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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN
APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Eva Barreira
Ricardo M. S. F. Almeida
Infrared
Thermography for
Building Moisture
Inspection
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology
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Eva Barreira Ricardo M. S. F. Almeida
•
Infrared Thermography
for Building Moisture
Inspection
123
Eva Barreira Ricardo M. S. F. Almeida
CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
University of Porto University of Porto
Porto, Portugal Porto, Portugal
and
Department of Civil Engineering,

School of Technology and Management
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu
Viseu, Portugal
ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-75385-0 ISBN 978-3-319-75386-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75386-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018957663
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Preface
Moisture is one of the most deteriorating factors of buildings. Tracing it, using
non-destructive techniques, is an obvious advantage, especially for buildings in use.
The problem of moisture in buildings has always aroused great interest. Moisture
damage may occur both due to the presence of moisture itself and/or due to its
evaporation. Besides the degradation of materials and components, compromising
their performance, durability, mechanical resistance, waterproofness and appear-
ance, it can also cause poor indoor conditions resulting from biological growth.
Moisture content is traditionally assessed using destructive procedures, which
require collecting a wall sample to be weighed in the laboratory. However, moisture
content can also be assessed using non-destructive techniques as moisture detectors.
These techniques may not be as accurate as the destructive procedures; however,
they are very easy to use and deliver real-time results. Infrared thermography
(IRT) is a non-contact and non-destructive testing technology that can be applied to
determine the surface temperature of an object. Nevertheless, the procedures to
detect moisture in building components using IRT are still under development as it
is not clear if it can be used to detect moisture before any visible marks occur.
However, changes in moisture content are related to changes in surface temperature
and can, therefore, be detected by IRT, due to three physical phenomena: evapo-
rative cooling at the moist area; reduced thermal resistance; and increased heat
storage capacity of the moist material.
The main benefit of this book is that it provides a discussion about the oppor-
tunities and limitations of IRT to assess moisture-related pathologies in build-
ings using several practical models as example cases. Its special features are: (a) a
state of the art of buildings-related IRT applications with the main focus on
moisture assessment; and (b) practical discussion of several case studies, namely
(b1) several set-ups and boundary conditions were created to compare IRT with
other surface temperature measurement techniques and to understand the ideal
conditions for accurate IRT; (b2) IRT was used to assess capillary absorption on a
full-scale laboratory model and the drying process; (b3) IRT was used to assess
moisture in walls due to wind-driven rain infiltrations in buildings in use; and (b4)
IRT was used to assess the drying process of exterior walls.
v
vi Preface
This subject is appealing to the scientists, the engineers and the students. At the
same time, this book will be going to the encounter of a variety of scientific and
engineering disciplines, such as civil engineering, architecture, physics.
This work was financially supported by Project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007457
—CONSTRUCT—Institute of R&D In Structures and Construction funded by
FEDER funds through COMPETE2020—Programa Operacional Competitividade e
Internacionalização (POCI)—and by national funds through FCT—Fundação para
a Ciência e a Tecnologia. The authors would also like to acknowledge their grat-
itude for the support received from the University of Porto—Faculty of
Engineering, Portugal. Finally, the authors would welcome comments, corrections
and suggestions of the readers with the aim of improving any future editions.
Viseu, Portugal Eva Barreira

Porto, Portugal Ricardo M. S. F. Almeida
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Main Developments on Using IRT to Assess Moisture . . . . . . . . . 2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . 4
2 Measurement of Surface Temperature Using Different Devices . . . . 7
2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Materials and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Results of the In Situ Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Case Study #01_IS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Case Study #02_IS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.3 Case Study #03_IS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.4 Case Study #04_IS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Results of the Laboratory Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.1 Case Study #01_L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.2 Case Study #02_L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.3 Case Study #03_L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.4 Case Study #04_L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Discussion of the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 IRT Versus Moisture: Laboratory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 Set-up and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
vii
viii Contents
3.3.1 Moisture Caused by Rising Damp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.3.2 Drying Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4 IRT Versus Moisture: In Situ Tests in Indoor Environment . . . . . . 43
4.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.1 Exterior Wall of a Basement in a Residential Building . . . . 45
4.3.2 Exterior Walls of a Room in a Residential Building . . . . . 47
4.3.3 Exterior Wall of a Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5 IRT Versus Drying: In Situ Tests in Outdoor Environment . . . . . . . 53
5.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.1 Wall 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.2 Wall 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.3 Wall 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.3.4 Wall 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Symbols and Units
c Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

h Height (cm)
t Time (h)
RH Relative humidity (%)
Solar Rad Solar radiation (W m−2)
T Temperature (°C)
Wind Vel Wind velocity (m s−1)
Wind Dir Wind direction (º)
Greek Letters
e Emissivity (–)
k Thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1)
q Density (kg m−3)
ix
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Moisture is one of the main causes of pathologies in buildings and, thus, has always
aroused great interest within the scientific community. The damage in buildings can
occur both due to the presence of moisture itself or due to its evaporation. In fact,
moisture and the drying process may cause the degradation of building materials
and components, compromising their performance concerning durability, mechan-
ical resistance, waterproofness and appearance. Moisture can also cause unhealthy
conditions for users, either due to the biological growth or due to the degradation of
building materials and components.
Moisture may have different causes, which can be grouped as follows: built-in
moisture; rising damp; infiltrations due to wind-driven rain; surface condensations;
moisture due to hygroscopic phenomena and moisture due to accidental causes.
An early diagnosis is crucial to avoid severe degradation. Indeed, it is imperative
to detect moisture in an earlier stage, i.e. before significant visible signs occur, and to
trace the leak through the building elements. The use of non-destructive techniques
to detect moisture can be very useful, especially when the building is occupied, as
further work and greater costs are avoided during the assessment.
Infrared thermography (IRT) is a non-contact and non-destructive testing technol-
ogy that allows the evaluation of thermal behaviour of existing buildings and iden-
tification of potential problems (Maldague 1994; Hart 2001; Bagavathiappan et al.
2013). It converts the infrared radiation emitted from bodies into thermal images,
showing the temperature distribution of the surface (Maldague 2001; Rao 2008),
as shown in Fig. 1.1. Nowadays, from a practical point of view, this technique is
mainly used considering only a qualitative evaluation of the results, based on the
simple observation of the thermal images. However, the scientific community has
been working in new quantitative approaches, which are more often related to the
evaluation of the temperature differences between areas with and without thermal
anomaly (Maldague 2002; Lai and Poon 2012; Vavilov 2014).
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

E. Barreira and R. M. S. F Almeida, Infrared Thermography for Building Moisture
Inspection, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75386-7_1
2 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.1 Thermograph of a

façade located in Porto,
Portugal
However, IRT has several potential applications that have not yet been completely
explored, such as detecting moisture in building components. Some authors have
been working in this topic, proving that it is possible to use it to identify moisture
in building elements as, for example, Balaras and Argiriou (2002), Avdelidis et al.
(2003). However, only very few were able to establish a criterion for a quantitative
assessment of the problem. Even when an attempt was made, the criteria and proce-
dures were applied to a specific case study and its generalization to other building
elements is not straightforward.
Therefore, it is still required additional research concerning the applicability of
IRT to detect moisture and to characterize its consequences in building components.
In this book, information relevant to this topic is collected and systematized, namely
new work developed by the scientific community regarding detection of moisture
in building materials and components using IRT is gathered, and it discusses the
opportunities and limitations of IRT to assess moisture-related buildings pathologies
using several practical models as example cases.
1.2 Main Developments on Using IRT to Assess Moisture
Two approaches can be applied to obtain the distribution of the surface tempera-
ture using infrared (IR) cameras: the passive and the active approach (Maldague
1993). Thermal images can be analysed qualitatively or quantitatively (Hart 2001).
The quality of the thermal images can be affected by several parameters related to
materials properties and to ambient conditions: (a) emissivity, which is crucial if
1.2 Main Developments on Using IRT to Assess Moisture 3
a quantitative analysis is required (Avdelidis and Moropoulou 2003); (b) surface

colour as it can mask defects (Barreira and Freitas 2007); (c) reflections on metal
and glazed surfaces (surfaces with high reflectance) (Barreira and Freitas 2007); (d)
meteorological conditions such as air temperature, precipitation, wind speed, cloud
cover and direct sunlight (Chew 1998); (e) heat sources near the measurement area
(Hart 2001); (f) period of the day (day or night) and time of year (summer or win-
ter conditions) (Chew 1998); (g) distance between camera and target, which may
attenuate thermal radiation and affects the images clarity and precision, for distances
above 10 m (Chew 1998).
This technology has been applied to buildings for a couple of decades to evaluate
their performance (Hart 2001). IRT has been used to assess the floor covering comfort
(Barreira and Freitas 2007), to detect insulation defects (Hart 2001), air leaks (Taylor
et al. 2013; Barreira et al. 2017a; Lerma et al. 2018) and thermal bridges (Asdrubali
et al. 2012), to evaluate thermal performance (Katunsky et al. 2013) and to inspect
construction details (Cerdeira et al. 2011). IRT has also been used as a conservation
evaluation tool for historic buildings treatments (Avdelidis and Moropoulou 2004),
to detect defects in façades (Edis et al. 2014; Freitas et al. 2014) and as an inspection
technique for frescoes assessment (Paoletti et al. 2013; Sfarra et al. 2016). The use of
IRT in inspection procedures is well defined in standards such as ISO 6781 (1983),
EN 13187 (1998) and ASTM-C 1060-90 (2003). A detailed comparison between the
performances of different IR cameras can also be found in the literature (Bauer et al.
2015).
Some attempts of applying IRT to detect moisture in building components were
already published, although mostly using only the qualitative approach (Balaras
and Argiriou 2002; Avdelidis et al. 2003; Edis et al. 2014; Menezes et al. 2015).
Nevertheless, the procedures to detect moisture in building components using IRT
are still under discussion since it is still not clear if this technique can be used to detect
moisture before any visible marks occur, such as efflorescence, biological growth,
detachments or degradation of the material, and to trace a water leak through the
building element. In addition, the potential of quantitative approaches applied to
detect moisture in building materials and components remains largely untapped.
Changes in moisture content are related to changes in surface temperature and
therefore can be detected by IRT, due to three physical phenomena:
• Evaporative cooling at the moist area: The evaporation at the surface is an endother-
mic reaction, which induces a decrease on the surface temperature (Rosina and
Ludwig 1999; Avdelidis et al. 2003; Barreira and Freitas 2007; Grinzato et al.
2010; Bison et al. 2011a, b; Grinzato et al. 2011; Camino et al. 2014; Lerma et al.
2014; Barreira et al. 2016, 2017b).
• Reduced thermal resistance: The heat flow through wet materials is higher than
through dry materials, which creates a heterogeneous thermal pattern as the surface
temperature over the wet material is higher, if the inspection is made from the
outside during the colder season. This effect is pushed to extremes when the
wetting occurs in thermal insulation materials (Rajewski and Devine 1996; Edis
et al. 2014, 2015).
4 1 Introduction
• Increased heat storage capacity of the moist material: The surface temperature
over a wet area responds more slowly to a change in the air temperature than the
surface temperature over a dry area. Thus, when the whole surface is cooling,
wet areas will cool more slowly. During the course of a sunlit day, wet areas will
store more solar energy than dry areas; thus, they will cool more slowly during the
evening (Balaras and Argiriou 2002; Lerma et al. 2011; Edis et al. 2014, 2015).
From the above references, only a few were able to establish a criterion for a
quantitative assessment of the problem. In those studies, the moisture content was
assessed using different physical principles (evaporative cooling of the surface and
increased heat storage capacity).
The quantitative analysis of the results of IRT can be carried out using the follow-
ing techniques: principal component thermography (PCT), pulsed phase thermogra-
phy (PPT), differential absolute contrast (DAC), thermographic signal reconstruction
(TSR), full width at half maximum (FWHM) and higher order statistics thermogra-
phy (HOST). Although having great potential, as they tend to minimize the influence
of emissivity variation, environmental reflections, etc., they are still not widespread
and may not always be applicable, especially during long-term monitoring where
large areas are covered. In addition, the equipment that generally is required is also
more complex and expensive.
From the literature review, one can state that assessing moisture-related phenom-
ena by IRT is possible, yet difficult, especially if a quantitative evaluation is intended.
In this area, the methodologies and the potential of IRT for qualitative approaches
are stabilized but, on the other hand, a well-defined methodology for a quantitative
approach is still an open issue that requires attention from the scientific community.
This book presents the results of several experimental campaigns where the poten-
tial of IRT for moisture assessment is evaluated. An analysis for tackling the param-
eters that can affect IRT accuracy was carried out, and the applicability of IRT to
assess moisture and drying in building components was analysed both in indoor and
outdoor conditions.
References
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in buildings. Appl Energy 97:365–373
ASTM-C 1060–90 (2003) Standard practice for thermographic inspection of insulation installations
in envelope cavities of frame buildings. ASTM International, USA
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Buildings 35(7):663–667
Avdelidis N, Moropoulou A (2004) Applications of infrared thermography for the investigation of
historic structures. J Cult Heritage 5(1):119–127
Avdelidis N, Moropoulou A, Theoulakis P (2003) Detection of water deposits and movement in
porous materials by infrared imaging. Infrared Phys Technol 44(3):183–190
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monitoring—A review. Infrared Phys Technol 60:35–55
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R, Priori S, Proietti N, Rosina E, Ruggeri R, Sansonetti A, Soroldoni L, Valentini M (2011a)
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Eval 69(1):111–116
Bison P, Cadelano G, Grinzato E (2011b) Thermographic signal reconstruction with periodic temper-
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thermal energy demand and saving in industrial buildings: a case study in Slovakia. Building
Environ 67:138–146
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rise buildings using Infrared thermography, In: Proceedings of QIRT2012—11th international
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Lerma J, Cabrelles M, Portalés C (2011) Multitemporal thermal analysis to detect moisture on a
building façade. Construction Building Mater 25(5):2190–2197
Lerma C, Mas Á, Gil E, Vercher J, Peñalver MJ (2014) Pathology of building materials in historic
buildings. Relationship between laboratory testing and infrared thermography. Materiales de
Construcción 64(313):009
6 1 Introduction
Maldague X (1993) Nondestructive evaluation of materials by infrared thermography. Springer-

Verlag, Germany
Maldague X (1994) Nondestructive testing monographs and tracts. Infrared methodology and tech-
nology. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Switzerland
Maldague X (2001) Theory and practice of infrared technology for nondestructive testing. Wiley-
Interscience Publication, USA
Maldague X (2002) Applications of infrared thermography in nondestructive evaluation, Research
Working Paper No. G1K7P4, University of Laval, Electrical and Computing Engineering Depart-
ment, Canada
Menezes A, Gomes MG, Flores-Colen I (2015) In-situ assessment of physical performance and
degradation analysis of rendering walls. Constr Building Mater 75:283–292
Paoletti D, Ambrosini D, Sfarra S, Bisegna F (2013) Preventive thermographic diagnosis of historical
buildings for consolidation. J Cultural Heritage 14:116–121
Rajewski G, Devine G (1996) Building envelope—Infrared thermography—Preventative roof main-
tenance. Building Operator Association, Canada
Rao P (2008) Infrared thermography and its applications to civil engineering. Indian Concrete J
82(5):41–50
Rosina E, Ludwig N (1999) Optimal thermographic procedures for moisture analysis in building
materials. Soc Photographic Instrumentation Eng (SPIE) 3827:22–33
Sfarra S, Ibarra-Castanedo C, Tortorac M, Arrizzac L, Cerichellic G, Nardia I, Maldague X (2016)
Diagnostics of wall paintings: A smart and reliable approach. J Cultural Heritage 18:229–241
Taylor T, Counsell J, Gill S (2013) Energy efficiency is more than skin deep: Improving construction
quality control in new-build housing using thermography. Energy Buildings 66:222–231
Vavilov V (2014) Noise-limited thermal/infrared nondestructive testing. NDT E Int 61:16–23
Chapter 2
Measurement of Surface Temperature
Using Different Devices
2.1 Aim
As reported by several authors (Chew 1998; Hart 2001; Avdelidis and Moropoulou
2003; Barreira and Freitas 2007), there are several parameters that can influence
significantly the measurement of surface temperatures using IRT. For that reason,
this issue is deeply discussed in this chapter, including a comparison between the
values obtained using three different devices (infrared camera, infrared thermometer
and type T thermocouples).
The chapter describes the methodology and the results attained in two experi-
mental campaigns, one in situ (IS) and the other one in laboratory (L). In the in situ
case studies, the surface temperature of various finishing materials on the façades of
a building was measured in different periods of the day and at different distances.
This campaign included four case studies. The second campaign (laboratory) con-
sisted in selecting materials with different emissivity, and exposing them to external
environmental conditions, while measuring their surface temperature.
2.2 Materials and Techniques
During the test campaigns, an infrared camera, an infrared thermometer and type
T thermocouples connected to a data logger were used. Before the measurements
were carried out, calibration procedures were performed according to the operation
manual of each device.
The main technical specifications of the thermographic camera used during the
experimental campaigns (Fig. 2.1a) are presented in Table 2.1. An adequate tripod
(Fig. 2.1b) guaranteed the stabilization of the camera during the tests. Reflection
calibration and ambient and background compensation were assessed before each
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 7

E. Barreira and R. M. S. F Almeida, Infrared Thermography for Building Moisture
Inspection, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75386-7_2
8 2 Measurement of Surface Temperature Using Different Devices
Fig. 2.1 a Infrared camera; b position of the camera during the measurements
Table 2.1 Specifications of the infrared camera

Infrared camera
Measuring range −20 to 250 °C
Resolution 0.1 °C
Accuracy ±2 °C or ±2% of reading
Detector Uncooled focal plane array (microbolometer)
Spectral range 7.5–13 μm
Thermal image pixels 320 (H) × 240 (V) pixels
Focusing range 50 cm to infinite
IFOV 1.5 mrad
Table 2.2 Specifications of Infrared thermometer

the infrared thermometer
Measuring range −40–550 °C
Resolution 0.1 °C
Accuracy ±1 °C or ±1% of reading
Spectral range 8–4 μm
Distance to spot size (D:S) 12:1
measurement. The thermograms were treated using specific software, allowing the
analysis, digital processing and archiving of the images captured by the camera.
The infrared thermometer is also a non-contact and non-destructive tool, which
allows the measurement of the surface temperature of a single point on a material.
The technical specifications of the device (Fig. 2.2a, b) can be found in Table 2.2.
A thermocouple is an electrical device that produces a temperature-dependent
voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect. The voltage can be converted into
2.2 Materials and Techniques 9
Fig. 2.2 a Infrared thermometer; b Position of the infrared thermometer during the measurements;
c Data logger and type T thermocouples
temperature. Among the several models available on the market, the type T was
selected for this work as it is a very stable thermocouple with a wide range of
measurement (−200 to 350 °C).
The thermocouples were fixed to the surface of the materials with aluminium tape.
In order to register and acquire the data from the thermocouples, a data logger was
used (Fig. 2.2c). This device can be connected to a computer, and data is analysed
using the data logger software. A 1 s interval was defined for the recording.
Two experimental campaigns, one in situ (IS) and the other in the laboratory (L),
were implemented in order to compare the values measured by the different devices.
The ambient conditions were varied throughout the tests as the measurements were
made at different distances to the target (3, 9 and 15 m for IS and 3, 6 and 9 m
for L) and in periods of the day with different luminosity, namely: (i)—direct solar
radiation; (ii)—after sunset and (iii)—during night-time.
The first step of the procedure was defining the distances at which the thermograms
were to be taken and marking the exact spot on the pavement. The thermocouples were
then fixed to the surface and connected to the computer to begin data acquisition.
Afterwards, the thermograms were taken at the desired distances, and finally, the
infrared thermometer was used to measure the temperatures at different points.
It should be noted that with the infrared thermometer five temperature measure-
ments were carried out and then the average value was calculated. Regarding the
thermocouples, the data acquisition only ended when the measurement with the
other two devices was completed, and at the end, the values were also averaged. The
duration of the entire procedure was always less than 5 min.
In the in situ campaign, the surface temperature of three materials, with differ-
ent emissivity, present on the façades of a building was measured. This campaign
included four case studies (Fig. 2.3):
Fig. 2.3 Photograph of the case studies, including the location of the measuring points: a case
study #01_IS; b case study #02_IS; c case study #03_IS; d1 case study #04_IS; d2 angles between
the infrared camera and the target in case study #04_IS
• Case study #01_IS, where location “1” was on green lacquered aluminium, location
“2” was on a projected coating mortar, and location “3” was on marble stone.
• Case study #02_IS, where location “1” was on a projected coating mortar, location
“2” was on a metallic panel coated with white paint, and location “3” was on a
galvanized steel downspout.
• Case study #03_IS, where location “1” was on a steel gate with rough surface,
location “2” was on a white painted wall, and location “3” was on a concrete wall.
• Case study #04_IS was the last in situ example, and its geometry allowed including
another parameter in the sensitivity analysis: the angle between the infrared camera
and the target. The following three materials were evaluated in this case study:
“1” for granite stone, “2” for a galvanized steel downspout and “3” for a white
painted wall. Regarding the angle between the camera and the target, two values
were tested, α1 and α2, as presented in Fig. 2.3d2.
Table 2.3 shows the input parameters used in the analysis of the thermal images,
including the materials emissivity, the reflected temperature and the air temperature
and relative humidity.
The laboratory campaign (L) consisted in selecting a group a commonly used con-
struction materials, with different emissivity values, and exposing them to external
environment conditions, while measuring their surface temperature. The specimens
were placed against a wall ensuring that the incident solar radiation was identical
and there were no reflections from nearby obstacles. The materials were grouped
according to the following criteria:
Table 2.3 Emissivity, reflected temperature, air temperature and relative humidity for all in situ case studies
ε Reflected temperature (°C) Air temperature (°C) Relative humidity (%)
(i) (ii) (iii) (i) (ii) (iii) (i) (ii) (iii)
#01_IS 1 0.92 21.7 14.8 13.1 16.8 20.2 17.1 44.1 32.5 42.9
2 0.87
3 0.93
#02_IS 1 0.87 23.0 5.8 4.5 19.4 22.1 16.8 52.2 35.3 71.0
2 0.92
3 0.28
#03_IS 1 0.96 25.0 16.9 13.4 22.1 21.0 16.8 35.9 41.6 69.9
2 0.92
3 0.93
#04_IS 1 0.85 34.2* 19.2* 15.8* 22.9* 23.6* 19.5* 40.1* 35.5* 46.1*
32.9# 14.5# 12.8# 22.7# 23.6# 19.4# 39.8# 35.4# 45.9#
2 0.28
3 0.92
ε—Emissivity
(i)—Direct solar radiation; (ii)—after sunset; (iii)—during night-time
* —Case study #04_IS (Fig. 2.3d2): α1
# —Case study #04_IS (Fig. 2.3d2): α2
11
(a)
#01_L #02_L #03_L

#04_L
(b) (c) (d) (e)
Fig. 2.4 Layout of the laboratory case study and location of the measuring points: a general view;
b case study #01_L; c case study #02_L; d case study #03_L; e case study #04_L
• Case study #01_L consisted of three materials with low emissivity, “1” for a zinc
plate, “2” for extruded polystyrene (XPS) and “3” for cork.
• Case study #02_L consisted of two ceramic tiles with different colours, “1” for an
orange tile and “2” for a grey tile.
• Case study #03_L consisted of three types of wood, “1” for plywood, “2” for pine
and “3” for beech.
• Case study #04_L: Three colours of a plastic paint were evaluated: “1” corre-
sponding to yellow, “2” to green and “3” to blue.
Figure 2.4 shows the photographs of the four case studies of the laboratory cam-
paign, including the exact location of the measuring points. Table 2.4 shows the
environmental parameters used in the analysis of the thermal images and the emis-
sivity values adopted for the materials.
The thermal images presented in this chapter were all obtained assuming a con-
stant value of emissivity (ε 0.90), for homogeneity purposes and to facilitate their
comparison. Afterwards, in the image processing and analysis required to the deter-
mination of the surface temperature, the emissivity of each material was introduced
as input. The values of emissivity were obtained in the literature, such as Gaussorgues
(1999), Hart (2001) and Omega (2002).
Table 2.4 Emissivity, reflected temperature, air temperature and relative humidity for all laboratory case studies
ε Reflected temperature (°C) Air temperature (°C) Relative humidity (%)
#01_L 1 0.20 4.8 10.8 16.0 19.1 13.0 11.8 52.0 78.3 92.0
2 0.60
3 0.70
#02_L 1 0.93
2 0.93
#03_L 1 0.83
2 0.90
3 0.94
#04_L 1 0.93
2 0.92
3 0.94
ε—Emissivity
(i)—Direct solar radiation; (ii)—after sunset; (iii)—during night-time
13
Fig. 2.5 Thermograms for case study #01_IS in the three periods of the day
2.3 Results of the In Situ Case Study
2.3.1 Case Study #01_IS
In Fig. 2.5, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained throughout

the test. In order to facilitate the interpretation and comparison of the thermal images,
the same temperature scale was adopted for the entire data set.
Table 2.5 shows the results of the measurements carried out with the three devices,
in the three periods of the day. The relative differences to the value measured by the
thermocouple, assumed as the reference temperature, are also included in the table. To
facilitate the interpretation of the differences, a colour scale (gradation) was included:
blue for negative differences, white for null and red for positive differences.
Generally, the results show that there is no great difference between measure-
ments made by the three devices. Even the effect of solar radiation did not prove to
be very important, although the measurements made at 1:00 pm, with direct solar
radiation, pointed out to slightly larger differences. The distance to the target was
not an important factor as no clear relation was identified between this parameter
and the relative differences between devices.
2.3 Results of the In Situ Case Study 15
Table 2.5 Temperature results in case study #01_IS

1 2 3
Device
Thermocouple [°C] 22.7 20.1 17.2 27.8 20.3 18.1 25.3 18.7 17.7
Infrared thermometer [°C] 23.3 20.0 17.3 27.3 19.6 17.1 26.3 18.5 16.9
Thermogram at 3 m [°C] 22.2 19.9 17.7 26.7 19.8 17.8 24.1 18.3 17.1
Thermogram at 9 m [°C] 22.5 19.5 17.9 27.3 19.6 17.3 24.6 18.1 17.3
Thermogram at 15 m [°C] 22.3 20.0 17.9 27.3 19.6 17.2 24.2 18.4 17.3
Differences
Infrared thermometer vs. thermocouple [°C]
0.6 -0.1 0.1 -0.5 -0.7 -1.0 1.0 -0.2 -0.8
Thermogram vs.thermocouple [°C]
3m 0.5 0.2 -0.5 1.1 0.5 0.3 1.2 0.4 0.6
9m 0.2 0.6 -0.7 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.4
15m 0.4 0.1 -0.7 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.3 0.4
Infrared thermometer vs. thermogram [°C]
3m 1.1 0.1 -0.4 0.6 -0.2 -0.7 2.2 0.2 -0.2
9m 0.8 0.5 -0.6 0.0 0.0 -0.2 1.7 0.4 -0.4
15 m 1.0 0.0 -0.6 0.0 0.0 -0.1 2.1 0.1 -0.4
In Fig. 2.6, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained throughout

the test. Once again, in order to facilitate the interpretation and comparison of the
thermal images, the same temperature scale was adopted for the entire data set.
in the three periods of the day, including the relative differences. To facilitate the
interpretation of the results, the same colour scale used in case study #01_IS is
applied once again.
Observing the results, the discrepancy of values obtained for point “3” is the most
relevant finding. In fact, the measurements made with the IR camera are not very
accurate. The high reflectance of this material, meaning that it is highly influenced by
reflections, is the most likely reason to explain these results. The differences between
the thermocouple and the infrared thermometer are relatively small, whichever the
period of measurement. Once again, the distance to the target was not a relevant
factor to explain the differences.
Fig. 2.6 Thermograms for case study #02_IS in the three periods of the day
Figure 2.7 shows the sequence of thermograms obtained throughout the test. In this
case study, it was impossible to use the same temperature scale due to the high surface
temperatures recorded in situation (i)—direct solar radiation. A different scale was
thus used only for this period. The results of the measurements carried out with the
three test devices, for the three periods of the day, as well as the relative differences
between them, are displayed in Table 2.7.
The largest differences occur when the points are under direct solar radiation—
scenario (i)—while in the other two periods the relative difference between devices
is always below 2 °C. These results point out to the importance of, when quantitative
thermography is intended, avoiding situations where radiation can be an important
factor and thus bias the results. One should also stress the very good agreement
between the infrared thermometer and thermograms after the sunset and at the night-
time. As in the previous case studies, the distance to the target did not affect the
accuracy of the measurements with the infrared camera.
2.3 Results of the In Situ Case Study 17

1 2 3
Device
Thermocouple [°C] 31.3 21.7 18.6 30.7 20.9 17.9 36.8 21.1 17.1
Thermogram at 3 m [°C] 32.6 22.3 18.2 30.5 21.3 17.7 59.2 50.8 40.8
Thermogram at 9 m [°C] 32.5 22.3 18.0 30.3 21.3 17.6 57.8 50.5 40.8
Thermogram at 15 m [°C] 32.6 22.1 18.0 29.9 21.2 17.8 56.6 50.3 41.3
Differences
1.6 -1.0 -1.1 1.8 -0.3 -0.2 -1.3 -0.5 -0.4
3m -1.3 -0.6 0.4 0.2 -0.4 0.2 -22.4 -29.7 -23.7
9m -1.2 -0.6 0.6 0.4 -0.4 0.3 -21.0 -29.4 -23.7
15 m -1.3 -0.4 0.6 0.8 -0.3 0.1 -19.8 -29.2 -24.2
3m 0.3 -1.6 -0.7 2.0 -0.7 0.0 -23.7 -30.2 -24.1
9m 0.4 -1.6 -0.5 2.2 -0.7 0.1 -22.3 -29.9 -24.1
15 m 0.3 -1.4 -0.5 2.6 -0.6 -0.1 -21.1 -29.7 -24.6
Figures 2.8 and 2.9 depict the sequence of thermograms obtained throughout the
test. The sequence of thermograms presented for both test angles is on the same
temperature scale. Table 2.8 shows the results of the measurements carried out with
the three devices, in the three periods of the day and for the two angles between the
IR camera and the target, including the relative differences.
The inaccuracy in the measurement of the surface temperature of metallic elements
with the IR camera is once again evident as the relative differences in point “2”
are always higher than 6 °C, reaching 18 °C under direct solar radiation and for
α1. Regarding the angle between the IR camera and the target, the first angle, α1,
presented a better performance after the sunset and during night-time, while the
opposite situation occurred when the specimen was under direct solar radiation.
This situation confirms, once more, the importance of solar radiation in quantitative
thermography. As in the previous examples, no clear trend was identified concerning
the distance to the target.
Fig. 2.7 Thermograms for case study #03_IS in the three periods of the day (temperature scale
only for (ii) and (iii))
2.4 Results of the Laboratory Case Study
2.4.1 Case Study #01_L
In Fig. 2.10, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained through-

out the test. All the thermograms are presented with the same temperature scale.
in the three periods of the day, including the relative differences. To facilitate the
interpretation of the results, a colour scale used is applied once again: blue for neg-
ative differences, white for null and red for positive differences.
The results show that the surface temperature measured by the infrared thermome-
ter and the infrared camera is not accurate for the zinc plate, regardless of the time
of the day and the distance. This is related to reflections, as metallic surfaces have
very high reflectance, which considerably influences the results. Overall, the small-
est differences occurred in the measurements made during night-time. However, the
results reveal that the surface temperature measured under direct solar radiation can
be quite different, even if measured with the same equipment, which was expected
as the materials have different thermal properties.
2.4 Results of the Laboratory Case Study 19

1 2 3
Device
Thermocouple [°C] 50.5 20.6 17.9 46.2 20.8 17.9 35.8 23.8 21.1
Thermogram at 3 m [°C] 53.0 20.6 17.8 45.4 21.2 18.1 36.9 23.9 21.2
Thermogram at 9 m [°C] 53.0 20.4 17.7 45.4 21.2 18.1 36.9 23.9 21.1
Thermogram at 15 m [°C] 53.1 20.5 17.6 45.3 21.2 18.0 37.0 23.6 20.7
Differences
1.6 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.1 1.1 0.3 -0.1
3m -2.5 0.0 0.1 0.8 -0.4 -0.2 -1.1 -0.1 -0.1
9m -2.5 0.2 0.2 0.8 -0.4 -0.2 -1.1 -0.1 0.0
15 m -2.6 0.1 0.3 0.9 -0.4 -0.1 -1.2 0.2 0.4
3m -0.9 0.7 0.6 1.5 0.0 -0.1 0.0 0.2 -0.2
9m -0.9 0.9 0.7 1.5 0.0 -0.1 0.0 0.2 -0.1
15 m -1.0 0.8 0.8 1.6 0.0 0.0 -0.1 0.5 0.3
The distance from the camera to the target also seems to influence the results, gen-
erally decreasing surface temperature. As the distance is less than 10 m, differences
between the measurements were not expected (Chew 1998). One possible reason
derives from the samples being on the ground in a position with a slight bias from
perpendicular.
2.4.2 Case Study #02_L
In Fig. 2.11, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained through-

out the test. All the thermograms are presented with the same temperature scale.
in the three periods of the day, including the relative differences.
The most accurate results were, once again, obtained during night-time, while the
largest differences occurred in period (i)—direct solar radiation. In this case study,
it was also possible to identify a direct relationship between the relative differences
and the distance to the target, regardless of the period of the day. As expected, no
significant differences were attained between the orange and the grey tile. However,
when the measurements are carried out with direct solar radiation, the grey tile
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side of America: It is always hazy, says he, nigh Land, to 20 degr. of
Latitude.
WHYDAH.
This Country is governed by an absolute King, who lives in Negrish
Majesty at a Town called Sabbee, six Miles from the Sea. His Palace
is a dirty, large Bamboo Building, of a Mile or two round, wherein he
keeps near a thousand Women, and divides his time in an indolent
manner, between Eating and Lust; he is fatned to a monstrous Bulk;
never has been out since he became King (nigh twelve years) which
some say, is because a large Dole being due to the People on the
Demise of one, and the Accession and first Appearance of another
new Prince, his Covetousness keeps him within doors: Others, that
there is a Sword wanted (the Emblem of his Power); which should,
but is not yet delivered him, by some grand Fetish-Man beyond
Jaqueen. If any Subjects want Audience, they ring a Bell to give
notice; and if admitted, must prostrate before him, as likewise to his
grand Fetish-Man, or High-Priest, if present. The same Humility and
Subjection is required of Inferiours to rich and powerful Men, without
doors: They prostrate to as many as they meet of these in the Street,
and stir not till a Sign is given to get up; so that the meanest may
sometimes be two or three hours walking the length of the Town.
White People are seldom or never admitted to Presence, but at
the times they pay their Customs; very considerable from
Europeans, who drive here the greatest Slave-Trade of any on the
whole Continent: Besides these Dues, the King augments his
Revenue by a Duty on every thing bought or sold by his People. To
his Women, he gives entirely the Privilege of making and selling a
Beer brewed from Indian Corn, pretty much in use here, called Putto.
The King of Ardra is his potent and warlike Neighbour; a populous
Country, full of large Crooms or Towns, and all of them obsequious
Slaves, who dare not sell or buy any thing without Licence, and both
ways he exacts a Custom. It is by means of this Country that so
great a number of Slaves are brought down to Whydah and sold to
the Europeans naked; the Arse-clouts they had, I fancy, having been
the Plunder of the Populace: for altho’ they are kept strictly under, in
respect to the Great-ones among themselves, they have in
recompence, a thievish, unlicensed Behaviour to others.
Both Sexes squat when they make water, and the Women may
obtain a Palaaver and Fine against any Man, who at such time
should indecently discover his Privities.
Travelling is in [27]Hammocks, called here Serpentines; they are
with Curtains to draw round, against Heat or Flies, slung cross a
Pole and bore up at each end by a Negro, two others attending in
the Journey, to relieve alternately: The Heat makes it dangerous for
Englishmen to travel without them, and they are hired at six Shillings
a day.
Provisions are plentiful above any place on the whole Coast, but
neither very cheap nor large. A Cow of 300lib. weight is reckoned a
fine Beast, and will sell for two grand Quibesses; a Calf of 80lib.
weight for one grand Quibess; a Sheep of 12lib. for eight Gallinas;
Fowls, five for a Crown; a Dozen Wild-fowl, or a Hog, for the same
Money: but it’s convenient on this Voyage always to provide Cowrys
or Booges (little Indian Shells, called in England Blackamoors Teeth,
bought at 1s. and sold here at 2s. 6d. per lib.) as the readiest for this
sort of Traffick. Coin is the dearest way of buying, at distance from
Europe.
Whydah Currency.
40 Cowrys make a Toccy.
Toccys ——
5 Gallina.
a
Grand Quibess, which answers to 25
20 Gallinas —— a
Shillings.
Horses, are what I never saw any where else on the Continent.
The most curious of their Customs, and peculiar to this Part, is
their Snake-Worship, which, according to my Intelligence, is as
follows. This Snake, the Object of their Worship, is common in the
Fields, and cherished as a familiar Domestick in their Houses, called
Deyboys; they are yellow, and marbled here and there, have a
narrow Swallow, but dilatable (as all of the Serpent Kind are) to the
thickness of your Arm on feeding. It is the principal Deity or Fetish of
the Country, and brought into more Regularity than others, by the
superiour Cunning of their Fetishers, who have one presiding over
them, called the grand Fetisher, or High-Priest, who is held in equal
Reverence with the King himself; nay, sometimes more, through
gross Superstition and Fear: for they believe an Intercourse with the
Snake, to whom they have dedicated their Service, capacitates them
to stop or promote the Plagues that infest them. He hath the craft by
this means, to humble the King himself on all occasions for their
Service, and to drain both him and the People, in supplying their
Wants. It is Death for a Native to kill one of these Snakes, and
severe Punishments to Europeans. When Rains are wanted at
Seed-time, or dry Weather in Harvest, the People do not stir out after
it is night, for fear of the angry Snake, which, provoked with their
Disobedience, they are taught, will certainly kill them at those times,
if abroad, or render them Ideots.
They have Fetish-Women, or Priestesses, that live separated with
a number of Virgins under their Care, devoted to the Snake’s
Service: I have heard, the rich Cabiceers do often buy the Consent
of these Women to debauch their Pupils; they pretend to the Girls,
they have had some late Correspondence with the Snake, who
intimates the agreeableness of her favouring such or such a Man’s
Addresses; teach her to act Fits and Distortions at the sight of him,
to enhance the Price, and that for this Compliance, she shall be
amply rewarded in the Snakes Country, far pleasanter than this she
breaths in, and he then more amiable, having here put on his worst
Shape, that Obedience might have the more Merit. A Discovery in
the Girl would be certain Death, and none would believe; or if they
did, would dare openly to assert such Murder against the Assertion
of the Fetish-Men or Women.
It is probable that King Solomon’s Navy of Tharshish (1 Kings Ch.
x.) did coast from Ezion Geber (the bottom of the red Sea) round
Cape Bon Esperance [28]to Sofalu, by some thought Ophir; and if so,
why not to the Gold-Coast? or that King Hiram’s Navy from Tyre,
might on the North and Western side together have encompassed
this Continent; tho’ afterwards, on the destruction of each State, the
Navigation might be lost with the Trade. This is probable, I say, from
the length of the Voyage (three years) no unreasonable time in the
infancy of Sailing, Ignorance of the Compass, and dilatory Methods
of Trading in Fleets, and in their Returns, Gold, Ivory, and Apes. The
Peacocks mentioned in this Text, might possibly be the Crown-Birds;
beautiful, of the same bigness, and a greater Rarity. One of them we
had from Gambia (a Present to the Duke of Chandois) had a fine
Tuft of stiff speckled Feathers on the Head; the Wings, red, yellow,
white and black, with a black Down on the fore-part of it’s Head.
Granting this, whether or no it’s too foreign to imagine, some
traditional Story might be derived from them concerning the old
Serpent, the Deceiver of Mankind? or that fiery one lifted up by
Moses in the Wilderness? Gordon in his Geography, p. 327, says,
the Mosaical Law was once introduced into some parts of Negro-
land, strengthned by the Affinity of some Names and Customs they
retain with the Jews, particularly Circumcision, practised at most, if
not all parts of the Coast. Bosman on this, says even Girls have their
Clitoris stripp’d. The Ægyptians (on this their own Continent,) were
the first we read of that circumcised, from whom Abraham borrowed
it, and the Patriarchs Posterity might as well have transmitted the
use of it with their Trade, to this opposite side of Africa; the only
Objections are, the easier Method of borrowing it from the Mallays,
black Turks that inhabit about the middle of Africa, with whom they
communicate by Trade; and because the Practice here, like as with
the Mahometans, is not taken up of Precept, but Tradition. Be it how
it will, they are found tenacious of their Customs and Opinions: A
Woman, from whose greater Flexibility and Subjection as a Consa to
any European, might be expected a Change, never relinquishing her
Country-Gods, tho’ she had cohabited for years, as has been
frequently tried at our Factories.
Others think this Snake-Worship might be taken up as of old the
Ægyptians did their Ox and Cow, their Crocodile and Cat, &c. They
had some moral Reason, tho’ overwhelmed in Fable and ridiculous
Superstition. The Ox and Cow were Emblems of Tillage, taught to
them by Osiris and Isis, whom they feigned changed into those
Creatures, and in that form worshipped them.
The Crocodile and Cat preyed upon those Reptiles that devoured
the Fruits of their Husbandry, like as these very Snakes are said to
kill the black and poisonous sort, and to destroy various Species of
Vermin, injurious to their Fields and Grain.
We bear (far from Egypt) a Reverence to many Creatures, Beasts
and Birds; eat some, and cherish others; I believe, often on no other
Foundation than Heathen Fable. The Fetish is this Reverence
improved, and if we laugh at [29]Sambo for inflicting Fine or Death on
whoever hurts or kills the Snake, may not he in his turn, as justly
laugh to hear that in some Countries it is Death to steal a Sheep, a
Horse, &c. or Penalties to kill Pidgeons, Wild-fowl, &c. tho’ never so
much in want of them: For it is all according to the Fashion of the
Country, and doubtless proceeds from a profound Veneration to
those Creatures.
Many and ridiculous are the Stories formed upon the Foundation
of the Snake, over-acted to the Prejudice of Beliefs, which in
unletter’d Countries should be short, and have the Design and
Import of Laws; such Laws as in their nature are best fitted to awe or
persuade Men into the Practice of what is good: but here they are
multiplied with silly Circumstances, or stretch beyond Memory, and
spoil their Use; for which reason, I am firmly of opinion the Snake-
Worship will never endanger our Factories, or propagate far, it has
made such Rogues of them.
Besides the Snake, they have two other principal Deities, and
other small Fetishes. The former are their Groves, and the high Sea;
addressing either upon the Peculiarity, I suppose, of their Affairs, or
rather, these Groves are consecrated to the Snake, most of them
having a square Tower built in a retired part of it, to which they carry
Dashees, and Presents. There is one in this Neighbourhood pre-
eminent to all in the Country, and to which the Prince and People
annually make rich Offerings.
Their smaller Fetishes, like as at other parts, are numberless, and
for smaller Concerns made of Stone, Bone, Wood, or Earth; but
herein they differ from others, that this small Fetish is the first thing
they see, after they are determined upon some Affair or Business,
and sometimes determines them to that Affair, whence it is taken up
and invoked: If the Business ends luckily, it is lain by in honour to the
chief Idol, and dasheed now and then; but if not, they throw it away.
I should have done now with Whydah, but the surprizing
Revolution brought about here in 1727, by the victorious King of
Dauhomay, turning things topsy turvy, and entirely destroying our
Slave-Trade, deserves some Remarks.
This Prince was probably incited to the Conquest from the
generous Motive of redeeming his own, and the neighbouring
Country People from those cruel Wars, and Slavery that was
continually imposed on them by these Snakes and the King of Ardra;
each helped the other to propagate the Mischief far and wide, and
differ’d between themselves, only in sharing the Booty. That this
spurred on their Catastrophe, I think, First, Because it is agreeable to
Capt. Snelgrave’s Character of that King, a Gentleman well
acquainted with that part of Guinea, and who has given the latest
Account of those People: He says in that Tract, he made a Journey
in company with some of the English Factory to the Camp of the
King of Dauhomay (40 or 50 miles up the Country,) and informs us,
“that in the Conversation and Business he had to transact, he had
experienced him just and generous; in his Manners, nothing
barbarous, but contrarily, the most extraordinary Man of his Colour.”
The natural Consequence from such Qualities in a Prince, being, I
think, to extend them towards all that are oppressed, and against
those in particular, his Resentments were fired: First, on account of
their publick Robberies, and Man-stealing, even to his Dominions;
and Secondly, That Contempt the King of Whydah had expressed
towards him, saying publickly, “that if the King of Dauhomay should
invade him, he would not cut off his Head (the Custom of
Conquerors) but keep him alive, to serve in the vilest Offices:” a
Specimen both of his Vanity and Courage, which he had soon after
Occasion to try; and then instead of the haughty Revenge he
purposed, dastardly deserted his Kingdom, he and the Subjects of
Ardra becoming in a few days miserable Fugitives.
2. The King of Dauhomay at this Interview with Captain Snelgrave,
which was after the Conquest of Ardra and Whydah, agrees with him
in the Character of these Enemies: “That they were Villains to both
white and black People, and therefore had been punished by his
hands;” a Text that ought to have been regarded more heedfully by
the Factory than it was: For what were they Villains more than others
of the Colour, unless for this illegal and unjust Trade? And if he
himself declared his Victories in punishment of their Crimes, what
might not they expect in their turn, who differed only as the
Pawnbroker and the Thief? Mr. Testesole, the Company’s
Governour, we find when Opportunity presented, was seized by
them, and cruelly sacrificed: “The Crime alledged being, that he had
used the Dahomes on all Occasions in his power, very ill, on account
of the bad Trade they had occasioned:” and afterwards they went on,
surprized and plundered all the European Merchants at Jaqueen,
finishing in that, the Destruction of the Slave-trade, the little
remaining being now at Appah, a place beyond the bounds of his
Conquest. Yet in all this, could we separate our Idea of the Sufferers,
and the temporary Views of Traders; the King’s Actions carry great
Reputation, for by the destruction of this Trade, he relinquished his
own private Interests for the sake of publick Justice and Humanity.
Lastly, that this destruction of the Trade was designed in the King
of Dauhomay’s Conquest, seems confirmed by Captain Bulfinch
Lamb’s Proposal from him to our Court.
This Gentleman, on some Business of the Factory, was at Ardra
when the Dahomes came down upon them, was made a Prisoner,
detained near four years with the Emperor, and came to England at
last by his Permission or rather Direction, having given him 320
Ounces of Gold, and 80 Slaves to bear his Charges. In his Scheme
of Trade, said to be proposed from that Emperor and laid before our
Commissioners of Trade, some of the Articles run thus;——That the
Natives would sell themselves to us, on condition of not being
carried off.——That we might settle Plantations, &c. a Foundation
quite foreign to the former Slave-trade, and carried no Temptation
but the empty one of Instruction and Conversion, which he himself
might have laid down there, and had given some room to expect,
agreeably to the Judgment he made of the King’s Sentiments, and
his own view of getting away; an additional Honour to the King in this
way of thinking indeed; “but the Inconsistency made it unsuccessful,”
and Captain Lamb, tho’ under a solemn Promise to return, never
gave any Account of his Embassy to that Prince.
Captain Snelgrave’s Account leads me still a little farther, on his
suggesting these conquering Dahomes to be Men-eaters; I beg an
Animadversion or two on that Head.—Common Report has settled
Cannibals at several parts of Africa. Dapper in the Geographical
Atlas says, the Ausicans or Gales in Æthiopia, and many of the
Natives of Quiloa, Melinda, and Mombaza, on the East side of Africa
are such, and that human Flesh is sold in the Shambles. Gordon, in
his Geographical Grammar, conveys it modestly as a Report, that
the Kingdom of Loango in South-Africa has many Cannibals, and
that human Flesh in several places is sold publickly in the Shambles,
as we do Beef and Mutton. That the Caffres, (tho’ abounding with
Provisions) also are such, and will eat even nasty Hottentots their
Neighbours; who tho’ accounted the most brutish People upon the
Globe in their Manners and Feeding, are at the same time excused
by all Travellers so inhuman a Custom. Bosman reports the same of
Drewin. The Observation I shall make on these and the like Stories I
have heard from other parts of the World, is their being reported of
Countries remote from our Correspondence, abounding with
Provisions, by Persons who never were in the Places they relate
their Wonders; or where they have, their Testimony is on hear-say, or
their Reasons inconclusive, and against later Experience. I am
prejudiced indeed against the Opinion of Cannibals, and very much
doubt whether there be any such Men on the face of the Earth,
unless when provoked by Famine, as has unfortunately happened in
Voyages: Or possibly with Savages, single Instances may have
been, as their way to express an intense Malice against a particular
Enemy, and in terrorem; or to cement with a Bond of Secrecy some
very wicked Societies of Men: but that there should be a common
Practice of it, Nations of Men-eaters, to me looks at present
impossible. Captain Snelgrave’s being the newest Account of this
Affair, and on his own personal Knowledge, I shall amuse the
Reader with a short Extract from him, and then my Objections.
“This Gentleman, by an Invitation from the King of Dahome or
Dauhomay, went in company with some other of the Factory from
Jaqueen, to pay him a Visit at his Camp, 40 miles inland; there he
was an Eye-witness of their human Sacrifices, Captives from the
Kingdoms of Ardra, Whydah, Tuffoe, and other Conquests: the King
chose them out himself. The first Victim I saw, says he, was a well-
looking Man, of 50 or 60, his Hands tied, he stood upright by a Stage
five foot from the Ground. The Fetisher or Priest laying his Hand on
the Head, said some Words of Consecration for about two Minutes;
then giving the Sign, one behind with a broad Sword hit on the Nape
of his Neck, and carried off the Head at one Blow, the Rabble giving
a Shout. Others of these Captives he made his Servants, or sold for
Slaves.——”
The Story thus far is not over-marvellous; whether the Sacrifices
be considered as a Thanksgiving to their Fetish, or God (as an
Acknowledgment, he was told) or an Honour to the Manes of his
deceased Heroes, because such Practice is supported both by
Scripture and History. The Captives in War under the Jewish Law,
which fell to the Lord’s Share, were to be slain (Levit. xxvii. v. 28, 29.)
and the Custom of many Pagan Countries has been, and still
continues in many parts of the World to this day (if we may credit
History or Travellers) to attend the Obsequies of their Princes and
great Men with human Sacrifices, particularly at some other Parts of
Guinea. The Emperor of Feton’s Funeral (Miscell. Curiosa, Vol. 3. p.
356.) was accompanied with a great number, and remarkably
barbarous. Montezuma, (Antonio Solis says,) sacrificed 20000
Enemies a year. The present Dahomes follow it from political
Principles, to awe the Conquered, and secure the Conquest; for the
captive King was always one, and next him the Men of Experience
and Influence, such as already had, or were most likely to disturb his
future Peace; answering more justly than that Argument à posteriori,
of the Bow-string or Halter, when Men rise for the Recovery of a lost
Country, &c.
Contending Princes do to this day frequently sacrifice with less
honourable Views, if we may credit Captain Gulliver, who says, one
King has lost his Life, another the Crown, only in a Contest about the
primitive way of breaking Eggs.
I say this is not so over-marvellous; but when we come to the
Carcases of these Men, how the Dahomes had made a Festival of
their Flesh in the night, it swells to Incredibility. “Captain Snelgrave
was not an Eye-witness of this indeed; he says, the Bodies lay a little
while on the ground to drain the Blood, and then were carried by
Slaves to a place nigh the Camp, and laid in a Heap; he saw two of
these Heaps over night, containing he judged about 400, who had
been chose out by the King that Morning, for Sacrifice. On the next
Morning they were gone, and asking the Linguist what had become
of them, he answered, the Vulturs (ravenous Birds very plentiful in
the Country) had eaten them. Not satisfied with this Answer, (seeing
nothing remain but Blood) we asked for the Bones, and then he
confessed, the Priest had divided the Carcases among the People in
the night, who had boiled and feasted on them, as holy Food; the
Head is for the King, (continues the Linguist) the Blood for the
Fetish, and the Body for the common People.”
I make no doubt of the truth of this Relation, and yet think the
Circumstances not conclusive enough, to charge the Dahomes as
Anthropophagites.
1. Because the truth depends too much on the Linguist, (Butteno,
a Negro of Mr. Lamb’s, brought up at the Factory) how well he knew
to render the Language to our Ideas: and to his Veracity and his
Courage. He might think with his Country-men that it was their best
Excuse to the white People, for that cowardly and ignominious Flight
of Thousands from 200 of the Dahomes at Sabbee (the Whydah’s
head City) where, instead of eating them, they pretended a Fright of
being eat, and with the King, took precipitately to their heels,
deserting in a shameful manner their Country: and makes something
like the Story of our Saracens Heads of old; when the English had
been threshed heartily for their silly Croisade, they represented their
Adversaries thus large, to insinuate none but Monsters or Devils
could have done it. However the Linguist tells his Masters first, that
the Vulturs had eaten those Bodies, but perceiving them diffident of
this, and prone to another Persuasion (which, by the way, is some
excuse for him) he tells them frankly, that the People had eaten them
in the night, &c. The Bones, which were wanting, and that had drawn
this Secret from him, are to me a Confirmation that they were buried.
Otherways, as these Cormorants could not chew or digest them,
they should have been found strewed somewhere, as the Roads
were in his Journey: The Fellow might also in his turn propose some
advantage in this Belief; for Captain Snelgrave tells us, he met with
great Impositions and Cheats at his return to Jaqueen, by the Lord
there, and others in Trade, notwithstanding the kind Reception he
had met with at Camp, and that King’s Charge to the contrary.
2. A Portuguese who resided there, that spoke their Language,
and which is very remarkable, had married a woolly white Woman
born of black Parents, who had never seen any other Colour: this
Gentleman talked highly of the King’s Policy and Generosity, that his
Sacrifices were a Proof of it; that he was just, strictly obeyed, and
never eat any human Flesh. If so, according to my way of thinking,
he would hinder so barbarous a Custom in others his Subjects; or it
would be a Contradiction to his Character, a Sufferance being the
same, as doing it himself.
3. If the Sacrifices were designed for eating, one would think they
should have been all young People, not thrown in a Heap, which is
an Objection to their spending well; and now and then I should have
expected they would have been prompted by Novelty to have tasted
a white Man: but it is the King’s Character of being far from
barbarous, and of delicate Wit and Policy: Lamb lived three years
and a half with them, and never was eat.
4. If Men were thus eat, and liked by a Nation, there would be less
occasion and Inclination to sell them us for Slaves; they at least must
lose a Breakfast by it now and then; and it would fall heavier on such
Captives they had made their Servants, (for some were made so at
the same time the others were sacrificed) who I am in some doubt
whether they would wait tamely for the turn of having their Throats
cut. This Man-Eating therefore probably might be an Imposition on
the Credulity of the Whites; as the Persuasion amongst some of
them is, that they are bought by us to fat and eat: the Belief in my
opinion is equally grounded. Theirs (if any) is better; for the next
Cruelty to buying human Flesh, one would naturally think, should be
to eat it; especially with Negroes, who cannot conceive how their
Labour can be used, that want so little for their own support.
5. Some Places reported on the Coast to be Men-Eaters are by
latest Accounts much doubted, if not contradicted. At Loango they
are found with better Manners, and mixed with Portuguese. At Cape
St. Mary’s, the Starboard Entrance of the River Gambia, generally
said to be Men-Eaters, were found by our Boat’s Crew as civilized as
any People on the whole Coast, tho’ their Number exposed them an
easy Prey. To this we may add, that all Negroland, by the
Observations I could make, are very abstemious of Flesh in
comparison of us; they have very few tame Creatures (Kid, Sheep,
Kine, &c.) among them; their Country is mostly Woods cleared away
a little at their Cooms, to sow as much Indian Corn and Rice as they
imagine will serve them; which, with Banana’s, Plantanes, Palm-
Nuts, Pine-Apples, and now and then a little stinking Fish, or a Fowl,
is the chief of their Diet.
6. As Slave-Cargoes are a Compound of different Nations, it is
more than probable they are mixed from these Men-eating
Countries; and therefore on their rising and murdering a Ship’s
Company, they would have shewn us e’er now a Precedent,
especially those who believed we were to eat them.
7. Men in this horrid Practice would, with the distinguishing
Characteristick of Reason about them, be more brutish than any part
of the Creation; no Creatures of the greatest Ferocity preying upon
their own Species.
8. If such Custom were taken up to intimidate their Neighbours,
and facilitate Conquests, the Practice should be more publick; not in
the Night, but Day, and openly: Custom in any People familiarizing
all Barbarities, and more so, when an Interest is proposed.
Therfore, lastly, the strongest Proof produced for it is, that one Mr.
More saw human Flesh sold at Dahome’s Market-place.
If the Person mentioned does not mean human Flesh alive, and in
way of Trade, yet without a good interior Sight, he might mistake it
for that of Monkeys, there being an awkard Resemblance to the
Moorish Race, in the Hands and Phiz; and I have given one Example
purposely, among many (at the beginning of this Chapter) to shew
they are a common Diet at some places; our Sailors frequently eat
them. What inclines me more to this Opinion is, First, the Force of
Pre-possession and Fear, which many Readers may experience in
their own Constitution. Second, That I never saw a Flesh-Market of
any sort, tho’ I have been on shore at many places on the Coast of
Guinea, not even among the English, the most carnivorous in the
World; but when they do kill, lend it out. Thirdly, What is my greatest
Objection, is, that the Captain should bring another to assert what he
might have done himself, since he was at Dahome’s Camp, (the
same place,) and more inquisitive and discerning; unless this Market
was kept one Voyage, and not another.
I have bestowed these Objections, purely in respect to the King of
Dahomay, whom, tho’ I never saw, nor expect to be advanced in his
Court, I have a natural Propensity to wish well, since he has
redeemed his Country-Men from being sold as Slaves. I would feign,
after such an Action, excuse them from being Men-eaters; a Charge
full as bad for the People, a jumping out of the Frying-pan into the
Fire. Their Guilt herein is less likely, because it happens that this
conquered Country abounds more with Neat Cattle, than all other
parts of the Coast.
Currents on the Coast of G U I N E A .
The incomparable Sir Isaac Newton solves all the Phænomena of
the Tides upon the sole Principle of Gravity. The Earth, Sun, Moon,
and all the celestial Bodies, says he, have a Gravitation towards their
Centers, in proportion to the quantitys of Matter in each of them. Our
Earth being within the Activity of the Sun and Moon’s Attractions; the
fluid part of this Globe, the Ocean, feels it, and necessarily swells:
and this, by taking off or abating the force of Gravity, wherever the
Moon is perpendicular in the Ecliptick; whereby the greater Pressure
of Gravity without, carries the Water thitherward, &c. (See the Theory
of the Tides, Philos. Transact.) Currents seem to be the same thing
(at least on this Coast) and on the same Principle I shall lay down
the Facts, and then draw the Conclusions.
The Rivers of Gambia, Sierraleon, Gabon, the Straits and
Channels of Benin, and thro’ the whole Coast, the flowings are
regular on the Shores, with this difference, that in Rivers or Channels
where two Shores contract the Waters into a narrow Compass, the
Tides are strong and high, as well as regular; but on the dead Coast,
slow and low, not to above two or three foot, increasing as you
advance towards the Bay and Channels of Benin; and this is farther
evident at Cape Corso, Succonda, Commenda, and other places: for
wherever the Land rounds and cheques, the Flowings there will be a
Foot or two more than on an evener Coast, tho’ next adjoining.
The Currents here set sometimes two knots an hour along Shore,
sometimes with, sometimes against the Wind; tho’ generally to
Leeward; sometimes off, sometimes on, ripling like a Tide, at other
times a smooth unmoved Surface for days together, and never felt,
or imperceptible at 8 or 10 Leagues Offing.
The Currents set in on both Shores, to the Bay of Benin; from the
Southward, about and beyond Cape Lopez; and from the Westward
along the Papau Coast, that is, to Leeward; for the Winds are as
commonly deflected along Shore, as the Currents. This all Ships
experience in their Passage to Angola, if they hold the Land on
board, or if they endeavour getting Westward on the Papau or Gold
Coast.
The reason of this Diversity, I imagine, proceeds from the
Formation of the Land, together with the Weather, and the Winds.
The Land being on a strait Line, without Gulphs or Bays, unless
that remarkably large one of Benin and Callabar, the Flux of the Sea,
when it comes to be bounded by the Shores, have a natural
Tendency there, seen in growing stronger as they advance towards it
on both sides; because such Gulphs, in a Contraction of the Waters,
bear some Resemblance to Channels, which every where in
proportion to their Breadth and Depth, and the Sea they stand open
with, have more or less Current or Tide along their Shores inward;
assisted partly by the Winds, which, as I have observed, are
deflected, and tend also on both sides towards the Bay; and partly,
by the Weather; clear and hot Sunshines drawing more Vapours
from the Seas next Shores in all places, (and especially in Bays with
Shoals) to be expended in Exhalations, Mists, Fogs, and Rains; the
Rains again may, by being incessant for a Month or six Weeks, and
in a Rotation upon different parts of the Coast, contribute to some
little diversity of Strength.
Another reason of Currents tending mostly to Leeward here, is the
Flood being propagated from a vast Southern Ocean, takes it’s
Course along Shore; but the Ebbs revert easily and equally from all
parts to the Ocean, and therefore make so little an Alteration of the
Stream, as is seldom and scarcely felt at a very little distance from it.
The most that we found was open with this Bite of Benin. We left
Whydah the latter end of July, where tho’ the Currents in the Road
were very strong to Leeward, and the Winds altogether S. W. yet we
found we could with ease have weathered any of the Islands; which
would have been impossible, had the same Current in the Road
extended across the whole Bay; nay, our getting so far to the
Southward (i. e. Windward) will be very difficult to account for, unless
the Waters received into this Bay by those Currents are allowed to
reverberate in the middle Space, tho’ insensibly, towards the main
Ocean.
From these light Observations, I think it may be concluded, First,
that in all Places, Currents and Tides have a very great affinity. That
it is principally the Formation of the Lands drives them into the one
or the other; if contracted between two Shores so as to form a
Channel, the diurnal Elevation of the Ocean, by the Attraction of the
Moon, will make there a Tide, rapid in proportion to it’s Breadth,
Depth, and Sea it is open to: And if an open Coast, as Guinea, those
Tides become Currents. This agrees with the Voyages I have met to
those Parts, and particularly the sixth general one set forth by the
India Company of that Channel, made by the Eastern side of the
Continent, and the Island of Madagascar; for being too deep and
broad for the Direction of a Tide, there are Northern and Southern
Currents, as the elevated Sea rowls round the North or South end of
the Island: and which is still more agreeable, they are strongest
where the Channel is narrowest, and less, and vary on different
Points of the Compass, as the Sea spreads more in the Passage
cross the Line.
2. That all Currents and Tides are found only on Shores, and
indiscernible at 10 Leagues distance from a Coast, or the Mouth of
any Channel; are also variable from the same Influence of the Moon,
and Change of Weather.
R A I N S .
There is a Return of Vernal and Autumnal Rains through the whole
Coast. The former, whether on this or the other side the Equator, are
longer and more incessant. They begin on this side at Sierraleon, in
May; at the Gold Coast and Whydah, in April, preceded by S. and S.
E. Winds. On the other side the Line again, the Vernal Rains fall at
Cape Lopez, in October; at Angola in November, &c. And as these
Seasons are attended with the Interposition of Clouds thro’ both, the
Air is cooler, and therefore by the stewed Inhabitants denominated
Winter.
What conduces to such annual and regular Returns, is perhaps
inscrutable: It is only a general Observation, that the Sun, on or nigh
the Æquinox, inclines to rain every where. Dr. Clayton says, (Philos.
Trans.) that there are frequent and great Rains at Virginia in April
and September, and other Countries observe the same. The ultimate
end is to embrue the Land with Fertility, where the Inhabitants have
Sense and Willingness to co-operate with Providence.
At Cape Corso this year, they ceased the end of May; they had
fell, we understood, for six Weeks before, almost without
intermission, only some hours they were heavier, and chiefly in the
Nights, with continued Thunder, Lightning, and Calms. Whenever
they felt a Breeze, it was Southerly, (directly upon the Land) the
Clouds that contained the Rains succeeding one another from the
Ocean, as it were orderly. If the Horizon brightened as it does by
Spirts at these Seasons, the Sun is felt with redoubled Heat and
Fervour.
[30]
The Mist and Haziness of the Horizon (always on the Coast)
and those great Dews which out of the rainy Seasons fall every night
on the Shore, and rarely or never two Miles from it where the Ships
anchor, are corroborating Proofs of what is just before hinted under
the Article of Currents, that the Vapours supplying these, or Rains,
are extracted from Coasts and Shallows more abundantly than from
the main Ocean; which would otherways be seen and felt, and in
greater measure at Sea, from so large a Body of Waters
surrounding; but is so far from happening, that Exhalations of all
sorts diminish, as is the Distance from Land.
Again, the Winds from Sea, which are the Winds that usher in
these Rains, are known to spring up but a few Leagues from Shore;
(the Trade obtaining in all these Latitudes:) and tho’ I say, any
regular Periods of it under this Vicinity of the Sun all the year may be
inscrutable, yet when they do come, they visibly bring on the Land-
Clouds loaded with aqueous Vapors; a more rarified Air there
naturally attracting them, and helping their fall.
Both Ships came to Isle Del Principe the end of July, 1721, where
we felt dreadful Effects from the excessive Heats and Irregularity of
the Seamen, during our Careening; for although we arrived very
healthy, the Island furnishing Palm-Wines and the means of
debauching at easy Rates, and our Tents giving opportunity; they
soon run into Excess, which brought on an epidemical malignant
Fever, that reduced us in a short Stay of two Months, to some
Deliberations whether we could proceed to Sea safely without a
return of Men from England; the Weymouth not being able to
purchase her Anchors, and we in the Swallow with difficulty. My
Judgment, as Surgeon, was by all means to go, tho’ in the most
sickly Condition, because thus removed from the chief Causes of our
Misfortune (Calms, excessive Heats, and a disorderly Living)
whoever were visited with the Distemper, would by that method find
a Crisis in Recovery or Death, and stop the infection: We therefore,
with the Assistance of some Men from a Dutch East-India Ship that
happened to put in, got under Sail and left the Island; the effect I
have related elsewhere more at large, and shall only observe here,
that our Fevers for want of Necessaries turned in many to Fluxes,
and pursued us, tho’ with less Cruelty. The Weymouth, who brought
out of England a Compliment of 240 Men, having at the end of the
Voyage 280 dead upon her Books.
Princes was the Birth-place of Africanus and Moulee, of whom
they give this tragical Relation; That she becoming a Favourite of her
Patron, was forced from Africanus, and having a Child whose
Complexion betray’d the true Father, Africanus murdered both, and
afterwards himself, to avoid Punishment.
We touched at [31]St. Thome, the chief of these Portuguese Islands
for fresh Provisions, purchased cheap; the Profit of half a dozen
Hogs fed two or three Months, and sold at the Gold Coast, will
maintain the best Mess in a Ship a whole year.
It was lucky for Mr. Rowry, Master of a Bristol Vessel, that the Man
of War came in; his Men had made him Prisoner, and were disposing
of the Slaves at a very easy Rate with the Governor, who rejects no
Schemes of Profit. Rowry, who had been discountenanced by him
upon his Men’s Complaints, was now heard indeed; but not knowing
rightly the Method of getting Men to bring away his Brigantine in our
Company, he was obliged to take what Price the Governor would set
on her and her Cargo, and took Passage with us for Cape Corso;
where, upon Demand, he accompanied his Leave with a handsome
Acknowledgment for his Diet, and went home with the Account.
We regained the Gold Coast in fifteen days from this Island,
having met in the Passage some Sprinklings that we understood had
been heavy showers on Shore.

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Textbook Infrared Thermography For Building Moisture Inspection Eva Barreira Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Infrared Thermography for Building

Moisture Inspection Eva Barreira

Infrared Thermography and Thermal Nondestructive

Application of Infrared Thermography in Sports Science

Admissibility and Hyperbolicity Luís Barreira

Building physics heat air and moisture fundamentals and

Infrared Photography Digital Techniques for Brilliant

An Intelligent Inspection Planning System for Prismatic

Infrared and Terahertz Detectors, Third Edition Antoni

Big Snake Eva Leon

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8884

Department of Civil Engineering,

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018957663

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Viseu, Portugal Eva Barreira

3.3.1 Moisture Caused by Rising Damp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

c Speciﬁc heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

Fig. 1.1 Thermograph of a

1.2 Main Developments on Using IRT to Assess Moisture

a quantitative analysis is required (Avdelidis and Moropoulou 2003); (b) surface

Asdrubali F, Baldinelli G, Bianchi F (2012) A quantitative methodology to evaluate thermal bridges

Maldague X (1993) Nondestructive evaluation of materials by infrared thermography. Springer-

2.2 Materials and Techniques

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 7

Table 2.1 Specifications of the infrared camera

Table 2.2 Specifications of Infrared thermometer

#01_L #02_L #03_L

(b) (c) (d) (e)

2.3 Results of the In Situ Case Study

2.3.1 Case Study #01_IS

In Fig. 2.5, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained throughout

Table 2.5 Temperature results in case study #01_IS

2.3.2 Case Study #02_IS

In Fig. 2.6, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained throughout

2.3.3 Case Study #03_IS

Table 2.6 Temperature results in case study #02_IS

2.3.4 Case Study #04_IS

2.4 Results of the Laboratory Case Study

2.4.1 Case Study #01_L

In Fig. 2.10, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained through-

Table 2.7 Temperature results in case study #03_IS

2.4.2 Case Study #02_L

In Fig. 2.11, it is possible to observe the sequence of thermograms obtained through-

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