose. In 2013 Water
Act 2013 has been enacted and is designed for integrated development, manage-
ment, extraction, distribution, usage, protection and conservation of water resources
in Bangladesh. As per Water Act 2013 groundwater in Bangladesh belong to the
government and a permit or a license is required for any large scale withdrawal of
water by individuals and organizations beyond domestic use.
In Pakistan, Balochistan is the only provincial government to issue legislation to
control groundwater mining. In 1978 the Groundwater Rights Administration Ordi-
nance was announced. The objective of the Ordinance was ‘to regulate the use of
groundwater and to administer the rights of the various persons therein.’ The
Ordinance established the procedures and framework within the district civil admin-
istration to issue permits for the development of new karezes, dug wells and
tubewells.
In Maldives, as per the Maldives Tourism Act (Law No. 2/99) groundwater
cannot be extracted for the purpose of construction in an island or land leased for
the development of tourism. In Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanisthan groundwater has
practically remained an unregulated resource.

5 Challenges for Groundwater Management

The present system of groundwater management is based on political and adminis-

trative boundaries. This approach may be faulty as flow of water ignores political
boundaries. Therefore, the first challenge for effective groundwater management is
to advocate the importance of managing water at catchment or river basin scales.
Database on groundwater systems are either poor or haphazardly maintained. Hence,
the second challenge is to improve and share basic data and generate and transfer
scientific knowledge. In many parts of the region the aquifer system is not well
understood. Therefore, the third challenge is to map the aquifer at river basin scale
which should also include the quality aspect. A nationwide programme of regular
water-level and water-quality monitoring of the stressed aquifer systems would both
characterize the state of water quality in the aquifer and serve as an early-warning
system for the impending arrival of contaminants in water supply wells. Therefore,
developing a framework of monitoring of the groundwater level and quality is the
fourth challenge for effective groundwater management. The fifth challenge is to
evolve an effective legal and institutional framework for groundwater governance
which would include well-defined groundwater use rights, water pricing and energy
pricing. The sixth and the final challenge is to train a group of hydrogeologists into
‘social hydrogeologists’ or ‘ecological hydrogeologists’ who will have the capacities
to comprehend a sustainable system that combines not only the technical, but also
financial, social and environmental aspects and their impacts.
16 P. K. Sikdar

Therefore, challenges for groundwater management in South Asia are huge, and
perhaps, more importantly, that there is an urgent need for all professionals working
with water-related management to realize their personal responsibilities in creating
an accountable and conscious stewardship of water for present and future
generations.

6 Conclusion

A review of hydrogeological situation in South Asia reveals several alarming trends

of over-exploitation of groundwater causing long-term decline of groundwater level,
ingress of saline water and deterioration of groundwater quality. This calls for a new
institutional framework for groundwater management. There should be a clear shift
from focusing on the unsustainable exploitation of groundwater towards an approach
centered on providing incentives to different stakeholders for better and more
equitable management of groundwater resource. Providing incentives may not be
enough. An empowering environment and a fine-tuned combination of top-down
and bottom-up approaches are also required. This new groundwater management
framework will focus not only on groundwater use rights and groundwater pricing
but also on the users themselves including low income users and other vulnerable
groups, and to develop a group of ‘social hydrogeologists’ or ‘ecological
hydrogeologists’ who would have the skills to better understand not only the
technical, but also financial, social and environmental aspects and their impacts.
There is dire need to evolve workable methods and approaches to synchronize the
demand and supply gap. In order to improve water supply in urban areas, the
installation of water meters need to be encouraged. Building a near social framework
including community participation at all levels of water system is necessary. The
community participation in water pumping policies, incentives of efficient use,
affordability by low income users and other vulnerable groups, water awareness,
especially among women and children are prime factors for success of any domestic
water project.

References

Akbari, M.A., Tahir, M., Litke, D.W. and Chornack, M.P. (2007). Ground-Water Levels in the
Kabul Basin, Afghanistan, 2004–2007. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007–1294,
46 p.
Banks, D. and Soldal, O. (2002). Towards a policy for sustainable use of groundwater by
non-governmental organizations in Afghanistan. Hydrogeol J, 10: 377–392. doi: https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10040-002-0203-y.
Basnyat, K. (2001). Sustainable manageable models essential. The Rising Nepal (Daily),
Kathmandu.
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helpless and friendless from the prisons of infidels, of the widows
and orphans of Moslems, of the poor and the sons of the highways,”
under certain conditions. It concludes with the declaration that
whoever infringes these conditions in the future “will do himself
injustice, will prove himself an infidel, and partaker in the blood of
Hassan and Husein, and an accomplice of those who do despite to
the statutes of God.” Then comes the signature—“the humble
servant of God, Serjenk.”
The church and dwelling-house of Boheira are shown here. Of
Boheira it is said that he was a monk in this city, and was the first to
hail the youthful Mohammed as a coming prophet. Of this event,
Ockly has translated the following account given by one Basil: “The
caravan of the Koreish came by, with which were Kadijah’s camels,
which were looked after by Mohammed. He [Boheira] looked towards
the caravan, in the middle of which was Mohammed; and there was
a cloud upon him to keep him from the sun. Then the caravan
alighted, and Mohammed leaning against an old withered tree, it
immediately brought forth leaves. Boheira perceiving this, made an
entertainment for the caravan, and invited them into the monastery,
Mohammed staying behind with the camels. Boheira, missing him,
asked if there were all of them. Yes, they said, all but a little boy they
had left to look after their things and feed the camels. ‘What is his
name?’ says Boheira. They told him Mohammed ibn ʿAbdullah.
Boheira asked if his father and mother were not dead, and if he was
not brought up by his grandfather and uncle. Being satisfied that it
was so, he said: ‘O Koreish! set a great value upon him, for he is
your lord, and by him will your power be great both in this world and
in that to come: for he is your ornament and glory.’ They asked him
how he knew that. ‘Because,’ answered Boheira, ‘as you were
coming, there was never a tree nor a stone nor a clod but bowed
itself and worshipped God.’ Boheira, besides, told this Basil that a
great many prophets had leaned against this tree, and sat under it,
but it never bore any leaves before since it was withered. ‘And I
heard him say,’ says this same Basil, ‘this is the prophet concerning
whom ʿIsa [Jesus] spake, Happy is he that believes him, and follows
him, and gives credit to his mission.’”
That Mohammed met Boheira seems certain. But exactly what their
relations were it is not easy to say. The Syrian Christians believed
that he followed “the prophet,” and largely assisted him in the
composition of his “messages” or “revelations.” They say he supplied
the biblical information used for Mohammed’s purposes in the
Korʾân. The number of Jews, however, who long ere Mohammed’s
time had settled in el-Yemen suggests a more convenient source for
his knowledge, such as it was, of the Torah; but for his acquaintance
with Christianity he may possibly have been indebted to some
renegade like Boheira. And if his (Boheira’s) understanding of the
words of Jesus be illustrated in the phrase quoted above, what
wonder if his religion did not greatly impress such a mind as
Mohammed’s! In any case, it was in his Syrian journeys that he must
have come into contact with Christianity. However bootless, it is
impossible to help regretting that the master mind of the Arabian
peninsula should have seen our religion only in the debased form
then prevalent in these regions. Had it been ordered otherwise, the
whole history of the East might have run in nobler channels.
Close by a second Roman archway stands a large ruined house,
abounding in carved and sculptured stones, known as Kasr-Melek
el-Asfar. At Zorʿa there is also a “palace of the yellow king.”
The fortress is built around and upon the old Roman theatre, which,
contrary to expectation in such circumstances, is well preserved.
There are vast underground apartments, and cisterns which would
supply water for a large garrison through a siege of many months.
Subterranean passages, the natives say, lead to a great distance in
several directions.
Such an important place as Bozrah was bound to claim to be the
birthplace of Philip; nor would it be complete without some relation to
Job. Accordingly, an “ancient tradition” is forthcoming to the effect
that the patriarch dwelt in the country near the city.
On Saturday afternoon we heard the sounds of music and drums
proceeding from the town, and high over all the peculiarly shrill,
wavering cry uttered by Eastern women in times of excitement,
whether of grief or joy. The tramp of horses on the pavement, and
the tread of many feet, told of the approach of a procession. Soon a
company of horsemen swept into view, youthful, well mounted,
armed with the long rumh, or Arab spear, accompanied by a crowd
of all ages, clad in holiday attire of brilliant colours. Riding in the
procession were several little boys, who seemed to have little
interest in the affair, and to be, on the whole, not a little bored by it. It
was a bridal procession—an occasion of special joy, since not one
but four marriages were being celebrated. The enthusiasm lacking
on the part of the dressed-up, solemn-looking little bridegrooms was
made up for amply by the excited people who surrounded their
horses, dancing, singing, shouting, and clapping their hands. A band
with drums and timbrels went in front. On the wrists and ankles of
the women glittered rude bracelets; heavy rings ornamented their
fingers; nor was the nose-jewel entirely absent. Their heads were
covered with light kerchiefs of varied hues, the corners tied under the
chin, while the hair hung down in long, heavy plaits behind, often
loaded with coins, which might be the dowry of the women who wore
them. The men wore the kufîyeh and ʿakal—the “kerchief” and “thick
hair fillet”—on their heads, with the Arab coat of goats’-hair over their
under-garments. Those who were not barefooted wore the common
red shoes so dear to the Arab.
The horses pranced and capered. The procession advanced with
singing, clapping of hands to the music, and at times in a kind of
stately dance. They headed toward a wide stretch of level ground
behind our camp. Passing within the enclosure, those on foot drew
themselves up along one side; the horsemen dashed forward at full
gallop, and began a series of evolutions which, to Western eyes,
seemed to involve every man of them in imminent danger. Not a few
of the performances in which they pride themselves are obviously
cruel to the animals. Riding at full speed, it is a mark of
horsemanship to bring the animal to an absolute stop in an instant,
throwing him back on his haunches. In starting, he must spring
forward at full speed, like an arrow from the bow. If either of these
movements cannot be performed, horse or rider, or both, are
condemned. In driving the horses peculiar spurs are employed. The
bottom of the Arab stirrup is a broad piece of light iron, the hinder
part of which is sharpened. When the foot is slipped forward, this
piece of iron projects behind the heel. Driven into the sides of the
animal, it cuts almost like a knife. And another mark of horsemanship
is that these cuts be as far back as possible. The bridle, too, is an
instrument of torture. From the centre of the bit a sharp piece of iron
projects inward; a ring attached to the same point drops over the
under jaw; the reins are attached to iron rods, which, from the ends
of the bit, extend a little way in front of the horse’s mouth, forming
thus a curb of terrific power. It is with this instrument the rider can
arrest his horse in a moment in mid-career. One can hardly help
wishing that, for the sake of the poor animal, he had a touch of its
quality himself. An exceptionally “hard-mouthed” horse may require
exceptional treatment, but the universal employment of this bridle
seems gratuitous cruelty.
Many of their feats, however, are very graceful, and in their
performance no little skill is required. Their beautiful wheeling and
curving on the level, in which horse and rider seem moulded
together, remind one of nothing so much as the fine circlings of an
expert skater. Good proficiency is attained when the rider can stoop
from the saddle at full gallop and pick up his staff from the ground. In
this and similar exercises the horseman on the medân, or
racecourse, is always engaged, in intervals of play. Loud were the
challenges of the men of Bozrah that festal day, and hearty the
responses. Prancing forward, one would touch another with his
rumh, and, turning, spur his steed and fly, hotly pursued by the man
thus challenged. Then ensued a series of evolutions in which all the
skill of the horsemen and all the speed of the horses were brought
into play. If the pursuer could put his rumh on the shoulder of his
challenger, he received the victor’s meed of applause; but should the
challenger’s steed outstrip that of the pursuer, the latter swerved off,
and sought to redeem his defeat by a display of skilful
horsemanship; and he might count himself fortunate if he reached
his place again without a second touch from his conqueror’s rumh.
The play over, the procession formed again, the solemn-looking little
men in the centre, as before, marched back to the city with music
and dancing, and passed away from our sight. We heard, at
intervals, the distant roll of the drums and the shrill cry of the women,
from which we knew that the festivities were still going on.
On Sundays more than other days one was impressed with the
abnormal quiet reigning over the land. Verily, the word of the Lord
has been fulfilled: “And you will I scatter among the nations.... Then
shall the land enjoy her sabbaths, as long as it lieth desolate, and ye
be in your enemies’ land, ... even the rest which it had not in your
sabbaths when ye dwelt upon it.” Temple, church, and mosque have
risen in succession in her cities, have flourished awhile in splendour,
then crumbled into ruin. At last the sabbath rest has fallen upon her.
The name Bozrah signifies a fortress, and must have described the
city from very ancient times. It would be of the highest importance to
dwellers in the cultivated lands to have here, on their border, a
strong defence against the wild rovers from the deserts. So true is
this, that it came to be said, “The prosperity of Bozrah is the
prosperity of Haurân.”

BOZRAH
This city is probably intended by Jeremiah as included in the
denunciation of wrath against Moab and all her cities, “far or near.” It
is mentioned in close connection with Kerioth and Beth Gamul,
which correspond as nearly as may be in name to Kerîyeh and Umm
el-Jamâl—ruined cities in the neighbourhood. Bozrah appears in the
Apocrypha and Josephus as Basora. Hither came the heroic Judas
Maccabeus. He delivered from imprisonment many of his
unfortunate brethren, and destroyed the city, burning it, as far as that
was possible, with fire. But withal there were yet glorious days in
store for Bozrah. The land passed under the dominion of the
Romans. The transjordanic provinces were subdued by Aulus
Cornelius Palma. Bozrah he made capital of the province, calling it
Nova Trajana Bostra, in honour of the emperor Trajan. This was in
a.d. 105, from which date was reckoned the Bostrian era. The old
city took a new lease of life, and worthily assumed her place as by
far the most important stronghold east of Jordan. Her streets were
graced with public buildings of which the proudest city need not have
been ashamed. A network of magnificent roads, which even yet are
traced across the plains, leading to all the principal towns and cities
in the province, found in her its centre. The merchandise of the East,
by way of the road from the Persian Gulf, stocked her marts, and the
gold and frankincense caravans from Arabia the Happy brought their
stores to increase her wealth. The time of her greatest splendour
probably fell in the short reign of Philip the Arabian, who, with the
wealth of Rome at his command, guided by his Oriental pride and
taste, would lavish adornment on the chief city of his native province,
embellishing her streets and squares with triumphs of architectural
art. Hither came the great Origen, to consult with the Bishop
Beryllus, who had gone astray in matters of faith and doctrine; and
he met with far greater success than the most doughty warriors for
orthodoxy may ever hope for, if they regard the heretic as one only to
be hunted out and prosecuted. Something might be learned from the
methods of Origen, who, in brotherly and friendly converse,
convinced the erring bishop, and saved him to the Church.
Subsequently the city became the seat of an archbishop. It
maintained its fame as a commercial and military centre down to the
Mohammedan conquest. Bozrah was the first Syrian city invested by
the Arabians. The intrepid and skilful soldier, Khâlid, surnamed “The
sword of God,” commanded the Moslems. While planted before the
fortress, the Mohammedans, in the absence of water, performed
their ablutions with sand. In the first encounter with Christians
outside the walls, the Moslems were entirely victorious. The former
shut themselves up in the city, and mounted banners and crosses
upon the walls, as if expecting divine intervention, by this means, in
their favour. The governor, Romanus, counselling surrender, was
deposed as a traitor, and another put in his place. Smarting under
the double insult, he resolved to revenge himself by selling the city to
the enemy. Through his treachery many valorous Moslem youths
were introduced into the city, in the garb of ordinary citizens, and
posted in various quarters. At a given signal, the Moslem war-cry,
Allah Akbar, resounded over the city. The defenders were thrown
into confusion, the inhabitants into consternation and despair. The
gates were thrown open, and the city, with little bloodshed, passed
into the hands of the Mohammedans, who retain it still. In the days of
the Crusades it was still an important stronghold, practically the key
to the possession of the eastern provinces. Baldwin III. cast his
forces in vain against the rock-like walls. But the blight of Islâm had
fallen upon it. Gradually its splendour faded; its well-stocked marts
were emptied; the sound of busy footsteps on its pavements died
away; earthquakes shook down its temples and destroyed its public
buildings; no hand was raised to arrest its decay. And now for
centuries it has lain mouldering in mournful ruins under the fierce
heat of the Syrian sun, blackening in the breath of Time. But surely
her season of solitude and desolation must be nearly over. When the
long sabbath of the land is past, new life pulsing in all her furrows,
the hills and vales resounding with the song of the husbandman,
Bozrah must awake from her weary sleep, and put on once again the
pleasing garments of prosperity.
 CHAPTER IX
Travellers’ troubles—A corner of the desert—The mirage—
Dangerous wadies—Lunch in the desert—A “blind” guide
—The clerk to the sheyûkh—A milestone—Kalʿat Esdein
—Thirst—The uplands of Gilead—Search for water—A
Bedawy camp—Terrific thunderstorm.
Long before dawn on Monday morning all was bustle and stir in the
camp. We hoped to reach Jerash that evening, but the most
conflicting accounts were given of the distance, varying from three
days to one long day. The usual road runs west to Derʿat, where it
turns southward by way of Remtah. A line direct, across a corner of
the desert, is shorter by perhaps fifteen miles. This we proposed to
take. In that wide empty land, with never a house, haunted by roving
Beduw, a guide was absolutely necessary. With difficulty one was
found who had traversed the way before; but he would go only on
condition that a friend should also go, to accompany him home
again. We were not yet to start, however. A vendor of antiquities
entrusted certain old coins, seals, etc., to our cook, who himself did
business in that line, in the hope that we might buy. A few purchases
were made; but when it came to giving back the remainder, a seal, or
stone from a signet ring, was missing. On this, of course, the owner
put a fancy price. Imagine a company of pilgrims on their knees,
turning up stones and groping in the dust as earnestly as rag-pickers
on a heap! The toil was fruitless. The cook was told that suspicion
attached to himself; and that if the seal were not forthcoming, the
owner should have his price, the same to be duly deducted from the
cook’s wages. With an injured air that plainly meant “What shall we
hear next?” the worthy ʿAbdu resumed his search, and soon sprang
to his feet with the lost seal in his hand. Throwing himself down, he
kissed the ground, then casting his eyes upward he fervently
exclaimed, el-hamdulillah, “Praise be to God!” The owner seemed
least pleased of all. Tying up his treasure in the corner of a napkin,
he marched sullenly away, grieving doubtless over ʿAbdu’s provoking
luck.
At last our guide strode off before us, leaving his companion to fetch
the muleteers, who, we hoped, might pass us at lunch. We struck the
Roman road which runs to the south-west, not that which leads more
to the south, past Umm el-Jamâl to Kalʿat ez-Zerka. The pavement
on these great highways is hard on the horses’ hoofs. The track
used to-day almost invariably lies alongside the road. Crossing a
shallow vale, we entered a vast plain, covered with tufts of wiry
grass. The beautiful iris was here also in plenty. The view offered
little variety save on the horizons. Salchad, Jebel el-Kuleib, and the
dark range of which they are part loomed away on the north-east.
Northward lay el-Lejâʾ and the mountains that overlook Damascus.
The white splendour of Hermon filled the north-western sky. A light
haze half-concealed the hills of Jaulân and the highlands of Galilee,
but nearly due west we could see the round head of Tabor. Before us
lay the wooded hills of Jebel ʿAjlûn, the land of Gilead, while the
plain stretched away to the south-east, desert-wards, as far as the
eye could reach.
Several times during this desert ride we saw the mirage—now as
waving trees, now as dimly outlined houses, with the sheen of water
near. Happily we had supplies of water with us, and so were spared
the torture these fleeting visions bring to the weary and the thirsty.
The mirage is often seen in the plain of el-Bukaʿ, or Coele Syria.
One most perfect and beautiful I saw in the neighbourhood of Tell
Hûm, from a roof in Tiberias. It proved to be a picture of Tiberias
itself, with ruined castle, broken walls, white-domed mosque, and
palm trees, photographed upon the mists some nine miles away.
We crossed several little wadies in which the water from winter and
spring rains had not quite dried up. The passage of these “brooks” is
not always free from danger. The soft soil goes to thick black mud,
when saturated with the water of the stream. Several of our party
had narrow escapes from accident, the horses sinking to the saddle-
girths, and struggling through only with desperate efforts, very
unsettling to the riders. In the deepest and broadest of these hollows
we found a green-carpeted meadow, with a few Bedawy tents. The
moment we came in sight a woman ran out to meet us, with
hospitable welcome, bringing a large dish of buttermilk, from which
we drank heartily and were refreshed.
At this point I was some distance behind the party, detained in
digging a root from the hard soil. On the north of the wady lay a
rough hill, strewn with great boulders. Galloping up, I saw two figures
with long guns dodging behind the rocks, furtively glancing in my
direction, and clearly making to intercept me in the wady. A few
steps farther, and they caught sight of our party, who fortunately
were not very far away. They at once turned and made off to
eastward, so sparing me what might have been at least an
unpleasant brush with Arabs in search of plunder. Probably they
were of the company at whose tents we met such kindness. The
man who will lay down his life to protect you when you have passed
under his roof may think you “fair game” if he finds you in the open.
This wady we passed early in the day, and thereafter we saw neither
stream, fountain, nor cistern through all the long burning hours.
Coming to what looked like an old burying-ground in the middle of
the plain, we halted for lunch, and waited for the muleteers. Two
hours passed before the “baggage train” appeared, from which we
judged that they had lost their way. Anxiety on their behalf could not
blind us to the almost certain futility of any search. Our decision to
wait in the somewhat conspicuous position we occupied and give
them a chance to find us was amply justified by the result. With
hands and face protected from the sun as best might be, we
stretched ourselves on the earth, and perhaps all indulged in the
luxury of “forty winks.” As time wore on, some sought entertainment
in trials of strength, agility, and skill—this last by shooting balls at a
stone set up a hundred yards away. The shot, even with a smooth
bore, was not alarmingly difficult; but when the stone toppled over,
the Arabs who were with us stood amazed. They might have done
as well themselves, but had not dreamed of Franjies shooting
straight. There is an impression abroad that Franjies are on the
whole rather helpless people, able perhaps to read and write. But
these are despicable attainments, save, indeed, when the former
may guide to the discovery of hid treasure!
Our baggage-men had wandered, much against their own will and
judgment, yielding to the head-strong ignorance of the man told off to
guide them. When his incompetence was plainly manifest, with
contemptuous anger they dismissed him, some bidding him hold by
his mother until he could walk alone, and others suggesting that
perhaps his wife needed him about the house. Then trusting their
own instinct, which, in these “sons of the highway” approaches
genius, they proceeded to find the road for themselves. The long
delay, however, destroyed all hope of seeing Jerash that night.
Soon after starting again we were joined by a bright, talkative youth,
who told us he was at work among the Beduw. He knew the various
tribes and their locations, and was familiar with most of the country.
He came from el-Judeideh, the summer station of the Sidon
American Mission, which overlooks Merj Aʿyûn, the ancient “Ijon,”
from the north-west. This village supplies many of the brave, light-
hearted fellows who drive their hardy beasts with the necessaries of
life through all parts of the land. Most mukaries (“muleteers”) have a
wholesome dread of the Lower Jordan Valley, but the men of el-
Judeideh may be seen there almost any day, swinging along with
careless ease, as much at home as on the slope of their native
mountain. This youth was accustomed to visit these parts every
spring, acting as Kâtib (“Secretary”) among the Bedawy chiefs, at the
time of division and arrangement of flocks. He assisted at bargains,
wrote out contracts, registered numbers, etc.; for these barbarous
sheyûkh, while holding it infra dig. for an Arab to write, quite realise
the value of “black and white” in a bargain. He busied himself for
some months, passing from tribe to tribe, and with advancing
summer turned again to his upland home. He assured us that Jerash
could not be reached that night, and urged us to turn aside with him
to a great Bedawy encampment, where we should find heartiest
welcome and plentiful entertainment. We lived to regret our refusal;
and, after all, we must have slept within an hour of the spot he
indicated—probably with a smaller branch of the same tribe. Our
guide vowed that water would be found on the edge of the plain, so
we judged it best to push on straight towards our goal. The lad bade
us gaily farewell, put spurs to his steed, and galloped away towards
a black patch at the base of the hills to westward, where no doubt
stood the Arabs’ “houses of hair.” A curl of smoke over an apparently
ruinous village away to the north-west was due, our guide said, to
the presence of Circassians, a number of whom had recently taken
possession and were attempting to cultivate the surrounding soil. If
any men could succeed, they should have a good chance. We shall
meet them again at Jerash.

PALESTINIAN SHEPHERD AND FLOCK

Amid a confused heap of hewn stones by the wayside we found a
broken column with a few fragments of Greek letters. It had served
as a milestone in ancient days, but could no longer yield information
as to the way. Nothing else arrested attention till we neared the edge
of the waste; then we were drawn to the left by a strip of green and
the music of many frogs—both indicating the presence of water.
Water we found, indeed, but so little of it and so vile, that not even
the thirsty animals would touch it. We came upon two huge
reservoirs, with never a drop in either. They stand one above the
other in the side of a gentle slope, carefully cemented, sides and
bottom, a flight of stone steps leading down into each. From certain
marks around, we thought they might have belonged to a system of
baths. On the hill above the reservoirs stands an old fortress, Kalʿat
Esdein. Still well preserved, all save the roof, which is gone, is a
building to the east, which may have been a church. A large cistern
within the court raised our hopes, only to dash them again. It was
quite empty. The fortress must have been of considerable strength,
built, as it is, round the top of a little hill, commanding the pass by
which we entered the country of ʿAjlûn.
We were tempted to halt here for the night, contenting ourselves with
dry fare, but the sight of our thirsty animals panting beside us, their
great eyes seeming to plead with us for water, moved our
compassions, so we set forward once more, although the sun was
already low in the west, and darkness comes without warning in
these lands. Some of us went in advance, hoping to find some wady
where little pools might still be left, or a spring under some green
wooded hill. Separating, we searched the country on either side of
the pass, taking what bearings were possible, so that we might not
lose the caravan, which wound along painfully below. Hill after hill
was scaled and valley after valley traversed, with ever the same
result. The shadows were falling thick when at last we struck a well-
beaten track, which we knew must lead to an Arab camp. The rest of
our party we saw on a hilltop behind us. The mukaries with the
baggage were a long way back. With no one to guide them, they
were sure to wander in the night that gathered over us, the darkness
deepened by great black clouds, that soon covered all the sky. As
the cook rode a powerful mare, it was hinted that he might return and
guide them past certain tempting openings. The poor man almost
shivered himself out of his saddle, a picture of abject terror. There
was nothing else for it, so I pushed forward my weary horse, marking
the hilltops against the sky. Some distance along the valley I heard
the music of the bells that hung tinkling round the necks of the
baggage animals, and guided by this, by and by came upon the
mukaries, moving cautiously for fear of ruts or holes in which the
mules might stumble. There was room enough for anxiety, but no
trace of it was seen in these fearless, happy-spirited children of the
mountain—no anxiety save what was excited by the condition of a
comrade who had fallen sick by the way. The kindness shown to the
sick youth, by these strong-limbed but tender-hearted men, was
most touching. They had an extra animal, which they rode by turns,
to rest their feet a little during the journey. This day and succeeding
days every man of them cheerfully gave up his “turn,” that their
fevered companion might ride all the way. It is hardly doing them
justice to say that they gave it up cheerfully: they never seemed to
think of it at all. Just as they came forward it was found that the sick
lad, in his weakness and weariness, had let something fall a good
way back. The big-hearted fellow who had been walking beside him
gave the others certain charges concerning him, and without even a
look of reproach, dived away into the shadows to search for it. Giving
the advancing party instructions as to the way, I stood to act as a
landmark, to guide the gallant Mousa on his return. The Bludân men,
reared in the bracing air of Anti-Libanus, are among the finest
specimens of the Syrian people. Independent, manly, yet withal
respectful, ever showing to advantage in difficulty or danger, their
tender solicitude for their unfortunate comrade did more to win our
hearts than all their more showy qualities.
Standing alone in the bottom of that thickly wooded vale, distant
objects already faded from sight, the hilltops themselves hardly
distinguishable against a sky that grew ever darker, flocks of vultures
fighting for places in the branches of trees near by, apparently
unused to fear in that solitude, I was not sorry to hear, at last, the
footfall of the returning Mousa. As we started forward together, a
bright flame leapt from the top of the highest hill before us. In the red
glare we could almost see the figures of our friends as they piled on
the fuel. The idea of the fire was excellent. The cook made the
suggestion, and fell to work with frantic energy, tearing up roots,
pulling down branches and heaping them up to burn, as if he hoped
the flame might scorch the reproach of cowardice from his accusing
conscience.
 ARAB CAMP IN MT. GILEAD
Guided by the fire, we soon rejoined our companions on the hilltop.
The doctor, meantime, had found an Arab encampment, and
returned to lead us thither. His cheery voice rang out of the
darkness, calling us to follow him. It was only the voice we could
follow, as we never saw each other again until we gathered in the
ruddy light of the Bedawy fires. We came long after sunset,
committing thus unwillingly a breach of desert etiquette. But the
Arabs easily understood our plight, and soon great draughts of
delicious warm milk were provided. There is no better restorative
than this, after a fatiguing and anxious day. But our excitements
were not over yet. Great drops of rain slid down through the
darkness, as if the clouds perspired supporting their own weight.
Warning drops they were: we rushed up our tent before the shower
came which they heralded. Under its roof we all took refuge until the
mukaries had pitched a second tent; then we separated for the night,
to make the best of circumstances—sleeping on chairs, or stretched
on the canvas of our camp-beds, covered with anything that came to
hand.
Silence as of death had fallen over the mountains; not a leaf stirred
in the trees around us; sheep and oxen huddled closely together
beside the hair houses of their masters; and the clouds hung dark
and threatening, like birds of evil omen poised in the sky above us.
The darkness overhead was cloven as by a flaming scimitar, and out
rushed a stream of living fire, that spread for a moment over the hills
like a curtain of gleaming light, to which every particular leaf
responded with individual glitter. The thunder roared and bellowed
through all that empty land, like the mingling of the tornado with the
voice of many waters. The earth shook as if the very hills were being
hurled headlong in divine displeasure. The rain fell in torrents, and
beating on the taut canvas of our tents, served to increase the
uproar. It is impossible to exaggerate the grandeur of the scene. Not
till then could I fully appreciate the majestic realism of the famous old
song of the thunderstorm, Psalm xxix. Surely it was after witnessing
a storm like this that the Psalmist penned these marvellous
descriptive verses:
The voice of the Lord is upon the waters:
The God of glory thundereth,
Even the Lord upon many waters.
The voice of the Lord is powerful;
The voice of the Lord is full of majesty.
The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars;
Yea, the voice of the Lord breaketh in pieces the cedars of
Lebanon.
He maketh them also to skip like a calf;
Lebanon and Sirion like a young wild-ox.
The voice of the Lord cleaveth the flames of fire.
The voice of the Lord shaketh the wilderness;
The Lord shaketh the wilderness of Kadesh.
The voice of the Lord maketh the hinds to calve,
And strippeth the forests bare.—Psalm xxix. 3-9.
As one reads, all seems to pass before him again in unparalleled
grandeur. In the midst of a scene like this, how completely one is
cast back upon the Lord Himself.
Once we could distinguish no interval between flash and crash, and
one of our company experienced a strange thrill passing through his
body. Mercifully we were preserved from serious injury. Sitting there
among the mountains, the worthy theatre of that awful display, the
poor Beduw near us crouching in abject fear beside their trembling
flocks, one could realise the comfort of the reflection with which the
poet concludes his song:
The Lord sitteth as King for ever.
The Lord will give strength unto His people;
The Lord will bless His people with peace.
 CHAPTER X
Morning on the mountains—Arab time—Tents and
encampments—The Women and their work—Arab wealth
—Scenes at the wells—Dogs—Arabian hospitality—
Desert pests—Strange code of honour—The blood feud—
Judgment of the elders—Arab and horse—The Arabs and
religion—The Oriental mind—Arab visit to Damascus.
The storm continued all night, abating slightly towards midnight, but
increasing in violence as the fajr, or first glint of morning, stole into
the sky. A brilliant flash, followed instantly by a terrific crash, marked
the climax just as day broke. The dust, which had blown thick around
us on our approach, was transformed into soft, clinging mud. The
tents were so wet that packing was out of the question. The hoofs of
the animals sank deep into the yielding soil. Travel under these
conditions would be both slow and painful. We were fain to wait and
see what the sun would do for us. He soon rose in all his strength,
and in two hours worked wonders. As tents and roads grew dry, we
became more cheerful. The Arabs gathered in little groups,
submitting their ills to the doctor’s skill, giving what information they
could about our way, the country, and themselves. Jerash, we
learned, was only two or three hours distant. Not that the Arabs
knew anything of our method of measuring time. One said, “What do
we know about ‘hours’? But see: If the sun is there when you leave
here, it will be there when you reach Jerash”—pointing the two
quarters of the sky as he spoke.
The sun is the great time-keeper in the desert. By his pace all
journeys are measured. The three great points from which the Arabs
reckon are sunrise, noon, and sunset—Shurûk esh-shems, Zahr,
and Mughrab. When travelling, they like to be off before sunrise; and
no one is willingly abroad after sunset. They strive to reach some
friendly roof before the last beams of departing day have fled. It is
contrary to the etiquette of the Khâla (“empty waste”) for a guest to
throw himself upon his host after sunset. The evening meal, the chief
meal of the day, is eaten then. To arrive after it is prepared, or
finished, is to put the host to all the trouble of fresh preparation. This
no Arab would do if he could possibly avoid it. If the guest is of any
consideration, the host would grieve most of all that he was deprived
of the privilege of making a proper feast. Therefore, by common
consent it is said, “The guest who arrives after sunset goes
supperless to sleep.” There is, however, another reason for shunning
the shadows of early night. Then especially the robber pests of the
wilds ply their dark craft, with the long hours till morning in which to
flee. With such a start before his crime is discovered, and knowing
as he does the intricacies of the desert, the robber or murderer is
almost sure to escape.
The Arab “houses,” as they call them, are made of goats’-hair, spun
and woven by the women into long strips, about fifteen inches wide.
The weft is stretched on a frame; the woof is worked in by the
women’s fingers, and drawn up tightly with what looks like a huge,
short-toothed, wooden comb. Dark brown and white are the colours
mostly employed. These strips are sewn together with hair thread,
into pieces of sufficient breadth. Two poles are set up at each end of
the space to be covered. Over these the roof-cloth is stretched by
means of cords fastened to the ends, and attached to pins firmly
fixed in the ground. As many poles as are needed to support the roof
are introduced in the body of the “house,” and over these, by side
cords, tied as at the ends, to pegs in the ground, the cloth is drawn
taut. Often sufficient cloth is made for only one end and one side of
the “house.” This is fastened under the eaves, and is moved round
with the sun, so as to afford shade all day. This haircloth, once
thoroughly wet, draws so tightly together as to be perfectly
waterproof. Many think its rain-resisting qualities are improved by the
smoke of greenwood fires. It is the business of the women (el-harîm)
to put up the “house”; and among them it is reckoned a high
accomplishment to be able, with a single blow of the wooden mallet,
to drive the tent peg home. Jael the Kenite brought a practised hand
to drive the tent peg through the brow of the sleeping Sisera.
The tent is divided by a hair curtain drawn across the middle. One
end is the women’s, or more private family department, into which
strangers do not intrude. Here are kept the household stores, coffee,
rice, tobacco, samn, etc. Here also will generally be found the small
box, strongly bound with brass or iron, containing contracts, which
probably the owner cannot read, and any treasures to which more
than usual value is attached. A chief’s son on one occasion
produced, and displayed with no little pride, decorations which his
ancestors had received from European governments for services
rendered in troublous times. The other end of the tent is public,
where all gather on equal terms. Here the guest is received and
made to recline on cushions, which may be covered with silk if the
“master of the house” is a man of substance. A shallow hole at one
side is the “fireplace,” where coffee is prepared for the company.
Sometimes a large stone shields the fire from the wind.
The tents of an encampment are set end to end, with about the
space of a “house” between them. There may be but a single row, as
in the case of those with whom we had spent the night; but if the
number is large there may be two rows, forming a kind of street. The
place of honour is at the right hand as one enters the encampment;
and at either end this position is occupied by one of sheikhly rank.
The status of the householder may usually be inferred from the size
of his house; and this is reckoned by the number of poles necessary
to sustain it. The chief’s tent in the larger tribes provides
accommodation for many guests.