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HUMAN
MOVEMENT
How the Body Walks, Runs, Jumps, and Kicks

INQUIRE AND INVESTIGATE Carla Mooney

Illustrated by Sam Carbaugh
HUMAN
MOVEMENT
How the Body Walks, Runs, Jumps, and Kicks

INQUIRE AND INVESTIGATE Carla Mooney

Illustrated by Sam Carbaugh
 Nomad Press
A division of Nomad Communications
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Copyright © 2017 by Nomad Press. All rights reserved.
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Educational Consultant, Marla Conn

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Human Movement
 Contents

Timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Introduction
Forces and Motion in the Human Body.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1
The Skeleton.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 2
The Muscular System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 3
The Brain-Body Connection.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 4
Help From the Organs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 5
Fuel to Move.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chapter 6
Moving On. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Glossary  Metric Conversions  Resources  Index

 TIMELINE

776 BCE............... S ome of the first athletic

competitions take place at Olympia
in Greece as part of religious festivals
held to honor the Greek gods.
400s BCE.............. T he Greek physician Herodicus is the
first Western physician to combine
sports and exercise with medicine
and is considered to be the father of
sports medicine.
460–375 BCE....... A
 ncient Greek physician Hippocrates
emphasizes the health benefits of
diet, exercise, and overall fitness. He
prescribes gymnastics and exercise
to strengthen and build up the body
against disease.
384–322 BCE....... A
 ncient Greek philosopher and
scientist Aristotle is the first person
to study and describe general body
movements and the forces needed
for movement. He becomes known as
the “Father of Kinesiology.”
287–212 BCE....... A
 rchimedes, an ancient Greek
mathematician, physicist, engineer,
inventor, and astronomer, discovers
many basic laws of physics that
are integral to understanding and
describing human movement. These
include laws governing levers and
buoyancy.
129–c. 216 CE...... A
 ncient Roman physician Galen
observes that there are two types of
blood—dark in the veins and bright
in the arteries. He also identifies
two different nerve pathways in the
body—the sensory path for receiving
information and the motor path for
sending messages to the muscles.

vi HUMAN MOVEMENT | TIMELINE

 TIMELINE

1452–1519........... Italian painter and inventor Leonardo da Vinci creates detailed

illustrations of the human body, including drawings of the muscles,
tendons, ligaments, and bones.
1628.................... E nglish physician William Harvey describes in detail the circulation and
properties of blood through the body and heart.
1638.................... Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician Galileo Galilei
publishes a book about his life’s work on the science of motion and the
strength of materials.
1687.................... Isaac Newton publishes his book, Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, which includes his three laws of physics that govern
movement. These laws form the basis of biomechanics.
1786.................... S cientist Luigi Galvani observes a muscle contraction when a frog’s
leg is touched with a metallic rod charged with static electricity. He
conducts further experiments to confirm that electrical stimulation
triggers muscle contraction.
1890.................... F rench scientist Étienne-Jules Marey records the electrical
activity during a muscle contraction and introduces the term
“electromyography,” the recording of electrical activity of muscle tissue.
1904–1905........... A
 merican physical education instructor Luther Halsey Gulick organizes
the Academy of Physical Education to bring together those who are
doing original scientific work in physical training and to promote their
work.
1926.................... T he American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education is
founded to encourage and promote the study and educational
applications of the art and science of human movement and physical
activity. It is now known as the National Academy of Kinesiology.
1970–1980........... B
 rain scanning is developed, giving scientists a new window into the
brain and how it controls movement.
1990.................... S cientists develop functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to
study the brain as it works to control movement.
2015.................... S cientists discover unique muscle fibers in the upper airway in humans
that might be linked to snoring and sleep apnea.
2016.................... A
 n international team of scientists use a wireless “brain-spinal interface”
to bypass spinal cord injuries in a pair of rhesus monkeys, restoring
intentional walking movement to a temporarily paralyzed leg.

TIMELINE vii
 Introduction

Forces and
Motion in
the Human
Body

How does your body

move and how does
that affect your health?
 The human body was made for movement. Every
day, you move different parts of your body,
from your head to your toes. All bodies move
differently. Even picking up a book and turning
Different forces act on
your body’s systems the pages involves moving your body. Have you
to create different ever wondered how your body moves?
types of movement. How does your arm know where to reach and catch
a ball? When you play the piano, how do your fingers
know which keys to strike? How does your body adjust
to a new workout routine? The answers to these
questions can all be found in the study of human
movement.
Moving an arm or a leg might seem like a simple
task. But human movement is actually very complex.
Movement is a change in place, position, or posture
in relation to the environment. Movement happens
only when different body systems, such as the skeletal
system, cardiovascular system, neuromuscular system,
and the body’s energy systems, work together. To
move successfully, these systems interact and adapt
to a constantly changing environment.

2 HUMAN MOVEMENT | INTRODUCTION

 MOTIONOTION
Kinesiology is the science
of human movement. The term kinesiology
comes from the Greek word
kine, meaning “to move,”
Kinesiology studies how the body initiates and controls
and ology, meaning “the
movement, beginning with the brain and using all the
study of.” It’s a word to
different body systems. It studies the body at rest and
describe the mechanics
in motion and examines how body systems interact
and structure of the body
during different types of movement.
in relation to movement.
Kinesiology also studies how the body adapts and
changes as a result of motion. Using this knowledge,
kinesiology professionals are able to improve the body’s
performance, help people avoid injury, and improve
physical fitness. Kinetics is the study of the impact that
different forces have on mechanical systems, such as
your body.

FORCES AND MOTION

Vocab Lab
As you move throughout your day, forces act on your
body. When you walk down the street, twirl on the
dance floor, or even just sit in a chair, invisible forces There is a lot of new
vocabulary in this book!
affect your body and its movement. A force is a push
Turn to the glossary in the
or pull on an object that results from the object’s
back when you come to a
interaction with another object. When two objects
word you don’t understand.
interact, there is a force acting on each of them. When Practice your new vocabulary
the interaction ends, the objects no longer experience in the VOCAB LAB
that force. activities in each chapter.
Objects move when forces are applied to them. English
scientist Isaac Newton explained the way that motion
works in his three laws of motion.

FORCES AND MOTION IN THE HUMAN BODY 3


An object at rest will stay at rest.
An object in motion will stay in
motion unless acted on by an
outside force.
The acceleration of an object is
proportional to the force.
As the mass increases, the
acceleration decreases.
For every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
4 HUMAN MOVEMENT | INTRODUCTION
Newton’s three laws of motion define all types of
motion, including the movement of your body.
• Law of inertia: An object at rest will stay
at rest and an object in motion will stay in
constant linear motion unless acted on by an
outside force. If a ball is rolling, it will keep
rolling forever unless something stops it. In the
same way, if a ball is at rest, it will stay at rest
until a force pushes it to move.
• Law of acceleration: The acceleration of an
object is directly proportional to the force
acting on it and inversely proportional to
the mass of the object. As the force acting
upon an object increases, the acceleration of
the object also increases. As the mass of an
object increases, the acceleration of the object
decreases for a fixed force.
• Law of action and reaction: For every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. When
one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object reacts by exerting an equal
force in the opposite direction on the first
object. For example, when you walk, your body
pushes down on the ground to move yourself
forward. The ground pushes back against you
with the same magnitude of force, propelling
you forward.
The movement of the human body follows Newton’s
laws of motion. The body moves when internal and
external forces act on it. Internal forces are generated
within the body. When a muscle contracts, it applies
an internal pulling force on a bone, which causes
movement. External forces are generated outside of the
body. For example, when you fall, the force of gravity
pulls you down.
 FORCES AND
MECHANICAL LOADS
Every second of the day, different forces act on your
body. They affect the body and its structures at rest
and during movement. The effects of these forces on
the body are called mechanical loads.
For example, a compression load occurs when a force
pushes or squeezes on an object. Did you know that
you are taller at the beginning of the day than you
are at the end of the day? During the day, the force
of gravity and your body weight create a compression
load that squeezes your spine and bones, pushing them
closer together and making you shrink. At night, the
compression load is lifted when you’re lying down
asleep, letting your spine and bones stretch back out.
Other mechanical loads that affect the body include
tension, bending, torsion, and shear loads. Tension
occurs when a force pulls on an object. When your
muscles pull on your bones, they apply tension. Bending
occurs when the forces of tension and compression
occur together. When a compression force acts on one
side of an object and a tension force acts on the other
side, the object bends.

FORCES AND MOTION IN THE HUMAN BODY 5

 Regular movement
can improve the
body’s systems and
help them work
more efficiently.
MOTIONOTION
Some of the first athletic
competitions in history took
place in ancient Greece.
The ancient Greeks held
competitions and festivals
to honor their gods. The
Greek philosopher Aristotle
(384–322 BCE) was one
of the first people to study
and describe general
body movements and the
forces required to move
the body. Known as the
“Father of Kinesiology,”
Aristotle wrote a book on
biomechanics. He is also
credited with coming up
with the word kinesiology.
6 HUMAN MOVEMENT | INTRODUCTION
Torsion occurs when one end of an object is fixed and
the object twists around an axis. When a playing field
has a lot of friction, it can cause an athlete’s foot to
become fixed on the ground. Twisting forces on the
knee or ankle can cause torsion and lead to injury.
Have you ever broken a bone?
It may have been caused by a
shear load on the bone.
Shear forces push one part of the body one way, while
simultaneously pushing another part of the body in the
opposite direction. A shear force can displace a part of
an object. For example, if a shear force hits your shin
bone while your ankle is fixed firmly on the ground,
one portion of the shin may be displaced, causing the
bone to break.
During many activities, the human body experiences
several types of forces and loads simultaneously.
Combined loads occur when more than one type of
load is delivered to an object.
FORMS OF MOTION
Biomechanists often divide movement into three
categories—linear, angular, and general.
Linear motion occurs when all parts of an object
move in the same direction. The object can move in
a straight line, called rectilinear motion. A passenger
in a car going down a straight road is an example of
rectilinear motion.
 Biomechanics

Biomechanics is the study of

the body using the principles
A type of linear motion called curvilinear motion of mechanics and how forces
moves in an arc. A child who stays upright on a swing act on the human body. This
demonstrates curvilinear motion. science examines the motion
of a living body and how
Angular motion occurs when an object rotates about the body’s muscles, bones,
an axis. An ice skater performing a spin is an example tendons, and ligaments
of angular motion. Many of the motions your body work together in movement.
makes are angular motions. For example, when your People who study
muscles contract and pull a bone, they cause the bone biomechanics use technology
to rotate above a joint. to measure forces and
the activation of muscles.
Often, they use video to
analyze body movement.
Scientists who study
biomechanics, called
biomechanists, use physics,
General motion occurs when linear motion and angular
math, and kinesiology to
motions combine. Human movements are almost study movement. They
always examples of general motion. When you walk, investigate questions such
your joints are rotating in angular motion, but your as how gravity impacts
entire body is moving in a straight line, in linear motion. movement, how balance is
maintained and lost, and how
the principles of movement
can be used to prevent injury.
By understanding the affect
forces have on motion and
the human body, scientists
can develop ways to
improve athletic performance
and prevent injury.

FORCES AND MOTION IN THE HUMAN BODY 7

 FOUNDATIONS OF MOVEMENT
To move, the human body goes through a complex
series of interactions that involve different body
systems. Even the very tiniest movement requires
coordination. Communication between the muscular,
You can think of skeletal, and nervous systems all come into play.
your body as an • Skeletal system: The human skeleton is the
ecosystem with lots framework that supports the human body.
of different parts Without bones, you could not stand, sit, or walk.
that work both
• Muscular system: Muscles are connected
independently and
to bones. When a muscle contracts, it often
with all the other
produces movement around a joint. Sometimes,
parts to keep the
muscle contraction does not produce movement,
whole body healthy.
but instead supports the body and increases
stability.
• Nervous system: Every movement you make is
controlled by the nervous system, or brain-body
connection. The brain interprets signals from the
body and sends messages to the muscles to
move. These messages travel through the nerves
of the nervous system until they reach their
destinations.

8 HUMAN MOVEMENT | INTRODUCTION

While each of these systems is important on its own,
by working together they create movement. For
example, think about something as simple as walking
across a room. When you first decide to walk, your
brain determines your body position, evaluates where
you are, and sends a message to certain muscles to
move. When activated, the muscles contract and move
Primary
your body across the floor. While some muscles are
Sources
active, others are preparing for action. Throughout
the process, your skeletal system holds it all together,
supporting your body so that you can stand and walk. Primary sources come
from people who were
MOVEMENT FOR HEALTH eyewitnesses to events. They
might write about the event,
What’s the big deal about moving your body? take pictures, post short
Movement is important because the human body is messages to social media
most efficient when it is used regularly. When a person or blogs, or record the event
stays at rest for too long, the body begins to weaken. for radio or video. Why are
primary sources important?
Without regular use, muscles lose mass. That means
Do you learn differently from
you should exercise and use your body as much as
primary sources than
you are able so your muscles stay healthy.
from secondary sources,
In addition, being inactive causes a decline in bone which come from people
density, making your bones weaker and more likely who did not directly
to break. Inactivity can even cause your heart size experience the event?
to decrease, making it harder for it to pump blood
throughout your body.
Lack of movement sometimes leads to unhealthy
weight gain. According to the National Institutes of
Health, more than two in three American adults are
considered to be overweight or obese. This is caused
by many different factors, including lack of exercise.

FORCES AND MOTION IN THE HUMAN BODY 9

 Regular movement reduces blood pressure and
strengthens the heart. By increasing bone density,
it makes bones stronger and less likely to break. It
improves blood cholesterol levels, which allows the
cardiovascular system to work efficiently and reduces
the risk of heart disease. Movement strengthens the
body’s immune system.

VOCAB LAB
How do you feel after you
Write down what go for a walk or a run?
you think each of the
following words means.
What root words can Movement is beneficial for a person’s mental health—it
you find for help? reduces stress, anxiety, and depression. So get up and
move!
kinesiology,
cardiovascular, To better understand how the body moves, you must
neuromuscular, mass, first investigate how these different body systems work
bone density, tendon, while the body is at rest. These basics, such as the body’s
mechanical load, force, structure, chemical reactions, energy generation, and
inertia, shear force,
the principles of matter in motion, form the necessary
torsion, and tension.
foundation for understanding human movement.
Compare your
definitions with those In this book, you will learn the basic anatomy of the
of your friends or human body and how bones, muscles, tendons, and
classmates. Did you nerves work together to make movement possible.
all come up with the We’ll take a look at how our organs are involved in
same meanings? Turn movement and what we can do to keep our bodies
to the text and glossary healthy and fit. Ready, set, let’s move!
if you need help.

KEY QUESTIONS

• Why is the study of human movement

important?
• How has kinesiology affected your life?
• How do you use the different forces and
mechanical loads to do the activities you love
most?

10 HUMAN MOVEMENT | INTRODUCTION

 Chapter One

The Skeleton

What functions does

the skeletal
system serve?
 From the top of your head to the tips of your
toes, your bones provide support for your body.
Your skeletal
system provides the Together, the bones of the skeletal system create
scaffolding for your the base framework of the body. Other tissues and
muscles, tendons, and organs attach to the skeleton, giving shape to the
ligaments, and even human body.
for your organs. Your Bones do more than provide a frame—they enclose
skeleton is essential to and protect the spinal cord, brain, heart, and many
your ability to move! other organs. Bone marrow, found inside your bones,
produces the red and white blood cells that your body
needs to carry oxygen and fight infection.

BONE BASICS
With 206 bones, the human skeleton is the basic frame
of the body. Bones begin to develop before birth and
continue to grow through adulthood. When bones first
form, they are made of cartilage, a firm tissue that is
softer and more flexible than bone. Newborn infants
are very flexible because many of their bones are still
made of cartilage.

12 HUMAN MOVEMENT | CHAPTER ONE

Within a few weeks of birth, the bones begin the The skeletal system
process of ossification, or the formation of bone. During is divided into two
ossification, the cartilage is replaced by hard deposits functional parts, the
of calcium phosphate and collagen, the two main axial skeleton and the
components of bone. Ossification continues through appendicular skeleton.
childhood into early adulthood. The axial skeleton
includes the skull,
When you are a child, your bones are small, but they
vertebrae, sternum, and
grow longer as you become an adult. The lengthening
ribs. The appendicular
of bones is called longitudinal growth. Longitudinal
skeleton includes
growth occurs because the bones of children and teens
the bones that make
have growth plates. Growth plates have columns of
up the appendages:
cartilage cells that grow in length before turning into
the arms and legs.
hard, mineralized bone. When doctors X-ray a child’s
bones, they can easily find the growth plates and even
use these to approximate a child’s age. Longitudinal
growth generally ends in the later teen years, when you
reach your full adult height. Sometimes bones grow in
diameter, called circumferential growth. This type of
growth can occur throughout your lifetime.
Bone tissue constantly remodels throughout your
lifetime. In this process, old bone is resorbed and new
bone is formed. Resorption is the process of old bone
tissue being broken down and digested by the body.
This process is not the same in all bones and might
occur more frequently in some bones than others. As MOTIONOTION
long as a person is alive, their bones are constantly
Osteoporosis is a disease
remodeling.
that occurs when bones
Bone growth and remodeling depend on specialized become weak because
cells called osteocytes. There are two types of resorption happens
osteocytes—osteoblasts and osteoclasts. These cells more than new bone is
are responsible for remodeling and forming new bone. made. The bones break
Osteoblasts form new bone and are often found on easily because there
the surface of new bone. Osteoclasts are large cells is less bone tissue.
that dissolve and resorb old or damaged bone tissue.

THE SKELETON 13

More Bones
as a Baby
Did you know that a baby’s
skeleton has almost 100
more bones than an adult’s
skeleton? Bones begin to
form when a baby is still
developing inside its mother’s
womb. After birth, bone
formation continues. Bones
form through childhood and
into adulthood. For example,
at birth, the sacrum is five
vertebrae with discs between
them. Over time, these
bones fuse into one bone.
Usually, by the time a person
has reached their 30s, the
sacrum is fully fused.
14 HUMAN MOVEMENT | CHAPTER ONE
WHAT ARE BONES MADE OF?
Have you ever heard the saying that something is
as strong as bone? Bones are some of the strongest,
hardest structures in your body. Several minerals,
including calcium, phosphorus, and sodium, make
bones hard and strong. Calcium, in the form of the
chemical compounds calcium carbonate and calcium
phosphate, makes up about 60 to 70 percent of bone’s
weight. The amount of these calcium compounds
in a bone determines the bone’s stiffness and its
compressive strength, which is its ability to resist being
squeezed or shortened.
Do your parents ever tell you to
drink your milk? Milk contains
calcium—your parents are helping
you strengthen your bones!
Bones also contain a protein called collagen. Collagen
gives bone its flexibility and ability to resist the pulling
force of tension. Bones even contain water, which
delivers nutrients and remove wastes from bone tissue.
A healthy bone has about 25 to 30 percent of its
weight in water. As a bone’s water content decreases,
it becomes more brittle and breaks more easily.
A bone is made of two types of tissue—cortical bone
and cancellous bone. Cortical bone is very dense. It is
found in the shafts of long bones and in the exterior
of bones. Cortical bone can withstand heavy loads
and muscle tension force before it fails and breaks.
 MOTIONOTION
Cancellous (spongy) bone
Porosity is the number
Cortical bone of cavities, or pores, in a
bone. Porosity determines
a bone’s strength. A
Bone marrow bone that is porous has
less calcium carbonate
and calcium phosphate.
The more porous a bone
is, the weaker it is.

About 80 percent of the human skeleton is cortical

bone. Although it looks solid, cortical bone actually
has many passageways for blood vessels and nerves.
Inside cortical bone, cancellous bone is a mesh-
like network of tiny spaces and bone pieces called
trabeculae. Cancellous bone is less dense than cortical
bone, making it weaker and less stiff. This porous bone
tissue can absorb energy and distribute loads that are
applied to the skeleton. The bone marrow found within
cancellous bone produces red and white blood cells.

THE SKELETON 15
 FIVE TYPES OF BONES
Bone Marrow Not all bones look the same. Some are short, while
others are flat or long. The bones in your body can be
grouped into five categories by shape—short, flat, long,
Inside many bones, sesamoid, and irregular. Short bones are small, solid,
the blood cells needed and often shaped like a cube. The bones in the wrist,
throughout the body are (carpals) and the ankle, (tarsals) are short bones. They
made in the soft bone provide stability and allow some movement.
marrow. Stem cells there
produce red blood cells Flat bones are generally flat or slightly curved. They
that carry oxygen to the might vary in thickness. Flat bones protect the body’s
body’s tissues. Bone marrow organs like shields. The ribs and sternum in the chest
also produces platelets, are flat bones that protect the heart. The ilium bone,
which help with blood which forms the upper part of the pelvis, the clavicle
clotting when a person (collar bone), and scapula (shoulder blade) are all flat
has a cut or wound. Some bones. The skull, protecting the brain, is made up of
types of white blood cells, flat bones. In addition to protecting organs, flat bones
which help the body fight provide a large area for muscles to attach. Many of
infection, are also produced these bones form the axial skeleton, the central part
in the bone marrow. of the skeleton.
Long bones provide the main support of the
appendicular skeleton. These are the bones that attach
to the axial skeleton.

16 HUMAN MOVEMENT | CHAPTER ONE

Long bones have a long shaft with two ends. The
longest bone in the body, the femur in the leg, is
a long bone. The small finger bones are also long
bones. Many long bones support the body’s weight
and help it move. Other long bones include the rest of
the leg bones (fibula and tibia) and arms (radius, ulna, Bones increase in size
humerus). While all bones contain bone marrow, the from the top of the
bone marrow in long bones can help the body survive body to the bottom,
extreme cases of hunger and blood loss. depending on how
much body weight they
Sesamoid bones are small, round bones embedded bear. Thus, the bones
in tendons. They are often found in the tendons of of the legs, pelvis, and
the hands, feet, and knees. Sesamoid bones protect lower back are larger
tendons from stress and wear. The kneecap (patella) than bones in the arms
is the largest and most well-known sesamoid bone. and upper chest.
Some bones don’t fit into any category. These irregular
bones vary in shape, size, and structure. Often, muscles
and other soft tissues that attach to and apply force
to a bone affect its shape. The vertebrae that protect
the spinal cord are an example of irregular bones. They
form a tunnel around the spinal cord. The vertebrae
have several protrusions where muscles, tendons, and
ligaments attach to them. Other irregular bones include
the coccyx and sacrum in the tailbone and the ischium
and pubis in the pelvis.

THE SKELETON 17

Are You Double
Jointed?
Have you ever heard
someone claim that
they are double jointed?
Maybe they can bend their
fingers or rotate their arms
into positions that seem
impossible. How can they do
this? The answer generally
involves flexibility. Flexibility
is how much the body’s soft
tissue can be extended.
The joints are held together
by ligaments and other soft
tissues. These tissues can
vary from person to person
in the amount of support
they provide and how much
they stretch. A person who
says they are double jointed
is probably just very flexible
and has loose joints!
18 HUMAN MOVEMENT | CHAPTER ONE
JOINTS AND MOVEMENT
Bones are very strong. But if all of the skeleton’s bones
were fused together, it would be very difficult to move!
To solve this problem, the skeleton has joints, the places
where two bones meet.
Joints are where bones come together. They also allow
the body to move in many ways. Without joints, you
would not be able to bend your arm or type with
your fingers. Joints allow you to curl your toes and
lift your legs.
Not all joints move the same way or
have the same range of motion.
Some joints move freely, while others move just a
little bit and some do not move at all. Some joints
open and close like a hinge while others allow more
complex movement. Notice how your shoulder or
hip joints allow movement backward, forward, and
sideways. Joints can be classified according to how
much movement they allow and in what direction.
Some joints are fixed and do not move. In adults,
the joints between the skull bones are examples of
immovable joints. The skull is made of bony plates that
protect the brain. A thin layer of fibrous connective
tissue called a suture joins these plates together very
tightly so they do not move. Many joints in your face
are also fixed.
Other joints move slightly. These joints are connected by
cartilage or slightly flexible ligaments. The disks between
the vertebrae are an example of this type of joint. They
connect each vertebra in the spinal column and allow
for slight movement. Each vertebra in the spine moves
a little in relation to the bone above and below it.
 Together, these small movements
give the spine its flexibility. MOTIONOTION
A bursa is a synovial
Most joints in the body are freely moveable. Able fluid-filled sac that helps to
to move in many directions, these joints, sometimes reduce the friction between
called synovial joints, form where two bones are joined a bone and a tendon or
together by ligaments. Cartilage cushions the end of a bone and a muscle.
each bone, and a membrane-lined cavity filled with
synovial fluid lubricates and cushions the joint. Joints
at your elbows, shoulders, and ankles are examples of
moveable joints.
Three main types of moveable joints have big roles
in voluntary movement. Hinge joints allow movement
in one direction. Joints at the knees and elbows are What Is
examples of hinge joints. You can bend and straighten Cartilage?
your knee, but you cannot move it sideways. Pivot joints
perform a rotating or twisting motion. A pivot joint at
the top of the vertebral column allows you to move Cartilage is a flexible,
your head from side to side. In a ball-and-socket joint, rubbery substance that is
the round end of a long bone fits into a depression more flexible than bone, but
called a socket in another bone. This type of joint can firmer than muscle. Can you
feel how the bridge of your
move in all directions and can rotate. Joints at the hip
nose is stiff and inflexible,
and shoulder are ball-and-socket joints.
while the end of your nose
wiggles? Can you feel how
HOLDING IT ALL TOGETHER you can bend your upper
ears? Cartilage gives these
Although many bones fit together well at a joint, this body parts structure and
connection alone is not stable enough to allow you flexibility. Cartilage is also
to walk, run, and move. Think about a small stack of found in between bones,
blocks. Each piece fits well against the one above and where it supports the bones
below it. But if you try to move or bend the stack, the and protects them from
entire column falls apart. Now image if you put a large rubbing against each other.
rubber band around the blocks. Could you more easily
manipulate the blocks without them falling apart?

THE SKELETON 19

The Head Bone’s
Connected
to the . . .
An adult human has 206
bones in its skeletal system.
The skeleton provides a
scaffolding for the muscles
and organs to remain
secure and protected. You
can learn more about the
different bones
in the body at
this interactive
website.
inner body skeletal system
20 HUMAN MOVEMENT | CHAPTER ONE
In a similar way, connective tissues, which include
tendons, ligaments, and joint capsules, provide the extra
support the skeleton needs for movement. A tendon is
a soft tissue that connects a muscle to a bone. When
the tendon of a muscle crosses a joint, there will be
movement at that joint when the muscle contracts. The
movement created when a muscle contracts depends
on the size and length of the tendon, as well as the
type of joint.
Ligaments are bands of dense, fibrous tissue that
connect two bones and hold each bone in its place.
Joint capsules surround a joint and enclose the joint
cavity with a membrane, which holds protective
synovial fluid. When the two bones that connect at
a joint move, they can rub and cause friction. Too
much friction will wear away the cushioning cartilage
at the end of each bone, which causes a lot of pain.
The synovial fluid in the joint capsule helps protect
the joint and its cartilage from friction.
Another random document with
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Defiles the verdant plain. Nor idle stand
The trusty slaves; with pointed spears, they pierce
Through their tough hides; or at their gaping mouths
An easier passage find. The king of brutes,
In broken roarings, breathes his last; the bear
Grumbles in death; nor can his spotted skin,
Though sleek it shine, with varied beauties gay,
Save the proud pard from unrelenting fate.
The battle bleeds; grim slaughter strides along,
Glutting her greedy jaws, grins o’er her prey.
Men, horses, dogs, fierce beasts of every kind,
A strange promiscuous carnage, drench’d in blood,
And heaps on heaps amass’d. What yet remain
Alive, with vain assault, contend to break
The impenetrable line: others, whom fear
Inspires with self-preserving wiles, beneath
The bodies of the slain for shelter creep;
Aghast they fly, or hide their heads, dispersed.
And now, perchance, had Heaven but pleased, the work
Of death had been complete; and Aurengzebe,
By one dread frown, extinguish’d half their race;
When lo! the bright sultanas of his court
Appear, and to his ravish’d eyes display
Those charms, but rarely to the day reveal’d.

BOOK II THE CHASE v. 512-523.

Lowly they bend, and humbly sue, to save
The vanquish’d host. What mortal can deny,
When suppliant beauty begs? At his command,
Opening to right and left, the well-train’d troops
Leave a large void for their retreating foes.
Away they fly, on wings of fear upborne,
To seek, on distant hills, their late abodes.
Ye proud oppressors, whose vain hearts exult
In wantonness of power, ’gainst the brute race,
Fierce robbers, like yourselves, a guiltless war
Wage uncontroll’d; here quench your thirst of blood:
But learn, from Aurengzebe, to spare mankind.
Book III
 Argument.
Of King Edgar, and his imposing a tribute of wolves’ heads upon the kings of
Wales: from hence a transition to fox-hunting, which is described in all its
parts. Censure of an over-numerous pack. Of the several engines to destroy
foxes, and other wild beasts. The steel-trap described, and the manner of
using it. Description of the pitfall for the lion; and another for the
elephant. The ancient way of hunting the tiger with a mirror. The Arabian
manner of hunting the wild boar. Description of the royal stag-chase at
Windsor Forest. Concludes with an address to his Majesty, and an eulogy
upon mercy.
In Albion’s isle, when glorious Edgar reign’d,
He, wisely provident, from her white cliffs
Launch’d half her forests, and, with numerous fleets,
Cover’d his wide domain: there proudly rode,
Lord of the deep, the great prerogative
Of British monarchs. Each invader bold,
Dane and Norwegian, at a distance gazed,
And, disappointed, gnash’d his teeth in vain.
He scour’d the seas, and to remotest shores,
With swelling sails, the trembling corsair fled.
Rich commerce flourish’d; and with busy oars
Dash’d the resounding surge. Nor less, at land,
His royal cares; wise, potent, gracious prince!

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 14-38.

His subjects from their cruel foes he saved,
And, from rapacious savages, their flocks.
Cambria’s proud kings, though with reluctance, paid
Their tributary wolves; head after head,
In full account, till the woods yield no more,
And all the ravenous race, extinct, is lost.
In fertile pastures, more securely grazed
The social troops; and soon their large increase,
With curling fleeces, whiten’d all the plains.
But yet, alas! the wily fox remain’d,
A subtle, pilfering foe, prowling around
In midnight shades, and wakeful to destroy.
In the full fold, the poor defenceless lamb,
Seized by his guileful arts, with sweet warm blood,
Supplies a rich repast. The mournful ewe,
Her dearest treasure lost, through the dun night
Wanders perplex’d, and, darkling, bleats in vain:
While, in the adjacent bush, poor Philomel,
Herself a parent once, till wanton churls
Despoil’d her nest, joins in her loud laments,
With sweeter notes, and more melodious woe.
For these nocturnal thieves, huntsman, prepare
Thy sharpest vengeance. Oh! how glorious ’tis
To right the oppress’d, and bring the felon vile
To just disgrace! Ere yet the morning peep,

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 39-61.

Or stars retire from the first blush of day,
With thy far-echoing voice alarm thy pack,
And rouse thy bold compeers. Then to the copse,
Thick with entangling grass, or prickly furze,
With silence lead thy many-colour’d hounds,
In all their beauty’s pride. See! how they range
Dispersed; how busily, this way and that,
They cross, examining, with curious nose,
Each likely haunt. Hark! on the drag I hear
Their doubtful notes, preluding to a cry
More nobly full, and swell’d with every mouth.
As straggling armies, at the trumpet’s voice,
Press to their standard; hither all repair,
And hurry through the woods with hasty step,
Rustling and full of hope; now, driven in heaps,
They push, they strive, while from his kennel sneaks
The conscious villain. See! he skulks along,
Sleek, at the shepherd’s cost, and plump, with meals
Purloin’d: so thrive the wicked here below.
Though high his brush he bear, though, tipp’d with white,
It gaily shine, yet ere the sun, declined,
Recall the shades of night, the pamper’d rogue
Shall rue his fate, reversed; and, at his heels,

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 62-84.

Behold the just avenger, swift to seize
His forfeit head, and thirsting for his blood.
Heavens! what melodious strains! how beat our hearts,
Big with tumultuous joy! the loaded gales
Breathe harmony; and, as the tempest drives,
From wood to wood, through every dark recess,
The forest thunders, and the mountains shake.
The chorus swells; less various, and less sweet,
The trilling notes, when, in those very groves,
The feather’d choristers salute the spring,
And every bush in concert joins: or, when
The master’s hand, in modulated air,
Bids the loud organ breathe, and all the powers
Of musick, in one instrument combine
An universal minstrelsy. And now
In vain each earth he tries; the doors are barr’d,
Impregnable; nor is the covert safe;
He pants for purer air. Hark! what loud shouts
Re-echo through the groves!—he breaks away!
Shrill horns proclaim his flight. Each straggling hound
Strains o’er the lawn, to reach the distant pack.
’Tis triumph all, and joy. Now, my brave youths,
Now give a loose to the clean generous steed;

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 85-108.

Flourish the whip, nor spare the galling spur:
But, in the madness of delight, forget
Your fears! Far o’er the rocky hills we range,
And dangerous our course; but, in the brave,
True courage never fails: in vain the stream
In foaming eddies whirls; in vain the ditch,
Wide-gaping, threatens death: the craggy steep,
Where the poor dizzy shepherd crawls with care,
And clings to every twig, gives us no pain;
But down we sweep, as stoops the falcon bold
To pounce his prey: then up the opponent hill,
By the swift motion slung, we mount aloft.
So ships, in winter seas, now sliding, sink
Adown the steepy wave, then, toss’d on high,
Ride on the billows, and defy the storm.
What lengths we pass! where will the wandering chase
Lead us, bewilder’d! smooth as swallows skim
The new-shorn mead, and far more swift, we fly.
See, my brave pack! how to the head they press,
Justling in close array; then, more diffuse,
Obliquely wheel, while, from their opening mouths,
The vollied thunder breaks. So, when the cranes
Their annual voyage steer, with wanton wing
Their figure oft they change, and their loud clang

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 109-132.

From cloud to cloud rebounds. How far behind
The hunter-crew, wide-straggling o’er the plain!
The panting courser now, with trembling nerves,
Begins to reel; urged by the goring spur,
Makes many a faint effort: he snorts, he foams;
The big round drops run trickling down his sides,
With sweat and blood distain’d. Look back, and view
The strange confusion of the vale below,
Where sour vexation reigns: see yon poor jade;
In vain the impatient rider frets and swears,
With galling spurs harrows his mangled sides;
He can no more; his stiff unpliant limbs,
Rooted in earth, unmoved and fix’d he stands,
For every cruel curse returns a groan,
And sobs, and faints, and dies! who, without grief,
Can view that pamper’d steed, his master’s joy,
His minion, and his daily care, well clothed,
Well fed with every nicer cate; no cost,
No labour, spared; who, when the flying chase
Broke from the copse, without a rival led
The numerous train; now, a sad spectacle
Of pride brought low, and humbled insolence,
Drove like a pannier’d ass, and scourged along!
While these, with loosen’d reins and dangling heels,

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 133-155.

Hang on their reeling palfreys, that scarce bear
Their weights; another, in the treacherous bog,
Lies floundering, half ingulf’d. What biting thoughts
Torment the abandon’d crew! Old age laments
His vigour spent: the tall, plump, brawny youth,
Curses his cumbrous bulk; and envies, now,
The short pygmean race, he whilom kenn’d,
With proud insulting leer. A chosen few,
Alone, the sport enjoy, nor droop beneath
Their pleasing toils. Here, huntsman! from this highth
Observe yon birds of prey; if I can judge,
’Tis there the villain lurks: they hover round,
And claim him as their own. Was I not right?
See! there he creeps along; his brush he drags,
And sweeps the mire impure: from his wide jaws
His tongue unmoisten’d hangs; symptoms too sure
Of sudden death. Ha! yet he flies, nor yields
To black despair: but one loose more, and all
His wiles are vain. Hark, through yon village now
The rattling clamour rings. The barns, the cots,
And leafless elms, return the joyous sounds.
Through every homestall, and through every yard,
His midnight walks, panting, forlorn, he flies;

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 156-180.

Through every hole he sneaks, through every jakes,
Plunging, he wades, besmear’d; and fondly hopes
In a superiour stench to lose his own:
But, faithful to the track, the unerring hounds,
With peals of echoing vengeance, close pursue.
And now, distress’d, no sheltering covert near,
Into the hen-roost creeps, whose walls, with gore
Distain’d, attest his guilt. There, villain! there
Expect thy fate deserved. And soon from thence
The pack, inquisitive, with clamour loud,
Drag out their trembling prize, and, on his blood,
With greedy transport feast. In bolder notes
Each sounding horn proclaims the felon dead;
And all the assembled village shouts for joy.
The farmer, who beholds his mortal foe
Stretch’d at his feet, applauds the glorious deed,
And, grateful, calls us to a short repast:
In the full glass the liquid amber smiles,
Our native product; and his good old mate,
With choicest viands, heaps the liberal board,
To crown our triumphs, and reward our toils.
Here must the instructive Muse, but with respect,
Censure that numerous pack, that crowd of state,
With which the vain profusion of the great
Covers the lawn, and shakes the trembling copse.

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 181-204.

Pompous incumbrance! a magnificence
Useless, vexatious! for the wily fox,
Safe in the increasing number of his foes,
Kens well the great advantage: slinks behind,
And slyly creeps through the same beaten track,
And hunts them step by step; then views, escaped,
With inward ecstasy, the panting throng
In their own footsteps puzzled, foil’d, and lost.
So, when proud Eastern kings summon to arms
Their gaudy legions, from far distant climes
They flock in crowds, unpeopling half a world;
But when the day of battle calls them forth,
To charge the well-train’d foe, a band compact
Of chosen veterans, they press blindly on,
In heaps confused, by their own weapons fall,
A smoking carnage scatter’d o’er the plain.
Nor hounds alone this noxious brood destroy:
The plunder’d warrener full many a wile
Devises, to entrap his greedy foe,
Fat with nocturnal spoils. At close of day,
He silent drags his trail; then from the ground
Pares thin the close-grazed turf; there, with nice hand,
Covers the latent death, with curious springs
Prepared to fly at once, whene’er the tread

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 205-229.

Of man or beast, unwarily shall press
The yielding surface: by the indented steel
With gripe tenacious held, the felon grins,
And struggles, but in vain: yet oft, ’tis known,
When every art has fail’d, the captive fox
Has shared the wounded joint, and, with a limb,
Compounded for his life. But if, perchance,
In the deep pitfall plunged, there’s no escape;
But unreprieved he dies, and, bleach’d in air,
The jest of clowns, his reeking carcase hangs.
Of these are various kinds; not even the king
Of brutes evades this deep devouring grave;
But, by the wily African betray’d,
Heedless of fate, within its gaping jaws
Expires, indignant. When the orient beam
With blushes paints the dawn, and all the race
Carnivorous, with blood full-gorged, retire
Into their darksome cells, there, satiate, snore
O’er dripping offals, and the mangled limbs
Of men and beasts, the painful forester
Climbs the high hills, whose proud aspiring tops,
With the tall cedar crown’d, and taper fir,
Assail the clouds; there, ’mong the craggy rocks,
And thickets intricate, trembling, he views
His footsteps in the sand, the dismal road

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 230-254.

And avenue to death. Hither he calls
His watchful bands, and, low into the ground,
A pit they sink, full many a fathom deep:
Then, in the midst, a column high is rear’d,
The butt of some fair tree; upon whose top
A lamb is placed, just ravish’d from his dam;
And next, a wall they build, with stones and earth
Encircling round, and hiding from all view
The dreadful precipice. Now, when the shades
Of night hang lowering o’er the mountains brow,
And hunger keen, and pungent thirst of blood,
Rouze up the slothful beast, he shakes his sides,
Slow-rising from his lair, and stretches wide
His ravenous paws, with recent gore distain’d;
The forests tremble as he roars aloud,
Impatient to destroy. O’erjoy’d, he hears
The bleating innocent, that claims, in vain,
The shepherd’s care, and seeks, with piteous moan,
The foodful teat; himself, alas! design’d
Another’s meal. For now the greedy brute
Winds him from far; and, leaping o’er the mound,
To seize his trembling prey, headlong is plunged
Into the deep abyss. Prostrate he lies,
Astunn’d, and impotent. Ah! what avail
Thine eye-balls flashing fire, thy length of tail

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 255-279.

That lashes thy broad sides, thy jaws besmear’d
With blood, and offals crude, thy shaggy mane,
The terrour of the woods, thy stately port,
And bulk enormous, since, by stratagem,
Thy strength is foil’d? Unequal is the strife,
When sovereign reason combats brutal rage.
On distant Ethiopia’s sun-burnt coasts,
The black inhabitants a pitfall frame,
But of a different kind, and different use:
With slender poles the wide capacious mouth,
And hurdles slight, they close; o’er these is spread
A floor of verdant turf, with all its flowers
Smiling delusive, and from strictest search
Concealing the deep grave that yawns below:
Then boughs of trees they cut, with tempting fruit,
Of various kinds, surcharged; the downy peach,
The clustering vine, and, of bright golden rind,
The fragrant orange. Soon as evening gray
Advances slow, besprinkling all around,
With kind refreshing dews, the thirsty glebe,
The stately elephant, from the close shade,
With step majestic, strides, eager to taste
The cooler breeze, that from the sea-beat shore
Delightful breathes, or, in the limpid stream,
To lave his panting sides; joyous he scents

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 280-304.

The rich repast, unweeting of the death
That lurks within. And soon he, sporting, breaks
The brittle boughs, and greedily devours
The fruit delicious: ah! too dearly bought;
The price is life: for now the treacherous turf,
Trembling, gives way; and the unwieldy beast,
Self-sinking, drops into the dark profound.
So when dilated vapours, struggling, heave
The incumbent earth, if, chance, the cavern’d ground,
Shrinking, subside, and the thin surface yield,
Down sinks, at once, the ponderous dome, ingulf’d,
With all its towers. Subtle, delusive man,
How various are thy wiles! artful to kill
Thy savage foes, a dull unthinking race.
Fierce, from his lair, springs forth the speckled pard,
Thirsting for blood, and eager to destroy;
The huntsman flies, but to his flight alone
Confides not: at convenient distance fix’d,
A polish’d mirror stops, in full career,
The furious brute: he there his image views;
Spots against spots, with rage improving, glow;
Another pard his bristly whiskers curls,
Grins as he grins, fierce-menacing, and wide
Distends his opening paws; himself against
Himself opposed, and with dread vengeance arm’d.

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 305-329.

The huntsman, now secure, with fatal aim
Directs the pointed spear, by which transfix’d,
He dies; and with him dies the rival shade.
Thus man innumerous engines forms, to assail
The savage kind; but most, the docile horse,
Swift, and confederate with man, annoys
His brethren of the plains; without whose aid
The hunter’s arts were vain, unskill’d to wage,
With the more active brutes, an equal war;
But borne by him, without the well-train’d pack,
Man dares his foe, on wings of wind secure.
Him the fierce Arab mounts, and, with his troop
Of bold compeers, ranges the desert wild,
Where, by the magnet’s aid, the traveller
Steers his untrodden course; yet oft, on land,
Is wreck’d, in the high-rolling waves of sand
Immersed, and lost; while these intrepid bands,
Safe in their horses’ speed, out-fly the storm,
And scouring round, make men and beasts their prey.
The grisly boar is singled from his herd,
As large as that in Erimanthian woods,
A match for Hercules: round him they fly,
In circles wide; and each, in passing, sends
His feather’d death into his brawny sides.
But perilous the attempt; for, if the steed
 BOOK III THE CHASE v. 330-354.

Haply too near approach, or the loose earth

His footing fail, the watchful angry beast
The advantage spies, and, at one sidelong glance,
Rips up his groin. Wounded, he rears aloft,
And, plunging, from his back the rider hurls
Precipitant; then, bleeding, spurns the ground,
And drags his reeking entrails o’er the plain.
Meanwhile the surly monster trots along,
But with unequal speed; for still they wound,
Swift wheeling in the spacious ring: a wood
Of darts upon his back he bears; adown
His tortured sides the crimson torrents roll,
From many a gaping font; and now at last,
Staggering, he falls, in blood and foam expires.
But whither roves my devious Muse, intent
On antique tales, while yet the royal stag
Unsung remains? Tread, with respectful awe,
Windsor’s green glades, where Denham, tuneful bard,
Charm’d once the listening Dryads with his song,
Sublimely sweet. O grant me, sacred shade,
To glean, submiss, what thy full sickle leaves!
The morning sun, that gilds, with trembling rays,
Windsor’s high towers, beholds the courtly train
Mount for the chase; nor views in all his course
A scene so gay: heroick, noble youths,

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 355-379.

In arts and arms renown’d, and lovely nymphs,
The fairest of this isle, where beauty dwells,
Delighted, and deserts her Paphian grove,
For our more favour’d shades; in proud parade
These shine magnificent, and press around
The royal happy pair. Great in themselves,
They smile superiour; of external show
Regardless, while their inbred virtues give
A lustre to their power, and grace their court
With real splendours, far above the pomp
Of Eastern kings, in all their tinsel pride.
Like troops of Amazons, the female band
Prance round their cars; not in refulgent arms,
As those of old; unskill’d to wield the sword,
Or bend the bow, these kill with surer aim.
The royal offspring, fairest of the fair,
Lead on the splendid train. Anna, more bright
Than summer suns, or as the lightning keen,
With irresistible effulgence arm’d,
Fires every heart: he must be more than man
Who, unconcern’d, can bear the piercing ray.
Amelia, milder than the blushing dawn,
With sweet engaging air, but equal power,
Insensibly subdues, and in soft chains
Her willing captives leads. Illustrious maids!

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 380-404.