How Psychology Works Dk

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-psychology-works-dk/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

How Money Works Dk

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-money-works-dk/

How Space Works 1st Edition Dk

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-space-works-1st-edition-dk/

How Philosophy Works The Concepts Visually Explained Dk

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-philosophy-works-the-
concepts-visually-explained-dk/

How Management Works The Concepts Visually Explained

1st Edition Dk

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-management-works-the-
concepts-visually-explained-1st-edition-dk/
Music and How it Works The Complete Guide for Kids 1st
Edition Dk

https://textbookfull.com/product/music-and-how-it-works-the-
complete-guide-for-kids-1st-edition-dk/

The Psychology Book 1st Edition Dk

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-psychology-book-1st-edition-
dk/

How Learning Happens Seminal Works in Educational

Psychology and What They Mean in Practice Paul A.
Kirschner

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-learning-happens-seminal-
works-in-educational-psychology-and-what-they-mean-in-practice-
paul-a-kirschner/

How Linux Works 3rd Edition Brian Ward

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-linux-works-3rd-edition-
brian-ward/

How It Works Book of Space Imagine Publishing

https://textbookfull.com/product/how-it-works-book-of-space-
imagine-publishing/
HOW
PSYCHOLOGY
WORKS
HOW
PSYCHOLOGY
WORKS
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY visually explained

Consultant editor Jo Hemmings

 CONTENTS
Senior editor Kathryn Hennessy
Senior art editor Gadi Farfour
Editors Anna Chiefetz, Jemima Dunne,
Anna Fischel, Joanna Micklem,
Victoria Pyke, Zoë Rutland
US Editors Megan Douglass, Cheri Clark
Designers Phil Gamble, Vanessa Hamilton,
Renata Latipova
Managing editor Gareth Jones
Senior managing art editor Lee Griffiths

Publisher Liz Wheeler

Publishing director Jonathan Metcalf
Art director Karen Self
Senior jacket designer Mark Cavanagh
Jacket editor Clare Gell
Jacket design Sophia MTT
development manager
Pre-production producer Gillian Reid
Senior producer Mandy Inness

First American Edition, 2018

Published in the United States by DK Publishing
345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014

Copyright © 2018 Dorling Kindersley Limited

DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC
18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
001–308440–Jun/2018

All rights reserved.

Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above,
no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form,
or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission
of the copyright owner.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited

A catalog record for this book

is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-1-4654-6861-1

DK books are available at special discounts when purchased

in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or
educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special
Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
SpecialSales@dk.com

Printed and bound in China

A WORLD OF IDEAS:
SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW

www.dk.com
 PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS
Diagnosing disorders 36 Schizophrenia 70
Depression 38 Schizoaffective disorder 72
Bipolar disorder 40 Catatonia 73
Foreword 8 Perinatal mental illness 42 Delusional disorder 74
DMDD (disruptive mood Dementia 76
dysregulation disorder) 44 CTE (chronic traumatic
WHAT IS SAD (seasonal affective
disorder) 45
encephalopathy)
Delirium (acute confusional
78

PSYCHOLOGY? Panic disorder

Specific phobias
46
48
state)
Substance use disorder
79
80
Agoraphobia 50 Impulse-control and addiction 82
The development of Claustrophobia 51 Gambling disorder 83
psychology 12 GAD (generalized anxiety Kleptomania 84
Psychoanalytical theory 14 disorder) 52 Pyromania 85
Behaviorist approach 16 Social anxiety disorder 53 DID (dissociative identity
Humanism 18 Separation anxiety disorder 54 disorder) 86
Cognitive psychology 20 Selective mutism 55 Depersonalization and
Biological psychology 22 OCD (obsessive compulsive derealization 88
How the brain works 24 disorder) 56 Dissociative amnesia 89
How memory works 30 Hoarding disorder 58 Anorexia nervosa 90
How emotions work 32 BDD (body dysmorphic Bulimia nervosa 92
disorder) 59 Binge-eating disorder 94
Skin-picking and hair-pulling Pica 95
disorders 60 Communication disorders 96
Illness anxiety disorder 61 Sleep disorders 98
PTSD (post-traumatic stress Tic disorders 100
disorder) 62 PD (personality disorders) 102
ASR (acute stress reaction) 63 Other disorders 108
Adjustment disorder 64
Reactive attachment
disorder 65
ADHD (attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder) 66
ASD (autism spectrum
disorder) 68
 PSYCHOLOGY IN
THE REAL WORLD

Psychology of self-identity 146

Identity formation 148
Personality 150
HEALING Self-actualization 152

THERAPIES The psychology of

relationships 154
Psychology and attachment 156
Health and therapy 112 Humanistic therapies 130 The science of love 158
Physical and psychological Person-centered therapy 132 How dating works 160
health 114 Reality therapy 132 Psychology and the stages
The role of therapy 116 Existential therapy 133 of relationships 162
Gestalt therapy 133
Psychodynamic therapies 118 Emotion-focused therapy 134 Psychology in education 166
Psychoanalysis 119 Solution-focused brief therapy 134 Educational theories 168
Jungian therapy 120 Somatic therapies 135 The psychology of teaching 172
Self psychology and object EMDR (eye movement Assessing problems 174
relations 121 desensitization and
Transactional analysis 121 reprocessing) 136 Psychology in the workplace 176
Hypnotherapy 136 Selecting the best candidate 178
Cognitive and behavioral Arts-based therapies 137 Managing talent 180
therapies 122 Animal-assisted therapy 137 Team development 182
Behavioral therapy 124 Leadership 184
Cognitive therapy 124 Systemic therapies 138 Organizational culture and
CBT (cognitive behavioral Family systems therapy 139 change 186
therapy) 125 Strategic family therapy 140
Third wave CBT 126 Dyadic developmental therapy 141
CPT (cognitive processing Contextual therapy 141
therapy) 127
REBT (rational emotive Biotherapies 142
behavior therapy) 127
Methods used in CBTs 128
Mindfulness 129

HFE psychology
Engineering displays
Human error and prevention
Forensic psychology
Psychology and criminal
investigations
Psychology in the courtroom
Psychology in prisons
Psychology in politics
Voting behavior
Obedience and
decision-making
Nationalism
Psychology in the
community
How community works
Empowerment
Urban communities
Safety in the community
Consumer psychology
Understanding consumer
behavior
CONTRIBUTORS
Jo Hemmings (consultant editor)
is a behavioral psychologist who
studied at the Universities of
Warwick and London. She has
188 Changing consumer behavior 228 authored several successful books
190 Consumer neuroscience 230 on relationships, writes regularly for
192 The power of branding 232 national newspapers and magazines,
The power of celebrity 234 is a regular on TV and radio, and
194 runs a counseling practice in
The psychology of sports 236 London. She is also the consultant
196 Improving skills 238 psychologist on ITV’s Good Morning
200 Keeping motivated 240 Britain in the UK.
202 Getting in the zone 242
Performance anxiety 244 Catherine Collin is a clinical
204 psychologist and Director of
206 Psychometric tests 246 Outlook SW Ltd (IAPT) and an
Associate Professor (Clinical
208 Index 248 Psychology) at Plymouth University.
210 Catherine’s interests lie in primary
Acknowledgments care mental health and the cognitive
and picture credits 256 behavioral therapies.
214
216 Joannah Ginsburg Ganz is
218 a clinical psychotherapist and
220 journalist who has worked in private
222 and public settings for the past 25
years. She also regularly contributes
224 to psychology publications.
226 Merrin Lazyan is a radio producer,
writer, editor, and classical singer
who studied psychology at Harvard
University. She has worked on
several fiction and nonfiction books,
spanning a broad range of topics.
Alexandra Black is a freelance
author who writes on a range of
subjects, from history to business.
Her writing career initially took her
to Japan, and she later worked for a
publisher in Australia before moving
to Cambridge, UK.
 HOW PSYCHOLOGY WORKS
Foreword 8 9

Foreword
Lying at the intersection of a number of disciplines, including
biology, philosophy, sociology, medicine, anthropology, and artificial
intelligence, psychology has always fascinated people. How do
psychologists interpret human behavior to understand why we
do what do? Why are there so many branches and approaches, and
how do they work in a practical sense in our day-to-day lives? Is
psychology an art or a science, or a fusion of both?

While theories come and go out of fashion—and new studies,

experiments, and research are conducted all the time—the essence of
psychology is to explain the behavior of individuals based on the
workings of the mind. In these often turbulent and uncertain times,
people are increasingly looking to psychology and psychologists to
help them make sense of why the powerful and influential behave the
way that they do, and the resulting impact that might have on us. But
psychology also has huge relevance to those much closer to us than
politicians, celebrities, or business magnates—it tells us a great deal
about our own families, friends, partners, and work colleagues. It also
resonates a great deal in understanding our own minds, leading to a
greater self-awareness of our own thoughts and behaviors.

As well as offering us a basic understanding of all the various

theories, disorders, and therapies that form part of this ever-changing
field of study, psychology plays a huge role in our everyday lives.
Whether it is in education, the workplace, sports, or our personal and
intimate relationships—and even the way that we spend our money or
how we vote—there is a branch of psychology that impacts every
single one of us in our daily lives on a constant and continued basis.

How Psychology Works considers all aspects of psychology—from

theories to therapies, personal issues to practical applications, all
presented in an accessible, stylish, and beautifully simple way. I wish
it had been around when I was a psychology student!

Jo Hemmings, consultant editor

WHAT IS
PSYCHOLOGY?
There are many different approaches to psychology—
the scientific study of the human mind and how
individuals behave. All seek the key to unlock
people’s thoughts, memories, and emotions.
 The development
of psychology
Most advances in psychology are recent, dating back about 150 years,
but its origins lie with the philosophers of ancient Greece and Persia.
Many approaches and fields of study have been developed that give
psychologists a toolkit to apply to the real world. As society has changed,
new applications have also arisen to meet people’s needs.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A FORMAL
DISCIPLINE

1808 Franz Gall writes about

c.1550 bce The Ebers
Papyrus (Egyptian
medical papyrus)
mentions depression
ANCIENT GREEK
PHILOSOPHERS
470–370 bce Democritus
makes a distinction
between the intellect
and knowledge gained
through the senses;
Hippocrates introduces
the principle of scientific
medicine
387 bce Plato
suggests that the
brain is the seat of 350 bce Aristotle writes
mental processes on the soul in De Anima,
and he introduces the
tabula rasa (blank slate)
concept of the mind
c.300–30 bce Zeno
teaches stoicism,
the inspiration for CBT
(cognitive behavioral 705 ce The first hospital
therapy) in the 1960s for the mentally ill is built
in Baghdad (followed by
hospitals in Cairo in 800
and Damascus in 1270)
SCHOLARS OF THE EARLY
MUSLIM WORLD
phrenology (the idea that a
1879 Wilhelm
person’s skull shape and
Wundt founds a
placement of bumps on
laboratory in Leipzig,
the head can reveal
Germany, dedicated to
personality traits)
1698 John Locke psychological research,
describes the human marking the start of
mind as a tabula rasa formal experimental
1629–1633 René (blank slate) at birth in psychology
Descartes outlines his An Essay Concerning
dualistic theory of mind Human Understanding
versus matter (pp.24–25)
in Treatise of the World
1620s Francis Bacon
writes on psychological
topics, including the mid-1880s Wundt trains
1590 Rudolph Goclenius nature of knowledge Hugo Münsterberg and
first coins the term and memory James McKeen Cattell,
“psychology” who sow the seeds of I/O
(industrial/organizational)
psychology (pp.176–187)
EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHERS
1890–1920 Methods
of teaching in schools
1025 Avicenna’s Canon are changed with the
of Medicine describes advent of educational
c.900 Ahmed ibn Sahl many conditions, psychology (pp.166–175)
al-Balkhi writes of mental including hallucinations,
illness, with physical and/ mania, insomnia, and
or psychological causes; dementia
Rhazes practices the
first recorded
psychotherapy 1896 Clinical psychology
850 Ali ibn Sahl Rabban begins with the first
al Tabari develops the idea psychological clinic at
of clinical psychiatry to the University of
treat mental patients Pennsylvania

1920s Dr. Carl Diem
founds a sports
psychology laboratory
in Berlin (pp.236–245)
1920s onward The use
of psychometric tests to
measure intelligence starts
individual-differences
psychology (pp.146–153)
1920 Jean Piaget
publishes The Child’s
Conception of the World,
prompting the study of
cognition in children
1916 Lewis Terman
applies psychology
to law enforcement,
heralding the beginnings
of forensic psychology
(pp.194–203)
1913 John B. Watson
publishes Psychology as
the Behaviorist Views It,
outlining the principles of
behaviorism (pp.16–17)
BEHAVIORAL
1913 Carl Jung breaks
away from his colleague
Freud and develops his
own theories (p.120) of
the unconscious mind
1909 onward
Developmental
psychology (pp.146–153)
emerges prompted by
Freud’s emphasis on the
importance of childhood
experiences
1900 Sigmund Freud
introduces his theory
of psychoanalysis in
The Interpretation of
Dreams (pp.14–15)
PSYCHOANALYTICAL
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
The development of psychology
1920s Behavioral psychologist
John B. Watson begins
working in the advertising
industry and develops the
discipline of consumer
psychology (pp.224–235)
Early 1930s Social
psychologist Marie
Jahoda publishes the first
study of community
psychology (pp.214–223)
BIOLOGICAL
1935 onward
Biological psychology
1935 Kurt Koffka
(pp.22–23) emerges
publishes Principles
as a discipline
of Gestalt Psychology
(p.18 and p.133)
1938 ECT
(electroconvulsive
therapy) (pp.142−143) is
used for the first time
1939 HFE psychology
(pp.188–193) develops in
World War II to help
operators make and use
complex machines and
weaponry with accuracy
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
1950s In his studies of
epilepsy, neuroscientist
1950s The first Wilder G. Penfield links
psychoactive drugs chemical activity in the
are developed; brain with psychological
psychopharmacology phenomena (pp.22–23)
begins as a treatment
for mental illness
(pp.142–143)
1952 The first Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders
is published
12 13
2000 The World Congress
of Psychology takes place in
Stockholm. Diplomat Jan
Eliasson discusses how
psychology can help
conflict resolution
2000 Sequencing
of the human
1990 Jerome Bruner
publishes Acts of Meaning: genome opens
up a new area of
Four Lectures on Mind and
Culture, drawing on research into the
human mind
philosophy, linguistics, and
anthropology (cultural and body
psychology, pp.214–215)
1980s Health
1976 Richard Dawkins psychology
publishes The Selfish Gene, (pp.112–115) becomes
popularizing evolutionary a recognized branch
psychology (p.22) of the profession
1971 A CT
1965 The Swampscott (computed
Conference of Education tomography) scan
of Psychologists in makes the first image
Community Mental of a living brain
Health takes place
Early 1960s Systemic
1960s Interest in (family) therapy
community psychology (pp.138–141) emerges
(pp.214–223) surges due as a field of study
to political unrest
1960s Aaron T. Beck
pioneers the practice
1956 George A. Miller
of CBT (p.125)
applies cognitive psychology
(pp.20–21) in The Magical
Number Seven, Plus
or Minus Two
COGNITIVE
1954 Abraham Maslow
publishes Motivation
and Personality, hailing
humanism as a third force
in psychology (pp.18–19)
HUMANISTIC
1954 Gordon Allport
identifies the stages
of social prejudice,
an aspect of political
psychology (pp.204–213)
 Psychoanalytical
theory
This psychological theory proposes that the unconscious
struggles of the mind determine how personality develops
and dictates behavior.

What is it?
Founded by Austrian neurologist
Sigmund Freud in the early 20th
century, psychoanalytical theory
proposed that personality and
behavior are the outcome of
continual conflicts in the mind.
The individual is not usually aware
of the discord because it takes
place at a subconscious level. Freud
suggested conflict occurs between
three parts of the mind: the id,
superego, and ego (below, right).
Freud believed that personality
develops from birth in five stages,
which he called psychosexual
because they involve both sexuality
and mental processes. At each
stage a person’s mind focuses on
a different aspect of sexuality, such
as oral pleasure when they suck
their thumb as a baby. Freud
believed that the psychosexual
stages trigger a battle between

Dreams
Topographical model Dreams are seen as a channel
for unconscious thoughts that
Freud divided the mind into three levels of consciousness. people cannot usually access
The conscious mind forms only a small part of the whole. because many of them are too
Although it is completely unaware of the thoughts in the disturbing for the conscious
unconscious mind, the latter still affect behavior. mind to cope with.

Conscious mind
This contains the ideas
and emotions that
people are aware of.

Preconscious mind
This stores information
such as childhood
memories, which can
be accessed through
Psychoanalysis psychoanalysis.
In this therapy (p.119),
the client tells the analyst
about their childhood Unconscious mind
memories and dreams This hides most of
in order to unlock the a person’s impulses,
unconscious mind and desires, and thoughts.
reveal how it is controlling
or triggering undesirable
behavior.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychoanalytical theory 14 15

biology and social expectations,

DEFENSE MECHANISM
and the mind must resolve this
conflict before a person can move What is it?
on to healthy mental development.
Freud argued that
people subconsciously
Evaluation employ defense
Although Freud’s model has been mechanisms when
hugely influential in highlighting faced with anxiety or
the role of the subconscious unpleasant emotions.
(psychoanalysis, p.119), it has These mechanisms help
proved controversial because it them to cope with
memories or impulses
focuses on sexuality as the driver
that they find stressful
of personality. Many critics view or distasteful by tricking
his model as too subjective and too them into thinking that
simplistic to explain the complex everything is fine.
nature of the mind and behavior.
What happens? How does it work?
The ego uses defense Denial is a common
mechanisms to help defense mechanism
people reach a mental used to justify a habit
compromise when an individual feels
dealing with things that bad about, such as
cause internal conflict. smoking. By saying that
Common mechanisms they are only a “social
that distort a sense smoker,” they can allow
of reality include themselves to have a
denial, displacement, cigarette while not
repression, regression, admitting that they
intellectualization, and are in fact addicted
projection. to smoking.

Structural model
The conscious mind is just the tip of the iceberg,
a small part of a hidden whole. Psychoanalytical
theory is based on the concept that the Conscious
unconscious mind is structured in three
parts—the id, ego, and superego—which
“talk” to one another to try to resolve
conflicting emotions and impulses.
Superego Ego
This wants to do This is the voice of
the right thing. reason, negotiating
It is the moral with the id and the
conscience that superego.
NEED TO KNOW takes on the
❯❯Inferiority complex When role of a strict Id
self-esteem is so low that a parent. This strives
person cannot function normally. for instant
The idea was developed by gratification,
neo-Freudian Alfred Adler. is childlike,
❯❯Pleasure principle What drives impulsive,
the id—the desire to obtain and hard
pleasure and avoid pain. to reason
❯❯Neo-Freudians Theorists who with.
built on Freud’s psychoanalytic
theories, such as Carl Jung, Erik
Unconscious
Erikson, and Alfred Adler.
 Behaviorist approach
Behavioral psychology analyzes and treats people on the basis that
their behavior is learned by interacting with the world and that the
influence of the subconscious is irrelevant.

What is it? stimulus that triggers a particular psychoanalytic approach (pp.14–15),

The starting point for behavioral
psychology is a focus on only
observable human behavior,
leaving out thought and emotion.
This approach rests on three main
assumptions. First, people learn
their behavior from the world
around them, and not from innate
or inherited factors. Second,
because psychology is a science,
measurable data from controlled
experiments and observation
should support its theories. Third,
all behavior is the result of a
response. Once the behavioral
psychologist has identified a
person’s stimulus-response
association, they can predict it,
a method known as classical
conditioning (below). In therapy
(pp.122–129), the therapist uses
this prediction to help the client
change their behavior.
Evaluation
The strength of the behaviorist
approach—that it can be
scientifically proven, unlike Freud’s
for example—has also been seen
as its weakness. Many of the
behavioral experiments were
carried out on rats and dogs, and
humanists (pp.18–19) in particular
rejected the assumption that people
in the world acted in the same way
as animals in laboratory conditions.
Behavioral psychology also
takes little account of free will
or biological factors such as
testosterone and other hormones,
reducing human experience to a
set of conditioned behaviors.

Themes of behaviorism METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM

John Watson developed behavioral psychology in 1913.
His theory agreed with the early 20th-century trend Watson’s theory became known
toward data-backed science rather than concentrating on as methodological behaviorism
the subjective workings of the mind, and the behaviorist because of its focus on scientific
approach was influential for decades. Later psychologists methods:
interpreted behavioral theory along more flexible lines, ❯❯He viewed psychology as a science,
but objective evidence remains a cornerstone of research. its goals being the prediction and
control of behavior.
❯❯It is the most extreme theory of
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING behaviorism because it rules out
any influence from a person’s
Pavlov noted that his dogs salivated at the sight of food DNA or internal mental state.
and started ringing a bell at the same time as feeding ❯❯It assumes that when people are
them. Soon, the dogs salivated merely at the sound of born their minds are a blank slate
the bell, which they now associated with food. and they learn all their behavior
from the people and things around
them (classical conditioning, left).
For example, a baby smiles back
when their mother smiles, or cries
Neutral Unconditioned Conditioned Conditioned EXTERNAL if their mother raises her voice.
stimulus response stimulus response

Unconditioned
stimulus

OPERANT CONDITIONING
This method for inducing behavior change, in this case training a dog, involves positive or negative
actions on the part of the owner to reinforce or punish the dog’s behavior.
❯❯Positive reinforcement Giving
a reward encourages good
behavior. For example, the dog
receives a treat for sitting on
command. It quickly learns that
repeating that behavior will
earn it another treat.
❯❯Negative reinforcement The
owner removes something bad to
encourage good behavior. The lead
goes slack when the dog walks
close to its owner. The dog learns
to walk to heel without pulling and
so avoid the choking sensation.
RADICAL BEHAVIORISM
In the 1930s B. F. Skinner
developed radical behaviorism,
which allowed for the influence
of biology on behavior:
❯❯Like Watson, Skinner believed
that the most valid approach to
psychology was one based on
scientifically observing human
behavior and its triggers.
❯❯Skinner took classical
conditioning a step forward with
the idea of reinforcement—
behavior that is
reinforced by a
reward is more
likely to be
repeated (operant
conditioning,
EXTERNAL BIOLOGY above).
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Behaviorist approach 16 17
❯❯Positive punishment The owner
does something unpleasant to
discourage bad behavior. When
the dog pulls ahead on the lead,
its collar feels uncomfortably tight
around its throat.
❯❯Negative punishment Taking
away something that the dog enjoys
is used to discourage undesired
behaviors. For example, the owner
turns their back on the dog to
deprive it of attention if it jumps up.
The dog learns not to jump up.
PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM
Conceived by Arthur W. Staats,
psychological behaviorism gained
dominance over four decades.
It informs current practice in
psychology, especially in
COGNITION education:
❯❯A person’s personality is shaped
by learned behaviors, genetics,
their emotional state, how their
brain processes information, and
the world around them.
EMOTION ❯❯Staats researched the importance
of parenting in child development.
❯❯He showed that early linguistic
and cognitive training resulted in
advanced language development
and higher performance in
intelligence tests when children
EXTERNAL BIOLOGY were older.
 Humanism
Unlike other psychological approaches, humanism places central
importance on the individual’s viewpoint, encouraging the question
“How do I see myself?” rather than “How do others see me?”
What is it?
Whereas behavioral psychology is
concerned with observing external
actions and psychoanalysis delves
into the subconscious, humanism is
holistic, focusing on how a person
perceives their own behavior and
interprets events. It centers on a
person’s subjective view of
themselves and who they would
like to be, rather than the objective
view of an observer.
Pioneered by Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow in the 1950s,
humanism offers an alternative way
of trying to fathom human nature. It
assumes that personal growth and
fulfillment are primary goals in life,
and that emotional and mental
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Influenced by humanism, gestalt
psychology examines in detail how
the mind takes small pieces of
information and builds them into
a meaningful whole. It emphasizes
the importance of perception—the
laws that govern how each person
perceives the world.
Part of gestalt assessment
involves showing clients a series
of images to discover how their
eye perceives each one. The Rubin
Vase illusion is the best known
of these, and illustrates the law of
“figure” and “ground”: a person’s
mind always works to distinguish a
figure (words, for example) from its
background (a white page), and in
doing so, makes a decision about
priority and what to focus on.
“The good life is a process,
not a state of being.”
Carl Rogers, American humanist psychologist
well-being comes from achieving
this. The principle of free will,
exercised in the choices a person
makes, is also key.
Evaluation
Rogers and other humanist
psychologists suggested a number
of new methods of investigation,
such as open-ended questionnaires
in which there were no “right”
answers, casual interviews, and
the use of diaries to record feelings
THE RUBIN VASE ILLUSION offers the
viewer a perceptual choice between
seeing two faces in profile and seeing a
white vase.
and thoughts. They reasoned that
the only way to really get to know
someone was to talk to them.
Humanism is the theory that
underpins person-centered therapy
(p.132)—one of the most common
therapies for depression. The
humanistic approach is also used in
education to encourage children to
exercise free will and make choices
for themselves, and in researching
and understanding motivation.
However, humanism ignores
other aspects of the individual such
as their biology, the subconscious
mind, and the powerful influence
of hormones. Critics also say that
the approach is unscientific,
because its goal of self-realization
cannot be accurately measured.
Road to fulfillment
Carl Rogers identified three parts to
personality that determine a person’s
psychological state: self-worth,
self-image, and the ideal self. When
a person’s feelings, behavior, and
experience match their self-
image and reflect who they
would like to be (ideal self),
they are content. But if there
is a mismatch (incongruence)
between these aspects,
they are dissatisfied.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Humanism 18 19

INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP?
Humanism is rooted in Western ideas of personal identity SELF-ACTUALIZATION
and achievement, sometimes called individualism. In
contrast, collectivism subordinates the person to the group.

Individualism
❯❯Identity defined in terms
of personal attributes—
such as outgoing, kind,
or generous
❯❯Own goals take priority
over those of the group
Collectivism
❯❯Identity defined by which
group someone belongs to SELF-ACTUALIZATION
❯❯Family, then workplace,
are most important groups
❯❯Goals of group take
priority over individual’s SELF

When a person’s perception of who they are

INCREASINGLY CONGRUENT aligns with who they want to be, they achieve
self-actualization. This satisfies their need to
reach and express their full potential.

SELF- IDEAL
IMAGE SELF

With more common ground between

self-image and ideal self, a person has
greater self-worth and adopts a more
positive frame of mind.

INCONGRUENT

SELF- IDEAL
IMAGE SELF

If there is little overlap between how a

person sees themselves (self-image) and
what they would like to be (ideal self),
they feel unhappy, with low self-worth.
 Cognitive
psychology
A branch of psychology that considers the mind to be like a complex
computer, the cognitive approach analyzes the way people process
information and how that dictates their behavior and emotions.

What is it? recognizing that a carton of milk

When the computer arrived in
offices in the late 1950s, it sparked
comparisons between artificial
information processing and the
operation of the human mind.
Psychologists reasoned that in the
same way that a computer accepts
data, codes it for storage, and
retrieves it, the human mind takes
in information, changes it to make
sense of it, stores it, and recalls it
when needed. This computer
analogy came to be the foundation
for cognitive psychology.
The theories behind cognitive
psychology can apply to virtually
every aspect of daily life. Examples
include the brain receiving and
processing sensory information
to make a judgment (such as
has soured from its bad smell);
reasoning with logic to reach a
decision (such as whether to buy
an expensive shirt that may last
longer than a cheap one); or
learning how to play a musical
instrument, which requires the
brain to make new connections
and store new memories.
through it to analyze it and decide
Evaluation
Although cognitive psychology
emphasizes internal processes, it
aims to be strictly scientific, relying
on laboratory experiments to back
up any theory. What happens in
controlled experiments, however,
can be difficult to apply to real-life
scenarios. Similarly, the assumption
that the human mind functions like
PROCESSING
(mediational
mental event)
After receiving information via
the senses, the brain must sort
what to do with it. Cognitive
psychologists call this process
mediational because it happens
between (“mediates”) the
environmental stimulus and the
brain’s eventual response to that
stimulus. In the case of a car
breakdown, the brain might
analyze the smell of burning
rubber, and connect it with an
earlier memory of a similar smell.

Information
processing
Using evidence from
controlled experiments,
psychologists have built INPUT
theoretical models of how the (from environment)
mind deals with information.
A person’s sense organs detect stimuli from the external world and
According to these models,
send messages to the brain as electrical impulses containing
the human brain handles
information. For example, if a person’s car breaks down, their brain
information in the same
focuses on warning signs, such as unexpected sounds from the engine,
sequence a computer uses
visual cues like smoke, or the smell of burning rubber.
to handle data—from input,
through transformation of
the data, to retrieval.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Cognitive psychology 20 21

a computer does not take into memory loss and selective attention
COGNITIVE BIAS
account realities such as people disorders. It is also valuable in
getting tired and emotional, and understanding child development, When the mind makes an error in
critics claim it treats humans as allowing educators to plan the course of thought processing,
machines, reducing all behavior appropriate content for each age it results in a skewed judgment or
to a cognitive process such as group, and to decide the best tools reaction, known as a cognitive bias.
committing things to memory. for delivering it. In the legal system, This may be related to memory
Critics have also pointed out that cognitive psychologists are (poor recall, for example) or lack
of attention, usually because the
this approach ignores the roles regularly called on to assess
brain is making a mental shortcut
of biology and genetics. eyewitness reports in order to under pressure. Biases are not
However, cognitive psychology determine whether a witness has always bad—some are the natural
has proved useful for treating accurately recalled a crime. outcome of having to make a quick
decision for survival purposes.
Examples of bias
❯❯Anchoring Placing too much
importance on the first piece of
information heard.
OUTPUT ❯❯Base-rate fallacy Abandoning
original assumptions in favor of
(behavior and emotion) a new piece of information.
When the brain has retrieved enough information, it can make ❯❯Bandwagon effect Overriding
a decision about what response to make, in the form of either own beliefs in order to go along
a behavioral or an emotional reaction. In the example of the with what other people are
car, the brain recalls memories of previous breakdowns, thinking or doing.
together with any relevant mechanical information stored, ❯❯Gamblers’ fallacy Mistakenly
and then runs through a mental checklist of possible causes believing that if something is
and solutions. It remembers that the smell of burning rubber happening more often now, it will
previously indicated a broken fan belt. The person pulls over, happen less often in the future—
turns off the ignition, and opens the hood to check. for example, if the roulette wheel
consistently falls on black,
thinking it is bound to fall on red
before long.
❯❯Hyperbolic discounting
Choosing a smaller reward now,
rather than patiently waiting for
a larger reward.
❯❯Neglect of probability
Disregarding true probability, for
example, avoiding air travel for
fear of a plane crash, but fearlessly
driving a car even though it is
statistically far more dangerous.
“Disconnected facts in the mind ❯❯Status quo bias Making choices
to keep a situation the same or
are like unlinked pages on the alter it as little as possible, rather
than risking change.
Web: they might as well not exist.”
Steven Pinker, Canadian cognitive psychologist
 Biological psychology
Based on the premise that physical factors, such as genes, determine
behavior, this approach can explain how twins brought up
separately exhibit parallel behavior.

What is it?
Biological psychology assumes that people’s thoughts,
feelings, and behavior all derive from their biology,
which includes genetics as well as the chemical and
electrical impulses that wire the brain to the nervous
system. This assumption implies that the blueprint laid
down in the womb—people’s physiological structure
and DNA—dictates their personality and behavior
as they go through life.
Some of these ideas are based on the results of
twin studies, which have shown that twins separated
at birth and brought up in different households
display remarkably similar behavior in adult life.
Biopsychologists argue that this phenomenon can be
explained only if the twins’ genetics influence them so
strongly that not even the role of their parents, friends,
life experiences, or environment have much impact.
An example of biological psychology in action is the
research into how teenagers behave. Scans of teenage
brains using imaging technology have revealed that
adolescent brains process information in a different
way than adult brains. These differences help to offer
a biological explanation for why teenagers can be
impulsive, sometimes lack good judgment, and can
become overly anxious in social situations.
Evaluation
Many of the ideas in biological psychology emphasize
nature over nurture. As a result, critics consider the
approach to be oversimplistic, giving undue weight to
the influence of biology and built-in physical attributes.
Little credit is given to the influence of events or
people on an individual as they grow up. On the other
hand, few argue with the rigorous scientific backbone
of the approach, which places importance on the
systematic testing and validation of ideas. And
biopsychologists have enabled important medical
advances—using research from neurosurgery and
brain imaging scans, they have made positive
contributions to treatment for patients with both
physical and mental problems, including Parkinson’s
disease, schizophrenia, depression, and drug abuse.

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Different approaches

Psychologists in this field explore why people’s behavior and personality Biopsychologists are interested in how
develop differently. They investigate how individuals adapt their language, the body and biological processes shape
memory, consciousness, and other complex biological systems to best cope behavior. Some focus on the broad issue
with the environment they find themselves in. Key ideas include: of how physiology explains behavior,
❯❯Natural selection This has ❯❯Individual differences This whereas others concentrate on specific
its origins in Charles Darwin’s seeks to explain the differences areas such as the medical applications of
hypothesis that species adapt over between people—for example, the theory, or experiments to determine
time or evolve mechanisms that why some people are more whether an individual’s genetics dictate
facilitate survival. materially successful than others. their behavior.
❯❯Psychological adaptations ❯❯Information processing This
This looks at mechanisms people evolutionary view suggests that
use for language acquisition, for brain function and behavior have
differentiating kin from non-kin, been molded by information taken
for detecting cheats, and for in from the external environment,
choosing a mate based on certain and so are the product of repeatedly
sexual or intelligence criteria. occurring pressures or situations.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Biological psychology 22 23

“In the last analysis the entire field

of psychology may reduce to
biological electrochemistry.”
Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist

Physiological Medical Genetics

This approach is based on
the assumption that biology
shapes behavior. It seeks to
discover where certain types
of behavior originate in the
brain, how hormones and the
nervous system operate, and
why changes in these systems
can alter behavior.
This branch explains and
treats mental disorders in
terms of physical illness.
Disorders are considered to
have a biological basis, such
as a chemical imbalance in the
body or damage to the brain,
rather than causes linked to
environmental factors.
This field attempts to explain
behavior in terms of patterns
that are laid down in each
person’s DNA. Studies of twins
(especially twins separated at
birth and raised in different
homes) have been used to
show that traits such as IQ
are inherited.
 How the brain works
Studies of the brain have given valuable insight into
the vital correlation between brain activity and human
behavior, as well as revealing the complex process
by which the brain itself is brought to life. Mind controlling brain
Dualism argues that the nonphysical
mind and the physical brain exist as
Connecting brain and behavior separate entities, but are able to interact.
Understanding the biology of the brain and how it works It considers that the mind controls the
physical brain, but allows that the brain
became vital with the rise of neuroscience in the 20th
can at times influence the normally
century. Studies in this field confirmed that the brain itself
rational mind, for example, in a
is fundamentally intertwined with human behavior, moment of rashness or passion.
and prompted the emergence of specialist fields, such as
neuropsychology. This relatively new branch of science
combines cognitive psychology (the study of behavior and
mental processes) with brain physiology, and examines how
specific psychological processes relate to the brain’s physical
structure. Investigating the brain in this light raises the age-old
question of whether mind and body can be separated.
The relationship between brain and mind has been debated
since the time of ancient Greece and Aristotle, when prevailing
philosophical thought labeled the two entities as distinct. This
theory, which René Descartes reiterated in the 17th century
with his concept of dualism (right), permeated studies of the
brain until well into the 20th century.
Modern neurological research and advances in technology
have enabled scientists to trace certain behaviors to specific
areas of the brain, and to study connections between the
different regions. This has radically advanced knowledge of the
brain and its effect on behavior, mental function, and disease.

SPECIALIZATION OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES

CEREBRAL Left hemisphere
CORTEX
Nerve fibers cross ❯❯This controls and coordinates the right side of the body.
over at the base ❯❯It is the analytical side of the brain.
of the brain, so Right Left
each hemisphere hemisphere hemisphere
❯❯It is responsible for tasks relating to logic, reasoning,
controls the decision-making, and speech and language.
opposite side
of the body.
Right hemisphere
❯❯This controls muscles on the left side of the body.
❯❯It is the creative side of the brain.
❯❯It deals with sensory inputs, such as visual and
Front of auditory awareness, creative and artistic abilities,
brain and spatial perception.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
How the brain works 24 25

Brain controlling mind

Monoism recognizes every living thing as
material, and that the “mind” is therefore
purely a function of the physical brain.
“I think,
All mental processes, even thoughts and
emotions, correlate to precise physical
therefore
processes in the brain. Cases of brain
damage reinforce this: minds alter
I am.”
René Descartes,
when the physical brain is altered. French philosopher

Mind-body dualism
Humans are innately reluctant to reduce
consciousness to pure biology. But the
scientific evidence shows that the
physical firing of neurons generates
our thoughts. Two schools of thought,
monoism and dualism, dominate the
question of whether the mind is part of
the body, or the body part of the mind.

Brain studies regions suggests certain functions may be linked to

Linking a behavior to a specific area of the brain first
began with 19th-century studies of people with brain
damage, as changes in behavior could be correlated
directly to the site of injury. In one case, a worker
survived injury to his frontal lobe, and the ensuing
changes in his character suggested the formation of
personality occurs in that area of the brain. The two
linguistic functions of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
(p.27) were named after the surgeons who dissected
the brains of two patients who had linguistic problems
when alive. Each brain showed malformations in a
specific area, indicating where spoken language is
generated (Broca’s area) and understood (Wernicke’s
area). However, evidence of interconnections between
more than one area. Roger Sperry’s work in the 1960s
on the cerebral hemispheres was a landmark in brain
research. Studying patients whose hemispheres had
been surgically divided, he found each side had
specialized cognitive skills (left). He also realized that
each hemisphere could be independently conscious.
However, all brain studies have limitations—they
show correlations between brain activity and behavior,
not absolutes. Surgical procedure on, or damage to,
one part of the brain may affect other areas, which
could account for observed behavioral changes.
Equally, tests on brain-damaged patients offer no
experimental control and can only observe behavior
occurring after the damage.
HOW THE BRAIN WORKS
Mapping the brain
One of the most complex systems in nature, the human
brain controls and regulates all our mental processes
and behaviors, both conscious and unconscious. It can
be mapped according to its different neurological
functions, each of which takes place in a specific area.
The hierarchy of mental processing is loosely
reflected in the brain’s physical structure: high-level
cognitive processes take place in the upper areas,
while more basic functions occur lower down. The
largest and uppermost region (the cerebral cortex)
is responsible for the highest-level cognitive function,
including abstract thought and reasoning. It is the
capacity of their cerebral cortex that separates humans
from other mammals. The central limbic areas (below)
control instinctive and emotional behavior, while
structures lower in the brain stem maintain vital
bodily functions, such as breathing.
Functional divisions
The cerebral cortex (also called the cerebrum) divides
into two separate but connected hemispheres, left and
right. Each one controls a different aspect of cognition
(pp.24–25). Further divisions include four paired lobes
(one pair on either hemisphere), each of which is
associated with a specific type of brain function.
The limbic system
This complex set of structures is involved
in processing emotional responses
and the formation of memories.
Hypothalamus
Involved in regulating
body temperature and
water levels and key
behavioral responses.
Olfactory bulb Amygdala
Relays messages about Processes emotions;
smell to the central limbic affects learning and
areas for processing. memory.
The frontal lobe is the seat of high-level cognitive
processing and motor performance; the temporal lobe
is involved in short- and long-term memories; the
occipital lobe is associated with visual processes;
and the parietal lobe deals with sensory skills.
Brain-imaging techniques, such as fMRI (functional
magnetic resonance imaging), measure activity
in the different brain areas, yet their value to
psychologists can be limited. Those studying fMRI
results need to be aware, for example, of the issue
of “reverse inference”: just because a particular
part of the brain is shown to be active during
one cognitive process does not mean it is
active because of that process. The active area
might simply be monitoring a different area,
which is in fact in control of the process.
Locating brain function
Psychologists and neurologists can map
neurological function when small areas of
the brain are stimulated. Using brain-
scanning techniques, such as fMRI or
CT, they study and record the
sensation and movements this
stimulation produces.
Thalamus
Processes and sends data
to higher brain areas.
Hippocampus
Converts short-term
memories into
long-term ones.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
How the brain works 26 27

Motor cortex
FRONTAL LOBE
This is the primary area
Broca’s area of the cerebral cortex
involved in motor
Area in the left hemisphere;
function. It controls
vital to the formation of
articulated speech.
PARIETAL voluntary muscle
LOBE movements, including
planning and execution.

Wernicke’s area
TEMPORAL Plays a key role in
LOBE the comprehension
of spoken language.
Sensory cortex
Information gathered by
all five senses is processed
and interpreted here.
Sensory receptors from
around the body send
OCCIPITAL neural signals to
LOBE this cortex.

Primary visual
cortex
Cerebellum
Visual stimuli are initially
Involved in balance and processed in this cortex,
posture; coordinates enabling recognition of
sensory input with color, movement, and
muscle response. shape. It sends signals on
to other visual cortices to
be processed further.
Brain stem
Main control center for key
bodily functions, such as
swallowing or breathing.

Dorsolateral OFC (orbital Supplementary Tempo-parietal

prefrontal cortex frontal cortex) motor cortex junction
This area is linked to Part of the prefrontal One of the secondary Located between the
various high-level mental cortex, the OFC connects motor cortices, this area temporal and parietal
processes, including with the sensory and is involved in planning lobes, this area processes
“executive functions”— limbic areas; it plays a and coordinating any signals from limbic and
the processes involved role in the emotional complex movements. It sensory areas, and has
in self-regulation or and reward aspect of sends information to the been linked with the
mental control. decision-making. primary motor cortex. comprehension of “self.”
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
be clarified, and with which the birds must be covered, when cold, to
the thickness of at least half an inch in each pot. These will be
excellent, taken cold.

russian polony.
Your success in this undertaking chiefly depends upon the choice
of the meats made use of. Take of
The lean of Belfast smoked hams, 1 year old 3 lb.
The fat of Belfast smoked hams, 1 year old 3 lb.
High flavoured hung beef 3 lb.
Smoked ox tongues 3 lb.
Hard back fat of bacon 4 lb.
Peel the tongues after being boiled and reject the roots and tips. Cut
the four first of the above up into dice and pound them separately
into smooth pastes, with mucilage of gum tragacanth and fresh
butter. Next cut the fat bacon into dice or cubes as large as the finest
growth of peas, no rind or gristles to be retained; then mix intimately
together,
Garlic, minced 1½ oz.
Shalots, minced 6 oz.
Juniper berries, in fine powder 3 oz
Jamaica pepper, in fine powder 3 oz.
Black peppercorns 3 oz.
Bay salt, in fine powder 1 lb.
Coarse sugar ¾ lb.
and blending all the meats well, season highly with the mixture, and
put it down in a jar for a week to mellow. Then work the mass well for
half an hour. Get some of the largest ox intestines, and soak them in
luke-warm salt and water, wipe them dry and proceed to fill them,
keeping out the air as much as possible, which you will effect by
regular and even pressure, and pricking, only where necessary, with
a stocking-needle. Make your polonies about a foot long each, and
put them aside as done until the next day; then repeat the pressure
and tie them up finally. They must be put into boiling-water with a
little salt and saltpetre, and after once boiling, simmer only for half an
hour. Then take them up, wipe dry, and hang in a current of air for a
week, being turned daily without fail. Then smoke them with
Oak lops 2 parts
Beech chips 2 parts
Fern 1 part
Peat 1 part
for a month. Stow them away in malt cooms. They will be prized by
those persons who delight in high flavours. They need no coating;
nay, many foreigners prefer them mouldy on the outsides.

german saveloys.
Take rough Hambro’ smoked beef 2 lb.
Neats’ tongues,
smoked 1 lb.
Smoked ham 1 lb.
Fat of bacon 2 lb.
Boil the tongue moderately, peal and cut off the gross root tip. Cut up
the whole of the meat into large dice, and pound it thoroughly, mixing
the fat in equally in all parts of the mass. Pick out all skins, sinews,
&c., and mix a pound of good moist sugar throughout it, so let it lie
two days. Then take
Sage leaves, in fine powder 3 oz.
Garlic, minced finely 2 oz.
Shalots 2 oz.
Bay leaf, in powder 2 oz.
Chillies, or capsicum, in
powder 3 oz.
mix them well and then sift them, and blend them well with the meat,
so that all parts may partake of the flavour alike; put it into a jar,
which bung up close and set it aside for a week to get mellow. Now
try a small quantity of it: if it suits your taste, well and good, if not add
seasoning. Now fill your sausage skins, and when nice and solid
prick them a little, and put them into a pan of boiling water to simmer
slowly three quarters of an hour. Then take them out and let go cold,
and next day wipe them and smoke them three weeks with
Oak lops and dust 3 parts
Fern or grass turfs 3 parts
then hang them up in a dry room and keep them with hams, tongues,
&c. These will be excellent in a month, just popped into boiling water
for five minutes, or fried in olive oil and eaten cold.

jersey black puddings.

In France, in the Channel Islands, and Belgium these delicacies
are introduced at the tables of the highest families, a distinction
which they richly deserve, while in England very few persons make
them at home, but purchase at the shops an indescribable mass of
groats, blood, bread, herbs, &c., and frequently, to cover the
indolence of the pork-butcher, loaded with such an amount of the
commoner spices, as to render the whole anything but palatable.
Then, again, the fat, which seems to be the only recommendation, is
found here and there in lumps so large, that before they become
heated through, it is certain the other of part of the mass must be
burnt nearly to a cinder. I think that we can produce an article well
worthy of the trouble and slight expense incurred by the trial. Take a
couple of dozen of large onions, peel them, cutting off the bottoms,
cut them into small pieces, and put them into a stewpan along with
ten ounces of sweet lard, and stew them slowly till of a light brown
colour. Cut three pounds of pig’s leaf that is perfectly sweet and dry
into dice, pick out all the skins. Boil half a dozen heads of endive,
chop them fine and add to the fried onions; season them with
Table salt 2 oz.
 White pepper ¾ teaspoonful
Parsley, finely
chopped 4 tablespoonfuls
Thyme, in fine powder 1 tablespoonful
Bay leaves 2 tablespoonfuls
Half a nutmeg, grated
Now add three quarts of pig’s blood—calf’s, or sheep’s is as good—
that has not been long taken from the animal, and if still warm is
preferable. Mix all intimately, and if you find the mixture is too thin to
work well, add a handful or two of stale bread crumbs, or half to
three quarters of a pound of rice, boiled just tender but not mashed.
Take now the smaller pudding skins which have been properly
scraped and cleaned, wash them in salt and water, and with a tin
funnel tie one end of the skin tightly upon it, and the other end up in
a knot, two feet or a yard will be a convenient length. Proceed now to
fill your skins by pressing the meat through the funnel, pricking with a
pin to let out the air. When nicely and firmly filled, tie up the end, and
put the puddings into a flat large pan, with plenty of water tasting
slightly of salt, and already boiling, and let them simmer twenty
minutes, or rather more, attentively watching and pricking them to
prevent bursting. When the blood oozes out no longer, they are fully
cooked, then take them up and let them lie all night on a sieve. Cut
them into pieces four to six inches long, and when wanted for table
wipe them lightly over with a linen rag dipped in olive oil, and broil
them ten minutes. Serve them plain, but very hot. If you cannot
procure endive, you may substitute celery, which must be boiled
along with three or four laurel leaves; the tender parts only must be
used. Leeks also are generally liked, but in that case part of the
onions must be omitted.

marinated salmon.
Take six or eight pounds of the middle of a large fish, in
preference to a similar weight of the whole of a grilse or salmon
trout, scale it and cut off the fins, split it open at the back and reserve
the roe and liver; wipe the fish out nicely, and strew moist sugar all
over the red side, put it away on a dish until the next day. Then make
the following mixture,
Bay leaf, in powder 1 oz.
Mace, in powder ½ oz.
Cloves, in powder ¾ oz.
White pepper, in powder ¾ oz.
Table salt 1¼ lb.
Take out the backbone neatly and rub the fish on both sides well with
the mixture and the former sugar; lay three or four laurel leaves upon
the red face of the thick side, turn the thin side over upon them, and
set it away in a cool place for twenty-four hours. Then take it up,
wipe dry, and cut the sides into fitting pieces, and place them in a
deep dish upon the spices, and half a pint of Rhenish wine or Cape
Madeira; tie double paper over and bake it in a slow oven till done
enough. Pour off the pickle while yet warm, and set the pieces on a
sieve to drip until the next day—covered close with a cloth to prevent
the action of the air upon it, and thus to preserve the colour. Now
choose your pots according to the size of your family, and into each
one place a piece of the fish, the red face downwards, and fill up with
genuine olive oil, let remain until the next day, when add more oil,
and again on the third day replenishing what has been absorbed by
the fish. Then tie wetted bladder over the pots and keep them in a
cool dry air. This cannot fail of gaining the approval of all who
partake of it, and is the most certain method of obtaining fresh
salmon in the winter months. The same oil will do again and again
for a similar purpose.

marinated tench and carp.

How often have I seen twenty or thirty brace of these delicious
and exceedingly nutritious fish exposed for sale in some provincial
market-place, and spoiling for want of purchasers, some
neighbouring baronet or esquire having been drawing his pits and
preserves. But why no purchasers? Simply because, although the
spectators might nearly beg them, the price being so low, few
persons only would know what to do with them, they not being “poor
men’s fish;” and the sauces, &c., required to dress them would be
too expensive; the operatives have not seen pies made of them, like
eels, so even the million as they are termed do not enjoy them, and
ten to one the beautiful fish are lost; whilst if they were near
Houndsditch or the Minories, amongst the Israelites, they would not
remain half an hour unsold even at half-a-crown the brace, because
they know how to prepare them, and delicious indeed are the
majority of their fish dishes. Take three brace of these fish, scale
them, cut off the tails and fins, split them open at the back, take out
all the garbage, gills and eyes, and wash them quickly in salt and
water; now wipe them dry, and have ready the following mixture:
Fresh parsley, minced
finely 2 tablespoonfuls
Thyme, in powder 2 tablespoonfuls
Marjorum, in powder 2 tablespoonfuls
Moist sugar ½ lb.
Table salt ¾ lb.
Make two sides of each fish and cut them across, again place these
pieces in alternate layers with the mixture in an oblong pot closely
covered up, and set them aside for forty-eight hours; then unpack
the fish and replace them in the same receptacle, having rubbed
them well and turned each piece over; so let remain twenty-four
hours longer, the thickest pieces lying nearest the bottom of the jar.
Now unpack again and wash the pieces separately in weak vinegar
and water with a trifle of saltpetre in it, and wiping, leave them
between cloths while you are preparing, by boiling the used herbs
and liquor with half a pint of vinegar and water for ten minutes, and
skimming well, strain it through a fine sieve and set it aside. Now
take
Mace, bruised ½ oz.
Cloves, bruised 1 oz.
Cayenne pepper 1 teaspoonful
Twelve bay leaves, shred
 Four laurel leaves, green
Of the strained liquor ½ pint
Boil these for fifteen minutes, skim thoroughly, strain through a fine
sieve and add port wine half a pint, return this to the saucepan,
simmer it covered close for twelve minutes, and let remain by the
fireside. Lay your pieces of fish in a pie dish that will just hold them,
the thickest near the bottom, and pour the liquor in the saucepan
over the fish, tie paper doubled over the dish and bake till done
moderately, which can always be ascertained by the fish leaving the
bone upon a knife being applied. Now pour off the liquor, take out the
fish and set it to drain all night, covered up; place the pieces in the
best adapted pots and fill up with olive oil, renewing on the third day
what had been absorbed by the fish, and tie bladder over. In this and
similar cases take care that the oil is sufficient in quantity to cover
the contents to the thickness of three quarters of an inch at least.
These will be remarkably fine eating in a month. You cannot
purchase such at the shops.

marinated shrimps.
To ensure this delicacy of first-rate quality you must buy your
shrimps alive, and boil and pick them at home with all possible
despatch. Set a gallon of live shrimps in three quarts of boiling water,
in which one and half pounds of bay or rock salt has been dissolved,
and boil them fifteen minutes, then strain off the water and as soon
as possible commence shelling them, and keep them covered with
cloths as you proceed. Be particular that no refuse or pieces of the
shells remain to disgrace the preparer, and laying them lightly on
clean dishes, mix amongst them the following seasoning in very fine
powder, being well sifted and dried the day previous and kept bottled
up. I repeat that the shrimps must have been deprived of all their
moisture with the assistance of a moderately cool oven, and not two
fish to be seen sticking together. Nor can any excuse avail in this
instance, as the less time that is occupied in potting these sorts so
much better chance will there be of your total success in the product.
Mace, in finest powder 1 oz.
 Nutmeg, in finest powder 2 oz.
Cloves, in finest powder 2 oz.
Table salt, in finest powder 1 lb.
Loaf sugar, in finest
powder ¾ lb.
When seasoned to your entire satisfaction, the fish however fully
retaining their own fine flavour, fill your pots, which must be the
cleanest and best dried possible; press the shrimps well down, and
set them as you proceed at the mouth of your cool oven until there is
no evaporation observable. Now take them up, press down again,
and laying one or two bay leaves on the top, fill up with the best olive
oil, and set away in a cool dry room. Next day replenish the oil that
has been absorbed, and not till after the third day tie bladder over.
Plenty of oil must cover the fish, and although potted shrimps are not
expected to keep well after three or four days, yet you may expect
every satisfaction from this process. If decay soon takes place, it will
be owing to the fish not having been well dried in the process. As to
the preservation of the true flavour of the fish, this preparation
demands our decided preference.

marinated trout and grayling.

Fish about a pound weight each are the best for this purpose, but
provided that they are perfectly fresh, have a clear red gill, and bright
eye, we should be induced to thus preserve fish of any size, because
by this process the true flavour of the fish may be effectually
retained. Take two dozen fish, from twelve to twenty ounces each,
scale them, take off the heads, tails, and fins, open them at the belly,
take out the garbage, and washing them quickly in salt and water,
dry them with cloths and leave them covered up. Make the following
seasoning:
Table salt 1 lb.
Cayenne pepper ¾ oz.
Sifted loaf sugar ½ lb.
Dried parsley 1 oz.
 Thyme ½ oz.
All these must be in finest powder, and sifted, and with a good
mixture of them rub the insides and outsides of the fish well. If you
have any roes of them, wash them well, roll them in the powder and
place them inside the fish, bring the sides together, and tie round
with thread; place them in a convenient pot of earthenware, and with
half a pint of good sherry wine, paper tied closely over, bake them
sufficiently; then, while warm, pour off the gravy and let the fish lie by
till next day, basting them two or three times with the liquor, and
removing to the top those which laid on the bottom. Now pour off the
gravy, strain it, and put it aside bottled up close. Take out the fish
and pay the backbones inside with a camel’s-hair brush and this
mixture:
Essence of cassia 1 tablespoonful
Essence of mace 1 tablespoonful
Essence of nutmegs 2 tablespoonfuls
Essence of bays 3 tablespoonfuls
Lay the fish on their backs and repeat this brushing over the bone
two or three times, then lay the fish on their flat, mix the strained
liquor in the bottle with whatever you have remaining of your
essence mixture, and six tablespoonfuls of good old malt whisky,
and pour this over the fish; baste well with it two or three times daily
for a week or until they have imbibed a fine flavour of the ingredients,
and tying over with leather. Now dry the fish by wiping outside only,
and place pieces in fitting oblong pots and cover with olive oil of first
quality. (See Note, No. 11.) Replenish the oil, and after the third day
make safe with wetted bladder and remove to a cool dry room. In a
month they will be very good, but if you could keep some three
months they would be much improved.

marinated silver eels.

Take ten pounds of fine fresh river eels, each one and a half
pound to two pounds, skin them, cut off the heads, tails, and fins, lay
them open at the backs and remove all visible bones, and wash in
salt and water; then dry them, cut them into pieces four inches long,
and lay them in salt and water with a bit of saltpetre in it for ten
hours; then make a seasoning thus:
Allspice, ground finely 1 oz.
Cayenne pepper, ground
finely 1 teaspoonful
Bay leaf, in fine powder 1 oz.
Parsley, dried and rubbed
fine 2 oz.
Dry the fish well with cloths, rub them all over plentifully with this
mixture, and let them lie packed closely for twenty-four hours; roll
them up neat into little collars, tie them round, and bake them in a
wide-mouthed jar with a teacupful of water and vinegar at the
bottom. Next day pour off the liquor, take out the collars and put
them singly into white earthenware pots, and cover with olive oil,
observing to replenish the oil before finally closing up with bladder.

superior marinated silver eels, of very high flavour.

Get fresh eels of ten to fifteen ounces each, skin them, take off
heads, tails, and fins, open them at the bellies, and, clearing away all
refuse, wash them in salt and water and dry with cloths. Then for ten
pounds of fish take
Garlic, minced finely ½ oz.
Chillies, minced finely 1 oz.
Juniper berries, minced
finely ¾ oz.
Jamaica pepper, powdered 1 oz.
Bay salt 1 lb.
Saltpetre ¼ lb.
Vinegar 1 pint
Boil these twenty minutes, skimming well, and let go cold. Cut the
fish into pieces, place them in a deep dish and pour this pickle over
them, so let them lie till next day. Take out the fish and rub each
piece separately with the mixture, replace the fish in the vessel and
let them lie so for twenty-four hours longer. Now wipe them and hang
them up in a current of air for two days; then with a soft brush take
off the herbs and spice and roll up tightly each piece into a collar,
which secure with narrow tapes. Choose pots of white earthenware
that will each just hold a collar, and so as to allow of the fish being
totally surrounded by oil, and fill up with olive oil and replenishing as
before directed previous to finishing with wetted bladder. Keep these
three months at least, when they will be a fine relish at a moderate
expense. They should be boiled in hot water, and when cold enough
the tapes taken off and the fish eaten cold.

pickled smelts, preferred to anchovies.

This is an elegant preparation of the smaller fish, the large ones
being chosen for the dinner table. Cut open the fish at the belly, and
wipe them well out with damp cloths, lay in a light coat of the
following seasoning, the roes being replaced, and put them in layers
with the mixture alternately, in a deep jar wide at the top:
Saltpetre, in powder ½ oz.
Bay salt, in powder 9 oz.
Mace, in powder ½ oz.
Cloves, in powder 1 oz.
Black pepper, in
powder 1 oz.
Cochineal, in powder ¾ oz.
These must have been well mixed. Press the fish well down in the
jar, and boiling sufficient of the best pickling vinegar with bay leaves,
and four or five laurel leaves, pour it upon the fish when cold, and tie
leather over the jar. They will require three months at least to
become mellow, and are much improved by keeping twice that
length of time.
 pickled lobsters.
In our hot summer months, and when lobsters are plentiful, it
would be wise to save some that would come in opportunely for
sauce and many dishes, when lobsters are scarce and high priced.
Take fresh boiled lobsters, split them, take out the meat as whole as
you can, and make a seasoning of
Mace, in fine powder 1 oz.
Cayenne pepper ¾ oz.
Nutmeg, in fine powder 1 oz.
Table salt, in fine
powder 6 oz.
by well mixing them. Rub the meat well with this and equally, so that
no part is left undefended. Put the fish down in an earthen jar, and
repeat the rubbing for a day or two. Pack it then in small jars and
pour the following pickle over it, so that it may be covered to
thickness of an inch:
Best vinegar 1 pint
Chillies 1 oz.
Cucumber vinegar ½ pint
Sal prunelle ¾ oz.
and in similar proportions for each pint of vinegar used. Mind that the
vinegar pickle covers well, and then put over all as much olive oil as
will cover to the depth of half an inch. Tie wetted bladder over and
leather upon that for safe keeping. It will be well recommended after
a trial.

marinated herrings.
The freshest full-roed herrings must be taken for this purpose.
Scale twenty of the shortest and fattest you can get in the middle of
the season, take off the heads, tails, fins, and open them at the
bellies, clean all out, scrape the backbone, and washing the fish in
salt and water, wipe them dry and let them lie until next day, after
rubbing a dessert-spoonful of good moist sugar into the inside of
each fish. Lay them upon their backs in any vessel not too deep, and
cover the fish over with the following mixture—the roes should be
nicely washed, dried, and laid by the side of the fish:
Coarse sugar 1 lb.
Bay salt, in fine
powder ¾ lb.
Black pepper 1 oz.
Eschalots, minced 1 oz.
Nutmegs, grated 1 oz.
putting half the fish in one layer then a layer of the mixture, and then
a layer of fish above that, and the spices covering all; so let them lie
covered up with a cloth three days. Then wipe the fish dry, place the
roes inside, cut them across in two parts, tie up in rolls with calico,
and lay them with plenty of bay leaves and four laurel leaves in a
deep dish and bake them, just covered over with good sound porter;
then while warm pour off the liquor, and set the fish on a sieve to go
cold, and next day put each one into a white earthenware jar and
cover with olive oil with the same precautions as before. In two
months they will be mellow and rich and greatly liked. The porter in
which they were baked, being boiled twenty minutes with a dozen of
shalots and cayenne, will be a very good cold sauce for chops,
steaks, fish, &c.

marinated sprats.
These shall be superior to what were called “sardines in oil,”
some thirty years ago, and sold in London at 4s. 6d. at first in small
tin boxes, and afterwards at 2s. 6d., each tin containing about
sixteen sprats—for sprats they certainly were. Take a peck of fresh
sprats and pick out for your present use as many of the largest and
most sound as will suit your purpose. Pull off the heads, cut off the
fins and tails, and draw out the little guts, wash them quickly through
salt and water, and dry them between cloths. Have ready the
following:
 Mace, in finest powder 1 oz.
Cloves, in finest powder 2 oz.
Nutmeg, in finest
powder 1 oz.
Saltpetre, in finest
powder 3 oz.
Table salt, in finest
powder 1 lb.
Bay leaf, in finest
powder 3 oz.
with which rub each fish on the inside first, and then throughout the
bulk; put them into small pots of white earthenware, closely packed;
tie bladder over them, merely to keep out the water, and place them
in a stewpan, adding water to reach half way up the sides of the jars,
cover the pan and set it on a slow fire to simmer until the fish are
cooked; then take them up, remove the covers, and set them aside
till the next day, when, pouring off any oil or fat that may have been
given out in cooking, fill up with olive oil and tie bladders safely over.

potted smelts.
For this purpose the smaller fish will do very well. Cut them open
at the belly, clean out and wash in salt and water, having first cut off
the tails and fins; now season them inside with
Mace, in powder ½ oz.
Nutmeg, in powder 1 oz.
Table salt 3 oz.
Cayenne pepper ½ oz.
Bay leaf ¾ oz.
and let them lie till next day, when lay them in oblong pots and cover
them with clarified butter; bake them in a slow oven, and when done
enough pour off the butter, and drain effectually, and let them remain
twelve hours. Now warm up the butter again in a water bath, and
running it through a warmed sieve, pour the clear again over the fish,
adding more clarified butter to cover well. Tie bladder over and keep
dry.

potted lobsters.
Take a couple of fine lobsters, place them in a tub with plenty of
weak salt and water, and brush them well from froth and slime, then
wash in pure water and pop them into boiling water in which some
salt and saltpetre have been dissolved. When done lay them on a
sieve to get cold, and next day cut open the shells, crack the claws
and take out the meat, which then pick over carefully from skins and
specks, the coral also must be separated and examined. Now cut
the meat into dice and pound it finely in a mortar, till of a nice smooth
consistence, adding clarified butter at pleasure. Then season with
Mace, in fine powder ¾ oz.
Nutmeg, in fine powder 1 oz.
Bay leaf, in fine powder 1 oz.
White pepper, in fine
powder 1 oz.
Cloves, in fine powder ¾ oz.
and working the paste well proceed to fill white pots, and putting a
part of the coral into the middle of each pot. Press well in and set
aside for the night. Put the pots next into a slow oven, and let the
steam escape that might arise, and when you have got them as dry
as it is possible, without changing the colour of the preparation, set
them by to go cold; then cover with clarified butter effectually and
writing paper over the tops of the pots.

potted crabs.
To meet with well potted crabs is a very rare occurrence, and,
speaking generally, is attributable to the carelessness of the
preparer. Crabs are very often out of season, that is, cannot be got
without great trouble and expense, and they are very much liked;
these admissions furnish reasons why we should have some well
preserved. Take half a dozen eastern coast crabs—those of
Hartlepool and neighbourhood are always sound and well flavoured,
while those on the western coast and about Ireland are little worth—
plug up all the holes with wooden pegs, throw them into a tubful of
salt and water and brush them thoroughly, then wash in pure water
and put them into boiling water to be cooked; then take them up and
lay them to get cold; pull off the claws and put the large shells into a
slow oven after having run off any water that may have collected in
them, and when no more steam arises from the slow drying, set
them also to get cold. Take all the meat out of the claws, pick out
very carefully all the little skins and strings, cut it into dice and pound
it in a mortar with clarified butter until of a nice plastic mass, which
cover up in a cloth. Now attack the body shells, pick out all the solid
meat, and, setting the coral aside, throw out all the skins and refuse
you can find, and beat up this also with best Durham mustard, as for
the table, some cayenne, chillie vinegar, and table salt. Place some
of this at the bottom of each pot, and having ready this seasoning,
mix what is requisite with the meat from the claws:
Mace 1 oz.
Cloves 1½ oz.
Nutmeg 1 oz.
Bay leaf 1 oz.
Table salt 6 oz.
White pepper 2 oz.
Work this well into the mass, and having put a portion of the hard
coral into each pot, fill up with the seasoned claw meat. Set the pots
in a slow oven to evaporate what moisture you can, then set aside
and when cold pour clarified butter plentifully over, which, when cold,
must again be covered with writing paper. If your ingredients were
genuine, your butter sweet, and well managed, and the fish of prime
quality, you will have a choice or rare preparation of these generally
admired fish.

side of venison collared.

 As this sort of animal food can only be got at one season of the
year, I recommend any person who is fond of good eating at a
moderate cost, to get the two sides or flitches of a prime fat buck,
and cure them in the two different ways herein described, with full
assurance that the result will be perfectly satisfactory. Take a side
and hang it up in a free current of air as long as ever you can trust it,
wiping it daily with a coarse cloth, and dusting it over, particularly the
fat parts, with ground black pepper, to prevent the flies settling on it.
With a sharp knife take off the outer skin, and, removing all sinews,
bone it nicely; divide it next into pieces fit for collars, that is, so that
when rolled up the ends may be level and firm. Rub vinegar well
over the meat and leave it packed closely in a deep dish and
covered up till the next day. Make ready a mixture of
Mace, in fine powder 1 oz.
Cloves, in fine powder 2 oz.
Nutmeg, in fine powder 1 oz.
White pepper, in fine
powder 2 oz.
Bay salt ¾ lb.
Common or rock salt ½ lb.
Bay leaves, shred 3 oz.
and with this rub the meat, which should have been dried with cloths
well, and pack them down to lie forty-eight hours. Then take them
up, and cutting slices of hard fat bacon, half an inch wide and six or
eight inches long, insert them in channels cut in the venison and
about two and a half inches apart; this should be done with
consummate nicety. Now roll up the meat into collars and bind tightly
with broad tape, and sew strong unbleached calico all round the
length. Lay paper shavings in the bottom of a deep straight-sided jar,
and upon them six or eight laurel leaves and twice as many bay
leaves, and place the collars lightly upon them, then pouring in half a
pint of water, tie doubled paper over the jar and bake slowly for three
hours at least, or until nicely cooked; then while warm pour off the
gravy into a basin to get cold, and taking out the collars set them to
drain all night. Next day, after wiping them dry, place the rolls of meat
in a jar that will just hold them without squeezing, and pour clarified
mutton suet with sweet lard in the proportion of a quarter of a pound
of the latter to twelve ounces of the former, and when cold covering
the meat to the thickness of two inches. Tie wet bladder over and put
away in a cold airy room. This should not be broached under two
months, and then by placing the jar in a pan of boiling water for
twenty minutes you can take out a collar and put away the jar, taking
care that the meat is totally covered by the suet and made safe from
the air. Pop the collar into a saucepan of boiling water and salt for
fifteen minutes, then take it out, wipe it dry, and when nearly cold
take off the envelopes and set it by till next day. Serve it garnished
with fresh parsley and slices of lemon or pickled red beetroot, which
two latter may be eaten with it, and then I think you will confess that
this “common part of venison” is very first-rate eating.

the other side smoked.

Proceed as with the former side, and having rubbed it well with
vinegar, make a mixture of
Allspice, ground 3 oz.
Black pepper, ground 2 oz.
Eschalots, minced 2½ oz.
Garlic, minced 1½ oz.
Bay salt ¾ lb.
Coarse sugar ¾ lb.
Bay leaves 2 oz.
and rub all parts thoroughly, and let them lie placed down in a deep
pan for forty-eight hours; then take them up, wipe dry and lard them
well with shreds of the best sweet fat bacon and roll up tightly into
collars, which bind with tape and envelope in calico or thin canvas,
and stow them away in a deep jar that will hold them conveniently till
the next day. Boil up the used spices, herbs, and salts with as much
porter as you think will cover the meat, well skimming it till no more
scum arises, and pour it hot over the meat; so let it remain covered
with leather for a week. Then hang up the collars in a draught of air,
minding to turn them every morning regularly, or the neglect is
certain to be detected when brought to table. Next suspend them in
your chimney, and smoke them for a fortnight with
Oak lops or sawdust 2 parts
Beech chips 2 parts
Fern 1 part
Peat 1 part
When cold you can coat them with gelatine composition and keep
them in malt cooms. Slices cut off these collars and broiled will be
excellent in three months, or, if you choose to boil them and eat cold,
take care they are put on the fire in ready boiling water, as we do not
want venison broth. (See Note, No. 10.)

young pig collared.

Your porkman having supplied you with a short, round pig, say
about ten to twelve weeks old, the neck taken off close up to the
shoulders and split down the back, you will proceed to take out the
bones and gristles and wash it five minutes in salt and water, then
wipe dry and rub the following mixture—
Mace, beaten finely ½ oz.
Cloves, beaten finely 1 oz.
Nutmeg, beaten finely 1 oz.
Pepper, beaten finely 1 oz.
Salt, beaten finely 1½ lbs.
—in all parts well, and let them lie pressed closely for twenty-four
hours, then take them up, wipe dry, roll the one half up into a collar,
with tape and new linen, and boil it in a pickle made by boiling up the
former used spices—adding thereto
Six laurel leaves, green
Twelve bay leaves
Vinegar 1 pint
 Ginger, beaten 1 oz.
coarsely
Bay salt ¾ oz.
—until tender. Examine the collars when nearly cold, and tighten the
binding if requisite. Cut them through, in the middle, straight across,
put each roll into a jar just capable of holding it; boil up the pickle
again, adding vinegar and porter, if not enough to cover your meat
completely; tie bladder over and keep a month, when it will be very
rich, yet delicate. The pickle must have been well skimned and all fat
removed from it. The other half may be thus treated, making an
agreeable change, though this latter will be much higher flavoured:
Proceed as with the last, until having rolled it up in a nice tight collar,
you will make this pickle:
Sage leaves, shred ½ handful
Capsicums, mixed ½ oz.
Juniper berries,
bruised 1 oz.
Six laurel leaves, shred
Garlic, shred ½ oz.
Porter or ale 1 quart
Salt ½ lb.
Boil these twenty minutes, skim well and pour over the meat, placed
in a deep jar that will just hold it, and tying leather over let it remain
three weeks. Then take it up, wipe dry, hang it in a current of dry air
for a week, turning it daily, and smoke it with
Oak lops or sawdust 2 parts
Fern 2 parts
Beech or birch chips 2 parts
for three weeks. When cold you can coat it with gelatine, or if packed
with hams, tongues, &c. &c., in malt cooms, will be a high, much
esteemed article, after being kept a month or two to become mellow.
Care must be taken in the broiling, as the meat will be extremely rich
and tender.