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H.D. Mustafa · Shabbir N. Merchant
Uday B. Desai · Brij Mohan Baveja

Green
Symbiotic Cloud
Communications
Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications
H.D. Mustafa Shabbir N. Merchant
•

Uday B. Desai Brij Mohan Baveja

•

Green Symbiotic Cloud

Communications

123
H.D. Mustafa Uday B. Desai
Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Mumbai, Maharashtra India
India
Brij Mohan Baveja
Shabbir N. Merchant Government of India
Department of Electrical Engineering Ministry of Communications and
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Information Technology
Mumbai, Maharashtra New Delhi, Delhi
India India

ISBN 978-981-10-3511-1 ISBN 978-981-10-3512-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3512-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016962048

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

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Preface

A cloud is often defined as a visible collection of particles of ice and water

suspended in the air, usually at an elevation above the surface. It is generally a dim
and obscure area in something otherwise clear and transparent. The clouds
appearing in nature even though visible are abstract and virtual, i.e. we are unable to
signify a definite boundary of a cloud. The cloud as defined in the field of com-
puting is, however, very far away from this geographical definition and properties
of a natural cloud. Though correlating a cloud with abstraction and virtualization,
the existing cloud computing archetypes enfold as backend data or service stations
providing bunched or specific services. In this book, we waver from the existing
definition of clouds as outsourced services and define an approach to do justice to
the geographical existence of clouds and its emulation in the technological domain.
We aim to deviate from the traditional approaches of cloud computing and develop
an entirely new way to build, deploy and scale technologies and devices of the
future. Paradigms enabling convenient, on demand access to a shared pool of
configurable resources that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
efforts and interactions constitutes our emblem of a Cloud environment. In this
book we introduce the idea of cloud communications, wherein abstraction and
virtualization currently limited to computing environment, is also embedded in the
communications domain an archetype in published literature.
The rapid evolution of the technology used in telecommunication systems,
consumer electronics, and specifically mobile devices has been remarkable in the
last 20 years. Communication systems handle volumes of data generated by
embedded devices, mobile users, enterprises, contextual information, network
protocols, location information and such. It is a vast amount of information. For
example, a global IP backbone generates over 20 billion records per day, amounting
to over 1 Tera Bytes per day! Processing and analysing this “big data” and pre-
senting insights in a timely fashion will become a reality with advanced analytics to
understand the environment, to interpret events and to act on them. The existing
communication systems are just designed as “dumb pipes” to carry information/data
from destination to the source. This book is a positive development that helps
unleash the intelligence in communications systems where networks are no longer

v
vi Preface

labelled “dumb pipes” but highly strategic and smart cognitive networks. The next
quality of service leap which is fundamentally expected to come from improve-
ments in network topologies, cooperative communication, virtualization and
abstraction schemes, the amalgamation of cognitive symbiotic networks and
evolving intelligent protocols, all of which is systematically addressed in devel-
oping the Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications (GSCC) architecture.

Mumbai, India H.D. Mustafa

Mumbai, India Shabbir N. Merchant
Hyderabad, India Uday B. Desai
New Delhi, India Brij Mohan Baveja
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Cloud Computing and Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Heterogeneous Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 11
2.1 Transcending Generic Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 13
2.2 Pedestals for Systems of Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 15
2.2.1 Data Caching—Downloading the WWW
onto the Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Smart Home Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Data Security—Locally Distributed Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.4 Incorporating Greenness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Design Postulates for GSCC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.2 Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Distributiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.4 Greenness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.5 Symbiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.6 Pervasiveness/Ubiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.7 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.8 Unification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.9 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Architectural Design of GSCC Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.1 Process Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.2 Communication Process Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

vii
viii Contents

3 Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications—Theory

and Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Capacity Maximization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1.1 Proposition I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 Operational Power Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Experimental Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.1 Simulation with Combined LTE and Wi-Fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4 GSCC Universal Modem: Unifying Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1 Architecture of UCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.1.1 Transmitter Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1.2 Receiver Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Channel Estimation of UCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3 Signal Processing and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Duplex Communication Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4.1 Addressing Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4.2 Throughput Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.5 Experimental Analysis: UCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5 GSCC Channel Characterization and Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1 Existing Channel Models: Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.1.1 Voltage as a Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.1.2 Knowledge of the Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1.3 Load Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.2 Theoretical Modelling: Channel Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3 Theoretical Modelling: Channel Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.4 Conclusion and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
About the Authors

H.D. Mustafa has graduated Summa Cum Laude (University Gold Medal) in
2001, from TU, New Orleans, USA with a Double Major in Computer Science and
Computer Engineering and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering. He is the first
recipient of the prestigious Chancellor Fellowship in 1998 for pursuing
Undergraduate Education. He is awarded the Honoris Causa, Doctor of Engineering
Sciences in May 2015. Currently, he is the President R&D of Transocean Inc. and
RIG Ltd. He is a fellow of the ACS and ICCA. He has published over 40 journal
papers including publications in reputed international journals. He was the
Associate Editor of Hydrocarbon Processing Journal from 2007 to 2009. He is a
radical and dynamic multidisciplinary scientist and executive, leading interdisci-
plinary multibillion dollar R&D and Industrial projects. A multidisciplinary
researcher his interest is not bound to any specific field but spans all domains of
engineering and science. He is a strategic visionary and team leader amalgamating
institutional and industrial research and a skilled expert in observing and translating
concepts into reality, with operational excellence in diverse environments.
H.D. Mustafa is the Chief Inventor of the Crude Oil Quality Improvement
(COQI®) technology and concept, which has market capitalization of US$ 2.5
Billion as of 2014. He was awarded the Merit Recognition Award by NASA, USA
in 2005 and the President of India EMPI Award in 2006 by Government of India
for his contributions to Research and Development. He was nominated and
shortlisted for the prestigious Global Innovator of the Year Award for 2013. In July
2013, H.D. Mustafa achieved a World Record in India for the deepest oil explo-
ration using the COQI® process.
Shabbir N. Merchant received his B.Tech., M.Tech., and Ph.D. degrees all from
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
India. Currently, he is Professor in Department of Electrical Engineering at IIT
Bombay. He has more than 30 years of experience in teaching and research.
Dr. Merchant has made significant contributions in the field of signal processing
and its applications. His noteworthy contributions have been in solving state of the
art signal and image processing problems faced by Indian defence. His broad area

ix
x About the Authors

of research interests are wireless communications, wireless sensor networks, signal

processing, multimedia communication, and image processing and has published
extensively in these areas. He is a co-author with his students who have won Best
Paper Awards. He has been a chief investigator for a number of sponsored and
consultancy projects. He has served as a consultant to both private industries and
defence organizations. He is a Fellow of IETE. He is a recipient of 10th IETE
Prof. S. V. C. Aiya Memorial Award for his contribution in the field of detection
and tracking. He is also a recipient of 9th IETE S. V. C. Aiya Memorial Award for
‘Excellence in Telecom Education’. He is a winner of the 2013 VASVIK Award in
the category of Electrical & Electronic Sciences & Technology.
Uday B. Desai received the B.Tech. degree from Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur, India, in 1974, the M.S. degree from the State University of New York,
Buffalo, in 1976, and the Ph.D. degree from The Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, USA, in 1979, all in Electrical Engineering. Since June 2009 he is the
Director of IIT Hyderabad. From 1979 to 1987 he was with the Electrical
Engineering Department at Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA From
1987 to May 2009 he was a Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at
the Indian Institute of Technology—Bombay. He has held Visiting Associate
Professor’s position at Arizona State University, Purdue University and Stanford
University. He was a visiting professor at EPFL, Lausanne during the summer of
2002. From July 2002 to June 2004 he was the Director of HP-IITM R and D Lab.
at IIT-Madras. His research interests are in wireless communication, IoT and sta-
tistical signal processing. He is the Editor of the book “Modeling and Applications
of Stochastic Processes” (Kluwer Academic Press, Boston, USA 1986). He is also a
co-author of four books dealing with signal processing and wireless communica-
tion. Dr. Desai is a senior member of IEEE, a Fellow of INSA (Indian National
Science Academy), Fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE). He
is on the board of Tata Communications Limited. He was also on the Visitation
Panel for University of Ghana.
Brij Mohan Baveja received a B.Tech. from IIT Delhi and two postgraduate
degrees from England, one in Electrical Engineering from London University and
another in Public Management from Birmingham University, UK. He is presently
working as Senior Director & Group Coordinator in Department of Electronics and
IT (DeitY), Ministry of Communications and IT, Government of India. He has
about 35 years of work experience and out of this he has been working in gov-
ernment for last 29 years. At DeitY, his responsibilities include spearheading R&D
in ICT sector through favorable policy measures and by research grants. He has
been promoting growth of indigenous Convergence, Communications, and
Broadband, Networks including technologies for 5G, IoT, Smart Cities and
Strategic Electronics. He has been responsible for setting up various ICT Centers of
Excellences and autonomous organizations of DeitY throughout the country.
Besides Chairing various National Level Conferences, Workshops, Seminars,
Panels, he has represented DeitY at various international forums, such as 3GPP
standards meeting in USA, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, World Summit on
About the Authors xi

Information Society meetings at Geneva. He has been speaker on sessions in

bridging the digital divide at South Korea and Japan. He has chaired sessions on
ICT meetings at SAARC countries. He has coordinated international programs of
Indo-German, UNDP, Indo-Swiss, Indo-US, Indo-Ireland, Indo-Dutch and Israel.
Prior to joining the government in 1986, he has worked in Bharat Electronics Ltd
for 3 years at Ghaziabad Unit and prior to this, for 2 years in the UK with a test
software company. He has authored over 12 publications as well as 2 book chap-
ters. He is an ISO certified lead assessor and Licensed Amateur Radio
(Ham) Operator. He is also fellow member of IETE. He is an IEEE member since
1974.
Chapter 1
Introduction

Fast evolution in grid computing, high performance computing and cloud comput-
ing has facilitated the growth of improved networking and resource management
philosophies. However, the deployments of these technologies are severely stunted
owing to their entirely economic motives. Grids and clouds today are primarily to
facilitate large organizations and enterprises, and only limited efforts have been made
towards establishment of local, flexible clouds, independent of data-centers and ser-
vice providers. The evolution of communications and computing technologies is
driven by the creation and development of new services for mobile devices, and is
enabled by advancement of the technology available for mobile systems. There has
also been an evolution of the environment in which mobile systems are deployed
and operated, in terms of competition between mobile operators, challenges from
other mobile technologies, and new regulation of spectrum use and market aspects
of mobile systems. The rapid evolution of the technology used in telecommunication
systems, consumer electronics, and specifically mobile devices has been remarkable
in the last 20 years. Moores law illustrates this and indicates a continuing evolution
of processor performance and increased memory size, often combined with reduced
size, power consumption, and cost for devices.
A paradigm enabling convenient, on-demand access to a shared pool of config-
urable resources that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal efforts
and interactions constitutes the emblem of a cloud environment. Though correlating a
cloud with abstraction and virtualization, the existing archetypes enfold as back-end
data or service stations providing bunched or specific services. In this book, we aim to
deviate from the traditional approaches of cloud computing and develop an entirely
new way to build, deploy and scale technologies and devices of the future. The idea
of cloud communications is introduced, wherein abstraction and virtualization is
embedded in the communications domain, an archetype in published literature. Fur-
thermore, with emerging emphasis on stewardship towards the environment, greener
approaches have become a fundamental necessity. We collectively coin this approach
Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications (GSCC).
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 1
H.D. Mustafa et al., Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3512-8_1
2 1 Introduction

Our paramount achievement is implementing cloud functionalities symbiotically

over the existing infrastructure in an abstract sense creating a virtual cloud com-
munications scenario. In this outlook, the individual users now become elements
constituting the cloud. Key to this approach is the ability to manage the use of com-
munications resources on individuals as the cloud infrastructure and make the users
element of the cloud. The cloud so formed is sufficiently non-intrusive to the users,
that they will permit its operation in their domains. This approach entails exten-
sive reformulation of existing and development of new algorithms and schematics,
embedding cognition in protocol designs and development of new constraints and
metrics. This book addresses these issues in a structured and systematic approach
and develops a test prototype for GSCC.

1.1 Cloud Computing and Communications

A cloud is often defined as a visible collection of particles of ice and water suspended
in the air, usually at an elevation above the surface. It is generally a dim and obscure
area in something otherwise clear and transparent. The cloud computing paradigm
accepted within the scientific community, however, is far from this geographical
definition. This book purposes an approach to do justice to the classical definition
and forms a rational basis for advancement towards the same in evolving technologies
of the future.
Evolution has been fast. With research in High Performance Computing (HPC),
processors were able to use parallel processing algorithms and software to divide
programs into little pieces and execute them simultaneously [1]. Grid computing, a
development on this, brought you the ability to make more cost-effective use of a
given amount of computer resources and essentially a way to solve problems that
couldnot be approached without an enormous amount of computing power [2]. It
suggested that the resources of many computers could be cooperatively harnessed
and managed towards a common objective. In the envisioned paradigm, computers
will truly collaborate rather than being directed by one managing computer.
Virtualization, a heavily researched area, expedited the process of scaling stan-
dards and concepts through networks in a hierarchical and cyclic manner [3]. A
further development and an explosive research topic today, cloud computing and
communication, developed by borrowing a little from grid computing, distributed
computing and remote client facilitation. Working over a network of distributed
servers, it provides “X” (IT, computing resource, etc.) as a service to users in a
cost-effective, on-demand manner [4]. It enables the user to associate certain smart
devices to this cloud server, e.g. VMWare, Microsoft Azure, Amazon EC2 [5]. At
the enterprise level, cloud service providers let clients link limited devices at the
enterprise through a server to the cloud [6]. This, however, is no different from out-
sourcing your resource and service requirements to a third party, especially a very
concentrated (not distributed) third party. Further, the services offered are limited
in nature through data centers and are minimal over the ubiquitous local networks,
1.1 Cloud Computing and Communications 3

a very potential and ubiquitous resource by itself [7]. Cloud computing today is a
disjoint collection of independent cloud services each handled and facilitated by a
certain service provider running a data center.
Cloud computing, grid computing, HPC and data center computing largely fall
within the realm of parallel computing [5]. While HPC focuses on scientific com-
puting, with high processing performance and low delay as its cornerstones, grid
computing, simply based on HPC centers, utilizes multiple connected HPC centers
to form a large grid which owns a powerful underlying concept—service-oriented
architectures. Some other impressive concepts such as utility computing and auto-
nomic computing are more economy-oriented and are addressed vaguely [4]. Cloud
computing, which today is based on data centers, is spreading far more quickly than
traditional grid computing [8].
Technological progress in HPC largely revolves around two well-defined corner-
stones. Transitory in nature, both trace changes over time, the two decades since
the introduction of the technology. One, representing gross performance (hypothet-
ical) measured in floating-point operations per second (flops), progressing toward
the brink of teraflops performance [3]. The other, evaluating gross purchase price
per unit of performance shows a constant downward trend [9]. Considered together,
they question the present state in which phenomenally high performance is available
at prices that were unimaginable a few years ago [10]. The surviving architectural
class is slim. The only remaining exclusively distributed-memory solutions are the
IBM’s RS/6000 machines and SGI/Cray’s T3D and T3E systems [9].
In pursuit of scalability and intensiveness, the original HPC, post technological
maturity, evolved into grid computing. A more advanced environment, grid com-
puting enhanced our capabilities to model and simulate complex systems arising in
commercial, scientific and engineering applications. The principle of grid computing
has been ubiquitous availability of computational resources to a computing task, in
the same manner in which electricity is provided readily through electrical power
grids [8, 11]. The computational grid entails on-demand access to computation and
communication resources, as well as access to storage systems and virtualization sys-
tems. Further, grid computing can be visualized as a network that is not isolated in
one place but is a collective of distributed resources such as computers, peripherals,
switches, instruments and data. While its ownership may be sporadically distrib-
uted, being a special type of middleware, it enables sharing and management of grid
components based on resource attributes and user requirements [3].
The first generation grid, contrived in the early ‘90s, was a model of meta-
computing in which supercomputers shared resources and came equipped with the
ability to share data [2, 4]. The late ‘90s saw the emergence of a solid framework for
second generation grids, characterized by their use of grid middleware systems to
amalgamate different technologies together [9]. The combination of web technolo-
gies with second generation grids paved the way for emergence of third generation
grids [12]. However, there are fundamental gaps between current grid technologies
and the prospective Next Generation Grid vision which places ubiquity and the ability
to self-manage as the top two grid priorities [13].
4 1 Introduction

Ubiquity, a composite feature made up of other primitives, mainly accessibility,

user-centricity and dynamic interaction, was carried forward as a leading guideline
for emerging grid technologies and cloud computing [1, 9]. Emerging grid tech-
nologies can be classified into the 4 categories: accessible grids, user-centric grids,
interactive grids and manageable grids [5, 6]. Accessible grids (ad hoc grids, mobile
grids and wireless grids) are different from traditional grids in that they have no pre-
defined entry points, support mobility of clients and services, and support wireless
connections between nodes and interfaces [8]. Interactive grids (explicit interactive
grids and context-aware grids) support explicit real-time interaction with end users
and are inherently capable of interacting with their surroundings to build context
and adapt their behavior [8, 12, 13]. User-centric grids (personal grids and person-
alized grids) are the sort that are owned and operated by individuals and implement
highly customizable grid portals [14]. Manageable grids (autonomic grids, knowl-
edge grids and organic grids) emulate genetic schemes such as the human bodys
autonomic nervous system or ant colonies to support self-managing [11].
A discussion on cloud computing typically begins with a talk on virtualization.
Virtualization, a critical component to cloud computing, simplifies delivery of ser-
vices by providing a platform for optimizing IT resources in a scalable manner [15,
16]. This is precisely what makes cloud computing so cost-effective. Virtualization
can be applied very broadly to just about everything you can imagine including mem-
ory, networks, storage, hardware, operating systems and applications. We envision
virtualization to take cloud computing further to an entire new level where no entity,
in particular, is a service provider or a client. One or both of the devices may act at
any given instant and exist as multiple instances.
Cloud computing has improved computation efficiency while reducing its cost
for users [8, 13]. A typical cloud, today, relies on back-end data-centers consisting
of thousands of servers and switches connected hierarchically. By sharing comput-
ing resources through services such as software as a service, users can eliminate
the cost of hardware and software [1, 6, 11]. To ease system upgrades and mainte-
nance, virtual machines (VMs) are often employed to provide services. Further, their
migration across the physical hosts results in higher resource utilization. Although
most familiar research surrounds sharing CPU and storage facilitation, the sharing
and partitioning of network resources is only understood vaguely. Resource virtu-
alization, however, remains the key component of cloud computing for providing
computing and storage services [17].
Data-centers use virtualization methods to abstract the commonness of infrastruc-
ture at different levels. Comprised of physical networks connected via switches and
virtual networks made of VMs running inside hosts, data-center networks are capable
of servicing multiple users while running thousands of tasks concomitantly [15, 16].
Several VMs may co-exist within a host and each such VM has at least one Virtual
Network Interface Card (VNIC). The VNICs communicate with external networks
through the host’s Physical NICs (PNICs). A software layer facilitates the traffic
multiplexing between the VNICs and PNICs. This software layer can be either rudi-
mentary Ethernet bridges or full-fledged virtual Ethernet switches. Notably, vir-
tual switching at NICs leads to better resource utilization at the hosts. From the
1.1 Cloud Computing and Communications 5

purview of performance improvement, the packet processors at NICs, optimized for

packet processing, end up providing better packet-switching performance than the
host CPUs. Further, the isolation of computing and packet switching through VM
computing and virtual-switch packet processing significantly reduce the switching
overheads and complexity of buffer management [12].
While the approach observed is intuitive in nature, it nevertheless poses a valid
management predicament. Each host has up to hundreds of VMs and VNICs. Even
the most heuristic of tasks such as allocating the IP addresses are challenging and
error-prone [16]. The virtualization software layer must adopt optimal administrative
schemes in all VMs across different physical switches. Another obvious challenge
is the complexity of packet multiplexing [1, 3, 10, 11, 16]. When a packet arrives,
the host is expected to determine the packet’s destination VM based on its header.
The growing diversity in network protocols makes it difficult to parse the headers
and look up the bridging table [14]. For example, it’s not trivial to deliver broadcast
packets to only the VMs belonging to a particular virtual local area network. Further,
with significantly higher line rates expected to appear at hosts, a profound weight
is added to the workloads of the host CPUs in future data centers, which handle
not only the VM computation but also the network I/O virtualization at hundreds of
Gbps. The scalability of multicore CPUs remains uncertain under such demanding
tasks.
Security fall-outs stemming from virtualization, a growing concern in cloud-
service architecture development, have prompted a fairly intense discussion on the
robustness of virtualization worlds [16]. Cloud security compromises can originate
in poor management of keys/passwords, vague service-level agreements or deficient
service-oriented architectures. However, being fundamental to several cloud charac-
teristics, virtualization is retained as is compensated by an increased emphasis on
security. Virtualization lets users simultaneously run multiple isolated machines on
a single physical machine (the host machine). The hypervisor, or VM monitor, is the
software that sits between the host machine and the VM. The hypervisor allocates and
manages the physical resources among the VMs. In cloud computing, this translates
as service providers creating customized VMs for the service user.

1.2 Heterogeneous Networks

Spectral efficiency and increased throughput in wireless communications are topics

of paramount importance owing to the substantial increase in user demands [12].
Easy and affordable availability of communication devices like smart mobile phones,
laptops, tablets, etc. has resulted in its proliferation and subsequent exponential surge
in radio traffic [13]. The next quality of service leap is fundamentally expected to
come from improvements in network topologies, cooperative communication and
virtualization schemes, the amalgamation of cognitive heterogeneous networks and
standardization of protocols on such networks [12–16]. Imagine a scenario where a
smartphone user makes a video call requiring a capacity of 6 Mbps for uplink and
6 1 Introduction

downlink. The user is equipped with unlimited WLAN and Long Term Evolution
(LTE), with each of these mediums providing a capacity of 4 Mbps respectively. In
such a case, neither of the mediums can provide the required capacity on a stand-
alone basis. Scrutinizing the scenario, one realizes that if simultaneous usage of both
the mediums is allowed, the desired throughput can be achieved. Ubiquitous access
to all available networks, thus, is the key for the end users to have guaranteed quality
of service. The proposed paradigm attempts to integrate this thought evolving a green
symbiotic cloud communications paradigm.
In [18], a software-based approach is adopted which virtualizes a single wireless
adapter as multiple entities. The paradigm, termed as “Multinet”, is defined as vir-
tualizing a singular WLAN adapter as multiple mirrors, where each can connect to
a different wireless network. This facilitates connections to multiple wireless net-
works by the user, by multiplexing the single network adapter. The software manages
an “adoptive network-hopping scheme”, which assigns a specific time slot to each
virtual adapter during which it is able to send its information. However, due to avail-
ability of only one communication port and allotting of specific time slots based
on connection strength, it practically means automation of selection of the network
having the highest throughput, which the users otherwise perform manually. Further-
more, the adaptive scheme, which continuously scans the various networks to find
the strongest one, is taxing from an operational power dynamics viewpoint.
In [19], an augmented system of WLAN and cellular 3G is proposed. The para-
digm, termed “Wiffler”, scans for the availability of WLAN networks for the users
and subsequently offloads the cellular data through these access points. The system
assigns the routing based on the actual throughput offered by the strongest available
access point (APs) coupled with a prediction of the number of such APs that will be
available in the future. If the delay tolerance of a WLAN AP is found to be within
a predefined threshold, then data from the cellular network is offloaded to it. It also
leverages “low-level, link-layer information” to enable fast switching to 3G in the
face of poor Wi-Fi conditions. However, this system only uses either cellular or
WLAN at any given instance of time, hence not availing the combined benefits both
the environments have to offer. Furthermore it is complicated to implement, as it
requires the knowledge of delay tolerance threshold and QoS requirements of every
application that uses the network. It also operates on proxy support, which might not
be available on all platforms.
Coordinated Multipoint (COMP) is introduced in [20], wherein the concept of spa-
tial reuse is adapted in cellular networks to increase throughput. The authors propose
schemes like “Interference aware detection”, “Joint multicell scheduling” and “Joint
multicell signal processing” where different base stations help in relaying informa-
tion cooperatively. These proposed schemes mainly aim to avoid or exploit interfer-
ence to obtain a better throughput in the cell edge regions. The system allows more
efficient usage of a single communication medium but is devoid of the advantages
availed from multiple mediums. Moreover, the computational complexity and high
data exchange between base stations, to identify interference in real time, requires
high bandwidth and low latency.
1.2 Heterogeneous Networks 7

In [21] and references therein, the authors describe a multipath TCP (mpTCP)
architecture. The paradigm allows users to access multiple communication paths
simultaneously by proposing an extension over the regular TCP protocol. A basic
assumption which mpTCP makes is that in every session, both the hosts are “multi-
homed or multi-addressed”, which is logically not always the case. Furthermore, the
protocol is not able to function through middle boxes like NAT, firewalls and proxies.
It also adapts a master-slave strategy which exposes security threats, wherein a user
who has knowledge of the master IP can easily route information to itself.
Generalized heterogeneous networks as proposed in [22–25] employ the use of
low-powered nodes like femto-cells and pico-cells, which are in turn powered by
macro base stations. These approaches avail the benefit of energy-efficient opera-
tions and cover dead holes in network coverage, but increase the infrastructural cost
of implementation. Furthermore, they do not utilize the complete spectrum and radio
resources available in modern day UE’s. Unlicensed Media Access is the 3rd Gen-
eration Partnership Project global standard for subscriber access to mobile circuit,
packet and IMS-based services over any IP-based access network. From the point
of view of mobile operators, the UMA solution can take the cost and performance
advantages of IP access technologies to deliver high-quality, low-cost mobile voice
and data services, thus enabling mobile operators to extend cellular network coverage
through Wi-Fi hotspots with minimal additional investment. From the point of view
of subscribers, the UMA solution can provide a better user experience since there is
better Wi-Fi signal coverage indoors, which is very important in some countries where
adequate cellular coverage indoors is not yet available. In the proposed paradigm,
which follows in the subsequent chapters, we aim to overcome these drawbacks of
existing heterogeneous networks.
To the best of our knowledge, existing prototypes of heterogeneous networks only
concentrate on throughput improvement on the uplink. Communication, however, is
a two-way process with the downlink being just as critical as the uplink. In fact,
more often than not, downlink carries a larger throughput demand as compared
to the uplink [14]. Hence, a significant overall throughput increase necessitates an
improvement in both downlink and uplink data rates. Further, in light of greenness
of recent emerging trends and governmental regulations, this too needs to be energy-
efficient [17, 18]. Consequently, prevention of energy drain and complementing the
lifetime of battery-operated devices like cellular phones, PDAs, tablets, etc. forms
an essential criterion in the architectural design [17]. As a part of the proposed
paradigm, we make the following novel contributions in a distributed and hierarchical
manner. We propose a paradigm which enables UEs to simultaneously utilize all
Communications Links (CLs) in the vicinity where it is authorized to, creating a
virtual and abstract communication cloud. A virtualized communication port and IP
schematic is proposed, which enables both uplink and downlink communications via
all links in a distributed and symbiotic manner. We establish the networking theoretic
capacity within the operational constraints and identify the power dynamics of the
proposed prototype by framing a cognitive decision function.
Incorporation of varied signal transmission through a singular facet is a major
advantage offered in the GSCC architecture. However, this advantage has not entirely
8 1 Introduction

been exploited owing to non-amalgamation of connectivity and functionality. This

book will present a fresh dimension towards instituting an innovative prototype of
a Universal Green Modem (UGM) moulding a comprehensive functional architec-
ture. The astutely designed paradigm allows for one modem to control multitude
signal routing, effectively delineating a universal communication system. UGM is
efficiently supported by an Optimized Coulomb Energy Neural Network (OCENN)
with a novel energy allocation, training and testing procedure, which results in more
efficient hardware implementation of signal classification and routing. The modified
OCENN results in a 50% reduction in the overlap of the hyperspheres and a 30%
reduction in the false negatives in the classification tier, exponentially enhancing the
operability of the UGM in real-time situations. We propose an innovative address-
ing schematic, enabling bidirectional communications over the GSCC system, an
archetype in published literature. The unique addressing scheme enables bidirec-
tional integration of various communication models (viz. telephone, internet, radio
and television). A unique archetype of embedded Channel Estimation is proposed
to support the classification of the OCENN structure. Experimental results of the
proposed UGM are evaluated over a real-time GSCC system.
The major advantage of a GSCC paradigm is the unification of the communi-
cation architecture into a singular medium. In our efforts towards this unification,
we propose a non-invasive, reflection coefficient-based channel estimation technique
over low voltage transmission lines. The novel model accounts for all the parame-
ters of the signal, viz. quality, strength and attenuation, by simplistic inference from
the measured magnetic field intensity. To validate the proposed model, experimental
results are conducted over real-time low voltage PLC architecture. Results of the
extensively measured values are compared with its respective actual conditions. We
obtain an average accuracy of 97.61, 97.49 and 97.86% for the varying frequency,
load and voltage profiles respectively. We attain a mean error of 2.5% which is lower
than all the existing models, thus promising a strong candidature for GSCC-based
systems.

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Chapter 2
Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications

Abstract Cloud computing, a TCP/IP based development, is essentially an inte-

gration of computer technologies such as HPC, massive memory resource handling,
high-speed networks and reliable system architecture. A unified definition of cloud
computing doesn’t exist with researchers and industrialists globally having listed
up to 22 definitions to provide a comprehensive analysis of all the characteristics
of Cloud Computing. However Cloud Computing mainly entails as a service that is
outsourced, and does not symbolically represent a cloud as we observe in Nature.
Classified exhaustively, clouds fit into the following categories—public, private,
community and hybrid—however, without much exclusivity. This chapter views the
emblem of cloud computing from a different perspective by emulating the geograph-
ical cloud as it appears in nature with properties of abstraction and virtualization.
The chapter further introduces a first of its kind concept of Cloud Communications.
To the best of our knowledge this is an archetype approach of incorporating the
communications infrastructure into the cloud. The chapter proposes a Green Sym-
biotic Cloud (GSC) paradigm, which is an amalgamation of all sorts of clouds, with
the elimination/minimization of reliance on data-centers, agent-based cooperative
approaches and self-managed platforms inherent to systems of the future. Backed by
concepts of abstraction and virtualized infrastructure and shared resource pools in
one’s own local area network, the proposed paradigm offers impetus to revolutionize
cloud computing. Taking virtualization to an entirely new level by offering a more
local, energy-efficient, synergistic system comprised of individual agents sharing
not just resources but knowledge/intelligence in the cloud, it basically emulates the
cloud as it appears in nature.

Cloud computing, a TCP/IP based development, is essentially an integration of

computer technologies such as HPC, massive memory resource handling, high-speed
networks and reliable system architecture [1–3]. However, its reliability rests on
optimality of the connecting protocols, maturity of data-center technologies and
service-level agreements. Because a unified definition of cloud computing doesn’t
exist, proposing a change makes it of utmost importance to lay out essential
elements of cloud computing and define it. This will assist us in determining the
scope of research and suitability of applications running as cloud services. The key

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 11

H.D. Mustafa et al., Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3512-8_2
12 2 Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications

characteristics of cloud computing are agility, low cost, device and location indepen-
dence, multi-tenancy, high reliability, high scalability, security and sustainability.
Researchers and industrialists globally have listed up to 22 definitions and pro-
vide a comprehensive analysis of all the characteristics of Cloud Computing [3–6].
“Clouds are large pools of virtualized resources which are easy to access, secure
and reliable. There are 10 characteristics of cloud computing in their sum-up: user-
friendliness, scalability, resource optimization, pay-per-use, virtualization, Internet-
centric, variety of resources, learning-based adaptation, service SLAs (Service-Level
Agreements) and infrastructure SLAs.” Cloud computing, as a platform, possesses
characteristics of both clusters and grids and primarily provides services to users
without knowing much about the infrastructure.
Classified exhaustively, clouds fit into the following categories—public, private,
community and hybrid—however, without much exclusivity [4, 7]. A private cloud
is hosted within an enterprise, behind its firewall, and intended for use inside the
enterprise’s offices only; in such cases, a single firm invests in and manages its own
cloud infrastructure. It avoids establishment of networks based on large number of
low performance systems and instead benefits from the pooling of a smaller number
of centrally maintained computing and storage resources [8]. In contrast, a public
cloud is hosted on the Internet and designed to be used by any user with an Internet
connection to provide a similar range of capabilities and services [8–11]. While they
may not differ much under technical considerations, security considerations may be
substantially different for services (applications, storage, and other resources) that
are made available by a service provider (independent owner and operator) for a
public audience and when communication is effected over a non-trusted network.
Community clouds, a method to share infrastructure between several enterprises
of a community, stems from the firms’ need to address certain common concerns
(security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.) [10]. Being managed either internally or by
a third party, the costs are spread over fewer users than in a public cloud. Hybrid
clouds are formed out of the composition of two or more clouds (private, commu-
nity or public) that remain unique entities bound together and offer the benefits of
multiple deployment models [12]. Such composition promotes new synergies and
implementation options for cloud services while permitting organizations to use
public cloud computing resources only sporadically. This capability enables hybrid
clouds to scale elastically. The proposed Green Symbiotic Cloud (GSC) paradigm is
an amalgamation of all sorts of clouds, with the elimination/minimization of reliance
on data-centers. A self-configuring scheme GSC Communications proposed in this
book treats all networked devices in a locality as the cloud infrastructure.
Cloud services are a discrete set consisting of elements of the sort XaaS (‘X’ as a
service) [1, 4, 7]. For instance, a user can get service from a full computer infrastruc-
ture through the Internet. This kind of service is called Infrastructure as a Service
(IaaS). Internet-based services such as storage and databases are part of the IaaS.
Other types of services on the Internet are Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Software
as a Service (SaaS). PaaS offers full or partial application development that users can
access, while SaaS provides a complete application, such as Organization resource
management, through the Internet. In the typical cloud service model, providers of
2 Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications 13

IaaS offer physical machines or more often, virtual machines and other resources.
A hypervisor runs the virtual machines as guests. A collective of such hypervisors
within the cloud’s executive support system help support large numbers of virtual
machines and offer the ability to scale services up and down according to customers’
varying requirements. IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual
machine disk image library, block- and file-based storage, firewalls, load balancers,
IP addresses, virtual local area networks and software bundles. IaaS-cloud providers
supply these resources on-demand from their large pools installed in data-centers
[6, 13, 14].
In the PaaS model, cloud providers deliver a computing platform typically includ-
ing operating system, programming language execution environment, database and
web server. Application developers can develop and run their software solutions on a
cloud platform without the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underly-
ing hardware and software layers. With some PaaS offers, the underlying computer
and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand such that the
cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually [12, 15, 16].
In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the
cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not man-
age the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This eliminates
the need to install and run the application on the cloud user’s own computers, which
simplifies maintenance and accommodates a large number of cloud users that cloud
applications support [17]. Cloud applications are different from other applications
in their scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual
machines at run-time to meet changing work demand. Load balancers distribute the
work over the set of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user,
who sees only a single access point. To accommodate a large number of cloud users,
cloud applications can be multitenant, i.e. any machine serves more than one cloud
user organization. It is common to refer to special type of cloud-based application
software with a similar naming convention: desktop as a service, business process
as a service, test environment as a service, communication as a service [6, 7, 10].
A category of cloud services where the capability provided to the cloud service
user is to use network/transport connectivity services and/or inter-cloud network
connectivity services. NaaS involves the optimization of resource allocations by
considering network and computing resources as a unified whole. Traditional NaaS
services include flexible and extended VPN and bandwidth on-demand. NaaS con-
cept materialization also includes the provision of a virtual network service by the
owners of the network infrastructure to a third party [4, 7, 12, 17].

2.1 Transcending Generic Cloud Computing

In essence, GSC as shown in Fig. 2.1 proposes a dynamic computing infrastructure

free of the data-centers, agent-based cooperative approaches and self-managed plat-
forms inherent to systems of the future. Backed by virtualized infrastructure and
14 2 Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications

Fig. 2.1 The figure shows the migration from traditional cloud computing/communications archi-
tecture to the proposed GSCC. Current cloud services rely on dedicated data centres for IaaS,
SaaS and PaaS—which may reside at different data centres. Systems of the future will be strongly
networked with networks spanning across residences, enterprises, factories, geographies, etc. The
figure depicts user groups in different locales being connected symbiotically and maximally utiliz-
ing their resources. Smart home systems and other traditionally standalone devices are networked
and accessible. The cloud, now a super-cloud, expands and contracts to include/exclude arriv-
ing/departing devices accordingly. Users are abstracted and multiple virtualization worlds emerge
every instant
2.1 Transcending Generic Cloud Computing 15

shared resource pools in one’s own local area network, the proposed paradigm offers
impetus to revolutionize cloud computing. Taking virtualization to an entirely new
level by offering a more local, energy-efficient, synergistic system comprised of indi-
vidual agents sharing not just resources but knowledge/intelligence in the cloud, it
basically emulates the cloud as it appears in nature.
User experience, a subject of human computer interaction, is an important cri-
terion when evaluating success and user-friendliness of such a paradigm. In cloud
computing, user experience improves a lot over ancestors of the likes of grid com-
puting. The core of the experience demands that the services be provided in an
inexpensive and easily accessible manner to the cloud user. GSC envisions a far
more holistic user experience offering cloud services in a more diffused, faster and
energy-efficient manner. It offers the user an opportunity to exploit resources in the
vicinity rather than relying on a distant data-center. New synergies between both
intelligent (with computing power) and unintelligent devices (without computing
power) can be explored, promoting progress towards a more integrated super-cloud.
While abstraction is a key component of a consumer-oriented cloud, it needs
to make way in a system where there are administrators. If the users are systems
administrators and integrators, what they care is how things are maintained in the
cloud. They upgrade, install, and virtualize servers and applications. If the users are
consumers, they do not care how things are run in the system, rather they look for
speed, economy, security and some level of service quality. Grid computing requires
the use of software that can divide and farm out pieces of a program as one large
system image to a great number of computers. One concern about grids is that if one
piece of the software on a node fails, other pieces of the software on other nodes
may fail. This is alleviated if that component has a failover component on another
node, but problems can still arise if components rely on other pieces of software to
accomplish one or more grid computing tasks. Relying on an equal access model on
the other hand, GSC proposes an advanced level of abstraction for all users. Unless
a developer mode is accessed, the diffused cloud and its operatives should remain
fully abstracted from the user. Some of these departures are not serious gains, but
clouds, like any other ecology, benefit from diversity.

2.2 Pedestals for Systems of Future

2.2.1 Data Caching—Downloading the WWW

onto the Cloud

Why should a device have to connect to the World Wide Web every time it requires
a resource, more so in case of frequently accessed resources? Consider a locally
configured cloud network. For instance, all host computers on the local area network
at a school may constitute such a network. Notably, most devices connected to such a
network sit behind a gateway server and do not possess public IP addresses; further,
16 2 Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications

these devices are configured to fit a standard network topology and are provided IP
addresses either dynamically or by using a static addressing scheme.
Routinely or not, if a computer A were to access a particular webpage X, it sends
a request that is usually referenced by the DNS and forwarded by the gateway, after
it updates its NAT. Now, if this webpage were recently accessed, referenced and
an instance be stored for a fairly large duration, the next time a user requests the
same webpage within this duration, the gateway’s crawler hops through the LAN
scavenging all stored instances to locate the desired page. If the page were to be
stored in a well-referenced and hierarchical manner, it’d be fairly easy to locate
and an appreciable hit-rate can be expected. This model inherently makes the LAN
cloud more self-reliant. It mitigates the necessity to request and access distant web-
servers on the World Wide Web, thereby optimizing the overall throughput. In the
process, overall utilization of the abundant local network resources, such as storage
and computational capacity, and minimizes load on the WWW. Over time, the system
is expected to learn from requests, hits and web accesses, and progress towards
significantly higher hit-rates.
A very fundamental technique would look like this:
• Heuristic search: release crawlers from both ends (gateway and user equipment).
This provides a top-down and a bottom-up radial search. The exponential com-
plexity growth can be fixed by using better, even slightly intelligent crawling
algorithms, adapted from web-crawling techniques. A time to live needs to be set
adaptively.
• References to high-frequency web resources can be cached on all nodal network
elements, viz. routers, bridges, switches and hubs. The terminal link elements
possess the densest cache tables while intermediate entities possess only higher
frequency results.
• The network is now constantly in a transitory phase updating reference tables at
routes. Learning algorithms develop condensed higher priority digests at switches
higher up in the hierarchy.
Improvement in performance may be achieved by adapting [16] web-crawling
algorithms and [18] search methods to the proposed elastic topology. The proposed
scenario is illustrated graphically in Fig. 2.2.

2.2.2 Smart Home Integration

The popularity of home and industrial automation has been increasing in recent years
due to much higher affordability and simplicity though smart devices. The provision
of remote accessibility has taken automation and security to a whole new level. For
instance, a home automation system integrates electrical devices in a house with
each other. The techniques employed in home automation include those in building
automation as well as the control of domestic activities, such as home entertainment
systems, houseplant and yard watering, use of domestic robots, centralized control
2.2 Pedestals for Systems of Future 17

Fig. 2.2 An intelligent data caching scenario based on design postulates of GSCC wherein a par-
ticular users (red colour coded) webpage request is satisfied by another device (blue colour coded)
in its vicinity, thereby avoiding the WWW. It relies on the fact that over time, the network learns the
locations popular web-resources cached on the network, and is essentially termed as downloading
the WWW. A very rudimentary technique has been depicted. a Heuristic search: release crawlers
from both ends (gateway-top-down radially outward and user-equipment-bottom-up radially
inward). The exponential complexity growth can be fixed by using a better, even slightly intelligent
crawling algorithm; adapted from web-crawling technique. A time to live needs to be set adaptively;
b References to high-frequency web resources can be cached on all nodal network elements, viz.
routers, bridges, switches and hubs. The terminal link elements possess the densest cache tables
while intermediate entities possess only higher frequency results; c The network is now constantly
in a transitory phase updating reference tables at routes. Learning algorithms develop condensed
higher priority digests at switches higher up in the hierarchy

of lighting, HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning), appliances, security

locks of gates and doors and other systems, to provide improved convenience, com-
fort, energy efficiency and security. True incorporation into the cloud necessitates
that devices be connected through a computer network to allow control by a per-
sonal computer/mobile tablet device, and allow remote access through the Internet.
Through the integration of information technologies with the home environment, sys-
tems and appliances are able to communicate in an integrated manner which results
in convenience, energy efficiency and safety benefits, and fosters an intelligent home
environment. We consider a case where super-clouds facilitate secure offloading of
data logs from smart home systems.
18 2 Green Symbiotic Cloud Communications

A smart home automation system typically capacitates home owners to monitor

and control equipment, utilities and security in a closed space. With a robust sensor
network—spanning the entire house/apartment block—monitoring timely changes
in equipment performances and surrounding environment, large amounts of data logs
are generated and offloaded onto the network. The running footage from safety and
security systems—cameras, temperature sensors, sprinkler systems and distributed-
locking—impose a stiff load on the storage requirement. Notably, the data stream
generated is almost constant in size and more often than not demands large amounts
of space for relatively short periods of time. Data that transcends the rest, sporadic
in nature, may be stored inexpensively over the local cloud of networked devices
rather than on a distant dedicated data storage hub, accessing which repeatedly is
cumbersome. Further, relevant data and footage are made available to networked
computers and tablet devices; thus home-owners stay updated remotely. The local
cloud spanning networked equipment within say, the apartment block, may addition-
ally feed the data logs to the security office for perpetual vigilance. Wavelet-based
algorithms providing temporal, spatial and PNR scalability are utilized to improve
efficiency and accessibility of offloaded data, particularly videos and images [15, 17,
19, 20]. Thus, true smart-home integration can be achieved rather inexpensively sans
a service provider or systems maintenance specialist. It can be taken to the extent that
even basic lighting and switchboards are automated and intelligence is incorporated
therein by a networked system.

2.2.3 Data Security—Locally Distributed Storage

While a traditional data-center based cloud leverages economies of scale to optimally

store increasing amounts of data, the centralized storage often comes at the price of
frequent data-security compromise. Security and threat aversion are critical fields of
study within cloud computing, and strong emphasis is being laid on them [3, 21].
However, the community is still far from recognizing a robust and scalable solution
to the problem. On the other hand, devices networked through a GSC paradigm, in
an attempt to increase self-reliance and circumvent usage of data-centers, store data
on the local cloud. While this may necessitate the storage of multiple instances of
the same data and compromise QoS a bit, it nevertheless helps one capitalize on the
locally available storage hardware. A consequence, fortunate however, is the fact that
this inherently upsurges the security of stored data.
To understand this better, consider a scenario as shown in Fig. 2.3 wherein a
100 GB data file needs to be stored on a local cloud. The file is encrypted, broken
down into smaller entities and multiple instances of each packet are stored randomly
across the local cloud. Based on the confidentiality of data, symmetric key schemes
such as AES 128/192 or weaker schemes such as DES may be used for encryption.
The encrypted file is split up and distributed across the network. An evaluation of
general access and availability trends of devices on the cloud can help decide how
many instances of each data packet are to be stored. The encryption scheme, data
2.2 Pedestals for Systems of Future 19

Fig. 2.3 A power augmentation and processor sharing scenario where a user boots into a device and
performs certain operations. A significant processing power boost can be achieved by farming out
pieces of data and processing them in parallel over co-operative peers on the network. The user is
abstracted from the complexity of grid computing and parallel processing and just sees a significant
leap in processor speed. An elaborate learning algorithm constantly maps networked devices and acts
as a facilitator for services. Further, multiple virtual machines on devices offer parallel computing
capacity and deployment of processor sharing. This symbiotic computing power improvement also
manifests indirectly as a battery power augmentation, essential for portable devices and generally
beneficial

fragmentation and distributed storage collectively enhance the overall security over
the existing hardware. Thus, even if few of the hosts on the cloud network were to
be compromised, the data remains inaccessible to the attacker and hence secure.

2.2.4 Incorporating Greenness

The energy consumption predicament in information technology equipment has been

receiving increasing attention in recent years and there is growing recognition of the
Another random document with
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during our stay amongst the ice. When I say “in a rush” it is only
relatively speaking. For a rush was impossible in our circumstances.
The pilot’s room offered good sleeping accommodation for two people
if they went to bed quietly and carefully. There were so many uprights,
struts, and pipes that our bedroom had the appearance of a birdcage.
The making of a miscalculated movement landed one against a pipe or
a strut, sometimes both. In addition to this one could not stand at full
height. To speak of a rush under such conditions is therefore stupid.
The sight which met us when we put our heads through the trap-door
was interesting, but not altogether inviting. It was interesting to note
how much four desperate men can straighten out. The pool we had
made was now covered with ice in the center of which N 25 was stuck.
The pressure was tremendous and a catastrophe seemed
unavoidable. Gathering all his strength, Riiser-Larsen sprang like a
tiger. He jumped high in the air in order to land anywhere on the ice
which jammed the seaplane. The result was always the same. The ice
broke under him without resistance. Omdal had got hold of a tool (I
don’t know which one) and helped his comrade splendidly with its aid.
Larsen pushed for all he was worth against the seaplane’s nose and
tried to free it from the ice pressure. By this united work they managed
to loosen the machine about 45° and thereby lighten the pressure
against the sides. In the meantime Ellsworth and I were occupied in
putting the provisions and equipment on the old ice. We were masters
of the situation at last, but it was a near thing that time.
To return to our old quarters was unthinkable, so we looked round
for a safe place somewhere else. We lay in a favorable position for
crossing to N 24 and decided it might be wise to pursue this course.
There was a possibility that we might reach it by way of the new ice,
but this seemed unlikely after our last experience. However we would
try our best to get over because it would be an advantage to be able to
use N 24’s petrol without transporting it. Moreover it appeared that
conditions across there were calmer and offered a safer resting place.
That this was not the case we shall see later.
Thus we began again to hack and to level and by breakfast time
the track was finished. Exactly as though we ourselves had dispersed
it the fog lifted, and we could soon start. This reminds me of an
amusing occurrence, amusing for others, but not exactly for me. On
account of the small accommodation in the machines it was necessary
for us always to move about in tabloid form, bent, drawn together and
compact. The result of this was cramp, sometimes in the legs, in the
thighs, in the stomach, in the back. These attacks came on at the most
inopportune moments and the martyr was a never-failing object of
general amusement. Everything was ready that morning for departure
and I suddenly remembered my glasses which I had forgotten in the
mess and which I now rushed to fetch. But it was a mistaken move on
my part. My first hasty jerk gave me cramp in both thighs with the
result that I could not move from the spot. I heard titters and giggles
and notwithstanding the infernal pain I could not do otherwise than join
in the general amusement.
The second start was not more fortunate than the first. The ice
broke all the way and N 25 became famous as an icebreaker. One
good result came from it, however, namely, that we got near to the
other machine. That presented a sad appearance as it lay there lonely
and forlorn with one wing high in the air, and the other down on the ice.
They had been lucky enough to get its nose up on to a grade of the old
ice floe, but the tail lay right out in the ice.
The conditions here seemed quite promising. We had an open
waterway about 400 meters long with fine new ice quite near. The third
attempt to start was undertaken the same afternoon but without result.
We decided to join up the waterway and the new ice. It was possible
that the great speed one could attain on the waterway would carry one
up onto the ice and if that happened there was a big chance of rising in
the air as the track would then have become about 700 meters long. At
2 a.m. on the 4th June we started the work, continuing all day. As by
eventide we had got the track finished, down came the fog and
prevented us from starting. A little later the ice got rather lively,
beginning to screw during the night. Fortunately it was only the new-
frozen ice, but even it was eight inches thick. There were pipings and
singings all round us as the ice jammed against the machine. The
methods and tools we now used were most original. Dietrichson armed
himself with a four-yard-long aluminium pole with which he did
wonderful work. Omdal used the film camera tripod, which was very
heavy, ending in three iron-bound points. Every blow therefore was
trebled and was most effective. Riiser-Larsen was the only one who
had brought rubber boots with him; these reached to his waist. As the
ice encroached it was met by ringing blows. The battle against it
continued the whole night and by morning we could once again look
back upon a conquest. Meantime the old ice had crept up nearer to us.
It now appeared as though the “Sphinx” was taking aim at us; this was
an ugly forbidding iceberg, formed in the shape of the Sphinx. The
movements of the ice had caused the sides of the waterway to set
together and our starting place was ruined again. The fog lay thick on
the 5th of June while fine rain was falling. The ice cracked and piped
as though it would draw our attention to the fact that it still existed.
Now what should one do?
With his usual energy Riiser-Larsen had gone for a walk that
afternoon amongst the icebergs accompanied by Omdal; they wished
to see if they could find another place which could be converted into a
starting place. They had already turned round to return home, as the
fog was preventing them from seeing anything, when suddenly it lifted
and there they stood in the center of the only plain which could be
used. This was 500 meters square and not too uneven to be made
level by a little work and patience. They came back happy and full of
hope and shouted to the “Sphinx”: “You may be amused and smile
even when others despair—even when the position is hopeless we still
sing with pleasure aha! aha! aha! Things are improving day by day.”
The “Sphinx” frowned! It did not like this!
 COLLECTING SNOW BLOCKS FOR A RUN-WAY
The way to the plain which the two men had found was both long
and difficult, but we lived under conditions where difficulties frightened
us no more. First of all the machine must be driven there—about 300
meters through new ice to a high old plain. Here we would have to
hack out a slide to drive the machine up. From here the road crossed
over to the Thermopylæ Pass, which was formed by two moderately
sized icebergs, and ended in a three-yards-wide ditch over which the
machine must be negotiated on to the next plain. On the other side
one could see the last obstacle which must be overcome in the form of
an old crack about five yards wide with sides formed of high icebergs
and loose snow—rotten conditions to work in. Early on the morning of
the 6th the work was started. After breakfast we took all our tools and
attacked the old ice where the grade should be built. In order to get to
this spot we had to pass round a corner which took us out of sight of
N 25. Under general circumstances one would not have left the
machine unattended, but conditions were otherwise than general and
we had no man we could spare. Singing “In Swinemunde träumt man
im Sand,” the popular melody associated with our comfortable days in
Spitzbergen, we used our knives, axes, and ice-anchor to the best
advantage, and fragments of ice flew in all directions. It is with pride
and joy that I look back on these days, joy because I worked in
company with such men, proud because our task was accomplished.
Let me say quite frankly and honestly that I often regarded the
situation as hopeless and impossible. Ice-walls upon ice-walls raised
themselves up and had to be removed from our course; an
unfathomable gulf seemed to yawn before us threatening to stop our
progress. It had to be bridged by cheeky heroes who, never grumbling,
tackled the most hopeless tasks with laughter and with song.

TRYING OUT OUR BULB SEXTANTS

 FAST IN THE ICE
At 1 p.m. we went on board for soup. The ice was then calm. The
“Sphinx” lay in the same position. Oh! how good the thick pemmican
soup tasted! Five hours’ hard work on a cup of chocolate and three
small oatcakes gives one a good appetite. At 4 p.m. Dietrichson went
on board to fetch something, and on his return remarked that it
seemed to him that the old ice was approaching the seaplane. Now,
he, during the last days, had suffered a little from snow blindness and
we thought accordingly he had made a mistake. It was indeed a
mistake. We should have gone at once and looked into the matter.
One must however remember that every second is precious and that
we grudged stopping work. At 7 p.m. we went on board to eat our three
biscuits. The sight which then met us would have filled the bravest
heart with despair. The great pack had approached the seaplane to
within some meters. The “Sphinx” seemed to bow and chuckle with
amusement. Now it would have us! But it had laughed too soon. The
six men that it now looked upon were not the same six who some days
ago had arrived through the air from a place full of life’s comforts; the
six now were hardened by obstacles, weariness and hunger, and they
feared nothing on earth, not even the “Sphinx.” “Hurrah! heroes.
Hurrah for home and all we hold dear. The devil take the ‘Sphinx.’” And
so the work began and in its performance we got more self-confident
than ever before, as we managed to turn the heavy machine round in
the course of a few minutes. What task each person specially
performed it is difficult to say, but it was a Herculean task. We lay
down, we pulled, we toiled, we scratched. “You shall go round!” Before
we realized it there it was, turned 180° and the course set for the new
slide. The “Sphinx” hung its head and looked sad; but the next day it
lay exactly on the spot where N 25 had lain. During this performance
N 24 was pushed on to the plain beside which it had lain. Still a little
more leveling and the slide was ready. To shouts of joy the machine, in
the evening at eleven o’clock, was driven over the track and stopped
exactly beside the Thermopylæ Pass. To-morrow there would not be
much to be done.
The 7th of June. Norway’s Day! At home they would be wearing
light summer clothes and enjoying life, while flags flew over the whole
land from the North Cape to Neset. But don’t think that we forgot this
day. No! From the N 25’s highest point our silk flag flew and our
thoughts—oh! don’t let us think at all of them!
The side of the pass was formed by two gigantic icebergs which
would have to be more than half cut down before the wings could pass
over and the great ditch had to be filled up with ton after ton of snow.
But the 7th of June is a good day to work for homesick folk. The knives
are driven with greater certainty, the axes swung with greater power,
and in a remarkably short time the ice giants dwindled to dwarfs. We
experienced a very exciting episode on this occasion. While Riiser-
Larsen drove the machine over the snow glacier Dietrichson went past
and did not get out of the way. At the last moment he threw himself
down flat on the ground and the tail-skid passed so near to him that I
could not see daylight between. It was in the words’ fullest meaning a
narrow escape. “I saw you all right,” remarked the pilot later. “But I
could not stop in the middle of the bridge.” That his words were true
was proved by looking back and noting that the bridge was no longer
there. It was a delightful feeling to sit on a “flynder” and rush across the
snow plains. It was not often we got the satisfaction, as we usually had
to stand by ready to push or haul the machine over the snow. But this
intermediate plain was hard and the pilot could manage to steer with
the wheel. And thus we stood before the last ditch which had to be
filled and leveled. It took us six hours before it was finished and the
machine landed in safety on the big plain. It had been thawing the
whole day and was uncomfortably warm for working, but one could
always throw some clothes off. We were not so particular about our
appearance.
The 8th of June brought us fog and half a degree of heat. It
drizzled the whole time and we were exceptionally uncomfortable. We
were now faced by another hard task, namely, turning the machine
round in the deep wet snow. We were unused to this work and
consequently were fairly clumsy. In addition to this we had to decrease
our daily rations from 300 to 250 grammes, insufficient to keep up our
strength. Our work in the deep wet snow of this plain was wearying.
More wearying than ever before. Do you remember, comrades, how
we made the turning platform? You will scarcely have forgotten that?
The machine had to be driven up to the starting place and then swung
round 180° to face the right direction. The snow as already said was
deep and wet, and any turning of the machine under these conditions
was hardly possible. What should we do now? There was only one
thing to be done, namely, to dig down to the ice and turn the machine
on that. The snow here was from two to three feet deep and every
spadeful was a heavy weight to lift, particularly as we used the big
shovels. We cleared a circular place with a diameter of fifteen meters.
That got the name “turning-table.” Had we solved our problem by this
you might have forgotten the turning-table by now, but when we tried to
turn the machine, we found that the skids caught in the ice and
stopped the whole progress. Again we were faced with the question
—“What shall we do?” And some one was struck by a bright idea—to
lay a snow-skate underneath. We all agreed the idea was good, but to
accomplish it was not easy. We must lift the machine and it weighed
four and one-half tons. But even that did not frighten us. It was not to a
great height that we had to lift it—just about two centimeters, but only
five men were available while the sixth must place the snow-skate
underneath. Never mind, come on, my heroes. Lay your shoulders to
the wheel and lift. And then five backs are bent in unison, and one!
two! three!—we had got it up on the snow-skate at last. We continued
working steadily, regardless of time’s flight, from 4 a.m. on the 8th of
June to 4 a.m. the next day. During that time starting place No. 5 was
worked on, tried, and approved. The fog lay thick and heavy while the
drizzle continued all day on the 9th, but Riiser-Larsen insisted that the
track should be completed. Think now what a problem we had before
us when we started to work that morning. A track—500 meters long—
twelve meters broad—should be made in wet snow three feet in depth.
The snow cleared away from the track must be thrown at least six
yards away from each side so that it should not get in the way of the
machine. We had lived on 250 grammes daily for several days so you
will not be astonished when I say that by evening we were absolutely
worn out. I watched, with wonder, the two giants who wielded the
shovels all day. We others did what we could, but our work was trifling
compared to theirs. On the 11th we set to again after breakfast, but we
could not keep up this strenuous work; an observer would have
noticed at once that he had a number of worn-out people before him.
The clang of the spades got slower, the rest-intervals longer and
longer till in the end we stood quite still and stared at each other. It
seemed an impossibility to get the snow shoveled aside in a
reasonable time. Whilst we stood discussing it, Omdal walked up and
down in the snow. It was only a chance that he did so, but a chance
which brought about important results. “See,” he shouted suddenly,
“this is what we can do instead of shoveling.” The place where he had
trekked was quite hard and with a little frost would give a splendid
surface. In the afternoon we started our great trek. Foot by foot of the
track of soft wet snow was trodden into a solid road. It was still
thawing, but we knew that if it turned frosty it would become a perfect
track—and it was only natural to expect that frost would come. To
make the surface even we had to remove long and high stretches of
ice-formation containing tons upon tons of ice. On the 14th of June as
we laid down our tools I don’t think I exaggerate when I say that all in
all we had removed 500 tons of ice and snow. That day we made two
starts, 6 and 7, but the foundation was still too soft as we had had no
constant frost. Certainly the temperature that day had been as low as
-12° c., but then it rose immediately after to 0° again. It was impossible
to get up sufficient speed to rise, the machine sank down into the
snow, and in a number of places dragged the whole of the underlying
snow with it. Now will it freeze or not?
The 15th of June was fixed as the latest day for our next attempt to
start. If that was not successful we must collaborate and decide what
could be done. There were not many courses to choose. Either we
must desert the machine and attempt to reach the nearest land, or we
must stay where we were and hope for an opportunity to rise in the air.
We had performed the miracle of leaving Spitzbergen with one month’s
provisions, and yet after four weeks had passed we found we had
provisions for six weeks. We could thus hold out until the 1st of
August. In my lifetime I have often been faced by situations where I
found it difficult to decide on the right course of action, but to choose in
this case with any degree of certainty was more difficult than the
making of any previous decision. The first alternative—to set off in
search of land—appeared to me to be the most sensible as, should our
provisions run out, it was possible further south that we might find
edible animal life. In addition this plan had the great advantage that it
would occupy our thoughts with the work we had ahead. Against this
plan the fact of our modest equipment and our probably weakened
condition must be weighed. When I privately considered these two
alternatives I always came to the conclusion that to look for land was
the most sensible, but as soon as I decided on this course a voice
whispered in my ear: “Are you mad, Boy? Will you leave a complete
and good machine, filled with petrol, and go down into the high broken
ice where you know you may perish miserably? A waterway may open
up before you to-morrow and then you will be home in eight hours’
time.” Will any one blame me for my indecision when I found it so
difficult to choose.
On the evening of the 14th we unloaded everything on the ice
except the most necessary, and that we placed in a canvas boat. We
kept sufficient petrol and oil for eight hours, one canvas boat, two
shotguns, six sleeping bags, one tent, cooking utensils and provisions
for a few weeks. Even our splendid ski-shoes had to be set aside as
they were too heavy. Of our clothes we only kept what we could not do
without. All told it amounted to about 300 kg.
On the 15th of June we had a temperature of -3° c. with a little
breeze from the southeast, just the very wind we required. The track
was frozen fine and hard during the night, but the sky was not too
promising—low-lying clouds—but what in all the world did we care
about the sky! The thickest fog would not have kept us back. In this
light the track was very difficult to see; small black objects were
therefore placed at each side so that the pilot would be certain to make
no mistake. A little too much to one side or the other could be fatal. At
9:30 p.m. everything was clear and ready for a start. The solar-
compasses and the engines started. They were three-quarters warmed
up. I cast a last glance over the track and walked along it to pass the
time. It ran from northeast towards southeast. A few yards in front of
the machine there was a small crack across the ice. It was only a few
inches wide, but there it was, and at any moment it might open and
separate the little corner we stood upon from all the rest. For the
distance of 100 meters the track rose quite gradually in order to
become level. Two hundred meters away, on the floe’s southeast end,
there also lay a crack right across, but this was of a much more
serious nature, and had caused us many uneasy moments. It was
about two feet wide and filled with water and mush. This seemed to
show that it was connected with the sea and could give us a few
unpleasant surprises sooner or later. Should this crack widen and tear
away 200 meters of our track, the latter would be entirely ruined. The
floe ended in a three-foot broad water-lane; on the other side of it,
direct in the line of the track, lay a flat forty-meter long plain, which one
will understand was far from ideal, but absolutely the best which the
place could offer us. At 10:30 everything was in order. In the pilot’s
seat sat Riiser-Larsen, behind him Dietrichson and I, in the petrol tank
Omdal and Feucht, and Ellsworth in the mess. Dietrichson was to
navigate us homewards and should really have taken his place in the
observer’s seat in front of the pilot. But as that was too exposed in
view of the nature of the task we were undertaking, his place was
allotted further back at the start. This was undeniably a most anxious
moment. As soon as the machine began to glide one could notice a
great difference from the day before. The hasty forward glide was not
to be mistaken. One hundred meters off, we started at top-speed,
2,000 revolutions a minute. It trembled and shook, shivered and piped.
It was as though N 25 understood the situation. It was as though the
whole of its energy had been gathered for one last and decisive spring
from the floe’s southern edge. Now—or never.
We rushed over the three-meter wide crack, dashed down from the
forty-meter broad floe and then? Was it possible? Yes, indeed! The
scraping noise stopped, only the humming of the motor could be
heard. At last we were in flight. A smile and a nod and Dietrichson
disappeared into the observation compartment.
 And now started the flight which will take its place amongst the
most supreme in flying’s history. An 850-kilometer flight with death as
the nearest neighbor. One must remember that we had thrown
practically everything away from us. Even though we had managed by
a miracle to get away with our lives, after a forced landing, still our
days were numbered.
The sky was low and for two hours we were compelled to fly at a
height of fifty meters. It was interesting to observe the ice conditions,
so we eased down. We believed that in different places we observed
from the sky we could distinguish open water all around us. But it was
not the case. Not a drop was to be seen anywhere, nothing but ice in a
chaotic jumble all around. It was interesting also to see that the floe,
which from first to last had given us freedom, was the only floe within a
radius of many miles which could have been of any use to us. N 24 got
a farewell wave and was lost to sight for ever. Everything worked
excellently, the engines went like sewing machines and gave us
unqualified confidence. Both solar-compasses ticked and worked, and
we knew that if only the sun would appear, they would be of invaluable
assistance to us. The speedometers were placed. By the wheel sat the
pilot, cool and confident as always. In the navigating compartment was
a man I trusted absolutely, and by the engines two men who knew their
work perfectly. Ellsworth spent his time making geographical
observations and photographs. I myself managed to get what was
impossible on the journey north, a splendid opportunity to study the
whole flight. The course was set towards Spitzbergen’s north
coastland, around Nord Kap. In the two first hours we steered by the
magnetic compass. This had been considered an impossibility,
hitherto, so far north, but the result was excellent. When the sun broke
through after two hours and shone direct on the solar-compass, it
showed us how exactly we had steered. For three hours the
atmosphere had been clear, but now it turned to thick fog. We rose to a
height of 200 meters, flying over it in brilliant sunshine. Here we
derived much benefit from the solar-compasses and were able to
compare their readings with the magnetic-compass. We had fog for an
hour and then it cleared again. The condition of the ice was as on the
northern trip, small floes, with icebergs on all sides. There was
apparently no system in its formation; everything was a jumble. There
was more open water than on the northern tour, but no waterways,
only basins.
In 82° N. Lat. the fog descended again. The pilot tried for some
time to fly under it, and this was a flight which would have delighted
people who seek nerve-splitting thrills. The fog came lower and lower
till at last it stretched right over the icebergs. With a speed of about
120 miles at a low altitude one gets a new impression of flying. With a
rush we passed over the top of the icebergs one after the other. At a
great height one does not notice the terrific speed. One is, on the
contrary, astonished how slowly one appears to be traveling. Several
times icebergs peeped up directly under us, so close in fact that I
thought, “We shall never clear that one!” But the next moment we were
across it. There could not have been more than a hair’s breadth to
spare. At last the conditions became impossible; fog and ice blended
into one. We could see nothing. There was another matter as well
which was of special weight, namely, the nearness of Spitzbergen.
Should we fly into the high cliff walls with a speed of 120 kilometers
there would not be much left of us. There was only one thing to do—to
fly over the fog and that was exactly what the pilot decided to do.
Up 100 meters high—and we were above the fog in brilliant
sunshine. It was observable soon that the fog was thinning, it began to
lift more and more in big masses, and soon we could see territory
under it. It was not inviting; nothing but small ice with a little water.
When I speak of the impossible landing conditions it is only to show
that to land here would have meant certain death. Such a landing
would have crushed the machine and sent it to the bottom. The fog
lifted steadily and soon disappeared entirely. It was a fresh southerly
breeze which brought about this welcome change. The fog had lain
thickest in the south, but now that began to move away as well. Large
sections of it tore themselves away from the great mass and
disappeared in small driving clouds. Where was Spitzbergen? Had we
steered so mistakenly that we had flown to the side of it? It was quite
possible. One had no experience in the navigation of the air in these
regions. Over and over again the general opinion of the magnetic
compass’s uselessness in this district came back to my mind as I sat
there. The solar-compass had—as soon as we got the sun—shown a
reading in agreement with the magnetic compass, but it was set at
——? At what? If only I knew! There was probably no ground for
anxiety, yet I felt dubious. We ought to see land by now. We had not
enough petrol to last long—and still no land. Then suddenly a big
heavy fog-cloud tore itself away and rose slowly, disclosing a high
glittering hill-top. There was scarcely any doubt. It must be
Spitzbergen. To the north lay some islands. They coincided with
Syvöene and the land stretched out in a westerly direction. But even if
it were not Spitzbergen, it was still land—good, solid land. From the
islands there stretched a dark strip northwards. It was water—the great
open sea. Oh! what a delightful feeling—sea and land and no more
ice. Our course lay southwards, but to get more quickly away from the
ugly conditions beneath us, the course was set westwards and
downwards to the open sea. It was more than a clever move on the
part of the pilot—it was refreshing to see how instinct came to his aid—
because the controls were showing signs of wear. It is enough to say
before we had got right across the sea the controls jammed and an
immediate landing was necessary. The wind blew with a cold blast
from what we learned later was Hinlopen Strait and the sea was high
and rough. The forced landing was accomplished with all the
assurance and experience which always distinguished our pilot. We
left our places and all went aft in order to allow the nose to lift as high
as possible. The pilot was the only one left forward. He flew most
carefully, guiding the boat and maneuvering it against the highest
waves, which were of tremendous dimensions. We who were aft kept
warm and dry, but it was a different matter for the man at the wheel.
Time after time the waves lashed over him, wetting him to the skin in a
few minutes. It was not “spray” which we shipped when the waves
broke over us. Unused as I was to maneuvers of this kind I expected
every moment to see the bottom stove in. It was seven in the evening
when the forced landing was accomplished, and it was not until eight
that we reached land. It was a fairly shoal bay we entered and the
landing places it offered us were not of the best. We found a sloping
side of the coast ice where we could climb ashore. The wind now died
away and the sun shone on the heavy stones which lay on the beach.
Here and there a little fresh rill ran between them singing as it
descended from the hillsides. The sweet voices of birds fitted in with
our gentle mood of eventide and inspired in us a feeling of solemnity.
There was no need to look for a church wherein to praise God the
Almighty and offer up to Him our burning thanks. Here was a spot
amidst His own wonderful nature. The sea lay smooth and calm with
here and there tremendous pieces of ice protruding from the water.
The whole scene made an ineradicable impression on us which we
shall never forget. The plane was moored to a large piece of ice so
that it swung free, and all of us went ashore. There were two things
which it was necessary for us to do in our own interests. First to
discover our whereabouts and then to have a little food. The chocolate
and the three biscuits we had taken at 8 a.m. no longer satisfied us.
While Dietrichson “took the sun” the rest of us got the meal ready—a
repetition of breakfast. How good it tasted! How fine it was to jump
about among the big rocks! We became children again. All around lay
driftwood which we could use for firing if we remained here any time.
The ninety liters of petrol which we had must be used sparingly.
Omdal, who had been our cook during the whole trip, wished to set
the Primus going, as there was still a little drop of petrol left in it, and
he was busy with it when suddenly Riiser-Larsen shouted, “There is a
ship.” And truly there in the east round the nearest point came a little
cutter, gliding along. Had misfortune earlier been our lot luck seemed
now to overwhelm us. It was now 9 p.m. and Dietrichson had just
completed his observations. We found that we were exactly at Nord
Kap on Nordostland, the very spot we had steered for in the morning.
Thus the flight was a master-stroke on the part of the man who
directed the machine, while the navigator shares the distinction with
him. It was a splendid deed! But—the little cutter had changed her
course and apparently had not noticed us. She moved quickly and was
probably fitted with a motor engine. What should we do? What should
we do to communicate with it? “Nothing easier,” said the flying-men.
“Just sit tight and you shall see.” In a second everything was brought
on board the plane, the motor started and we rushed over the sea
stopping exactly beside the cutter. It was the cutter “Sjöliv” of Balsfjord
—Captain Nils Wollan. A jolly-boat was lowered and with two men
rowed across to us. They seemed in doubt as to who we could be,
dirty and bearded as we were. But when I turned slightly round I
exposed my profile—and they knew us at once. Would they tow us
down to King’s Bay as our petrol was almost done? They would be
delighted to do this, in fact Wollan would have certainly towed us to
China if we had asked him, so glad was he to see us, so beaming with
kindness and goodwill. We had a rope attached to N 25 and we all
went on board the “Sjöliv.” There for the first time we felt that the
expedition was finished. Quietly and calmly we shook hands with each
other—it was a handshake that said much. We were received by all
the crew with hearty welcome and shown down to the cabins. While
this part of the ship was not exactly a ballroom, the cabins on “Sjöliv”—
2 × 2 meters—compared with what we had had in the last four weeks,
were roomy and comfortable. These good people cleared out of them
absolutely and handed over the whole place to us. In the two broad
bunks four of us were able to sleep, while two found berths in the
men’s quarters. “Will you have coffee?” was the first question. Would
we! Yes, certainly, and as quickly as possible with a smoke thrown in.
We had been tobaccoless for the last days and now were longing for a
smoke. The first coffee was not an unqualified success; the coffee pot
was set on the fire to warm and, on a mighty roll the cutter gave, it flew
straight onto Riiser-Larsen’s back. He was thus the first to get coffee,
but if he appreciated the honor, his language expressed a totally
different opinion. They apologized to us for the egg pancake and the
seal-flesh which comprised the next course, but apologies were
unnecessary. All the food disappeared as though a whirlwind had
passed over the table—and this, despite the fact that we had decided
to eat sparingly after our long restriction.
The towing of N 25 proceeded satisfactorily in the beginning, but
during the night a southerly breeze came up blowing directly down
from the hills. The waves increased steadily and as we steered
westwards towards Hinlopen Strait we decided that we must turn
landwards and anchor. We only got to bed at 5:30 a.m., after traversing
an endless number of roods.
At eleven o’clock the next morning we were up again. It was
blowing a gale and we lay badly. We decided therefore that we should
go into the nearest bay to find a calm and safe harborage for N 25, let
it remain there while we went on to King’s Bay for assistance, return
for the seaplane and fly it down. The nearest harbor was Brandy Bay.
We looked at each other as much as to say, “Can we really permit
ourselves to enter a place with such a name?” The ice here lay at the
bottom of the Bay and we towed the machine safely through it. At 8
p.m. we steered for King’s Bay. It was a windy passage through
Hinlopen Strait. The sea was high and rough and the “Sjöliv” enjoyed
herself royally. If our feelings agreed with hers, I should not like to say.
On the 17th we sailed along Spitzbergen’s north coast in summer
sunshine and warmth. We passed a few vessels and asked if they had
seen “Hobby”—but “No, they had not.”
As we passed Virgo-havn we hoisted all our flags and the little
“Sjöliv” was in gala attire. We wanted to honor the memory of the man
who, for the first time, sought to reach the Pole through the air—
Salomon August Andrëe. Was there any one in the world who had
more right to honor the memory of this man than we six who stood
here looking over the place from which he set out on his sad
expedition. I scarcely think so. We lowered our flag and continued.
At 11 p.m. we rounded Cape Mitra and there lay King’s Bay before
us. It was a wonderful sensation to sail back through the Bay and see
all the old well-known places again. The ice had vanished, melted by
the sunshine as loon and auk gamboled in its rays. Anxiety was rife
among us as we sailed in as to whether “Hobby” was here or not? The
skipper looked out, came back and announced that “Hobby” was not
here; only a coal-boat lay by the quay. As we approached one or other
of us went continually to look out; suddenly some one cried, “Yes,
there is ‘Hobby.’ And another boat lies there also, but I can’t distinguish
which it is.” Our relief was great. There lay “Hobby” and many of our
dear friends were near. “Hullo,” some one cried from above, “the other
boat is the Heimdal.’” “No, you must be mad. What would the ‘Heimdal’
be doing here?” answered another. We had not the slightest idea what
awaited us. Nearer and nearer we approached. “Shall we raise the
flag?” said the skipper. “No,” I answered, “there is no reason to do so.”
But a little later some one said, “Surely we must greet the naval flag.”
“Yes, naturally. I have forgotten my good manners on the trip,” I had to
admit. So up went the flag and the “Sjöliv” approached the quay. We
continually had our glasses directed on the ships ahead; suddenly
some one exclaimed, “Good gracious, two flying machines are lying
there.” And, true enough, there lay two Hansa-Brandenburgers ready
for flight. Surely they were destined for a North Coast charting survey,
as that had been discussed last year. Yes, that seemed quite possible!
That we were the reason for all this excitement never entered our
minds. We came on nearer and nearer. We could now see that they
were beginning to direct glasses on us from the Coast, showing
interest in the little cutter. As we sailed in one of our people who saw a
comrade on board the “Hobby” shouted, “Hullo, Finn, how is everything
at home?” That was the signal for great excitement. We saw them run
round each other in jubilation, shouting and gesticulating. What in the
world was the reason for all this? Soon we were to know. The motor
stopped and the “Sjöliv” sailed up alongside “Hobby.”

MEMBERS OF THE EXPEDITION ARRIVING AT KING’S BAY

The reception we received will never be forgotten, not even when
other things fill our thoughts. Our friends wept, they took hold of us,
they looked at us with unbelieving glance—“But, Great God, is it you?”
They simply did not realize that we had returned. But they explained
how they had waited and waited, insisting that they had never given us
up, while in their hearts they knew they had. And suddenly there we
stood among them—the dead returned to life. No wonder that the
reaction was great. Not one sensible word was said during the first half
hour. There stood all our dear old friends: Captain Hagerup, Lieutenant
Horgen, Zapffe, Ramm, Berge, etc. They looked so happy. And there
were the dear fellows who had been sent to our relief: Captain Blom of
the “Heimdal” and First Lieutenant F. Lutzow-Holm with the air fleet.

ROALD AMUNDSEN AND LINCOLN ELLSWORTH AT THE

RECEPTION BY THE KING OF NORWAY
The last to come down, not because he wished to be late, but
because it took him a long time to traverse the road from the Director’s
house, was our dear host, Stakkars Knutsen. He had run so fast that
he had to stand for a time to regain his breath. It was a warm reunion.
Among all who had missed us in that time there was scarcely anybody
whom our absence had made more uneasy. Late and early, we were
told, he had scanned the horizon looking for us. Never had we been
out of his thoughts. Big, strong man as he was, he had the warmest
and softest of hearts. No wonder then that the meeting with Knutsen
was regarded as an outstandingly important incident.
We had to be photographed from all sides, although a record
would appear on the plate of a month’s whiskers and dirt. In an hour
both would have vanished. And so we set off to our old King’s Bay
quarters where we had passed unforgettable days before our
departure. It was like a delightful dream to see it again. Every day as
we had sat in our little mess on N 25 taking our humble meal, it was
remarked on every side, “Oh! if only we were back at Knutsen’s.” And
now we were there. We felt we wanted to pinch ourselves and ask, “Is
this really possible? Can you really eat as many biscuits as you wish?”
There was no time to shave and wash first. No! Berta had now taken
command, and we should first and foremost have food. As we stepped
into the room, cheering broke out. The Station welcomed us back, and
never has our National Anthem sounded finer than it did as we stood in
the little square room listening to the tones of what is our dearest
hymn. I believe there was not one dry eye in the company. “Gud sygne
dig landet vaart. Vi gir dig med glede alt.”
On the next day about three or four o’clock the steam bath was
ready and a change was effected; hair and whiskers disappeared. We
were all very thin, but we noticed it now more distinctly. It looked as
though Riiser-Larsen could have put his collar twice round his neck—
the same size collar which had even been tight for him when he set out
for the north.
What time we went to bed that night I really cannot say, but I do
know that when I came out next morning and looked around, one of
the finest sights met me, making an ineradicable impression. On the
flagstaff, right before the house, waved our big, beautiful National flag
in a light summer breeze. The sun was blazing down and the glaciers
around shone like silver in its rays. All seemed to be in festal dress.
The hills blushed with the finest little flowers, and the birds twittered
and sang. In the harbor lay the boats fully be-flagged. Yes! it was