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 Foreword

The 19th International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction, HCI International

2017, was held in Vancouver, Canada, during July 9–14, 2017. The event incorporated
the 15 conferences/thematic areas listed on the following page.
A total of 4,340 individuals from academia, research institutes, industry, and gov-
ernmental agencies from 70 countries submitted contributions, and 1,228 papers have
been included in the proceedings. These papers address the latest research and
development efforts and highlight the human aspects of design and use of computing
systems. The papers thoroughly cover the entire field of human–computer interaction,
addressing major advances in knowledge and effective use of computers in a variety of
application areas. The volumes constituting the full set of the conference proceedings
are listed on the following pages.
I would like to thank the program board chairs and the members of the program
boards of all thematic areas and affiliated conferences for their contribution to the
highest scientific quality and the overall success of the HCI International 2017
conference.
This conference would not have been possible without the continuous and unwa-
vering support and advice of the founder, Conference General Chair Emeritus and
Conference Scientific Advisor Prof. Gavriel Salvendy. For his outstanding efforts,
I would like to express my appreciation to the communications chair and editor of HCI
International News, Dr. Abbas Moallem.

April 2017 Constantine Stephanidis

 HCI International 2017 Thematic Areas
and Affiliated Conferences

Thematic areas:
• Human–Computer Interaction (HCI 2017)
• Human Interface and the Management of Information (HIMI 2017)
Affiliated conferences:
• 17th International Conference on Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergo-
nomics (EPCE 2017)
• 11th International Conference on Universal Access in Human–Computer Interac-
tion (UAHCI 2017)
• 9th International Conference on Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality (VAMR
2017)
• 9th International Conference on Cross-Cultural Design (CCD 2017)
• 9th International Conference on Social Computing and Social Media (SCSM 2017)
• 11th International Conference on Augmented Cognition (AC 2017)
• 8th International Conference on Digital Human Modeling and Applications in
Health, Safety, Ergonomics and Risk Management (DHM 2017)
• 6th International Conference on Design, User Experience and Usability (DUXU
2017)
• 5th International Conference on Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions
(DAPI 2017)
• 5th International Conference on Human Aspects of Information Security, Privacy
and Trust (HAS 2017)
• 4th International Conference on HCI in Business, Government and Organizations
(HCIBGO 2017)
• 4th International Conference on Learning and Collaboration Technologies (LCT
2017)
• Third International Conference on Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population
(ITAP 2017)
 Conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

1. LNCS 10271, Human–Computer Interaction: User Interface Design, Development

and Multimodality (Part I), edited by Masaaki Kurosu
2. LNCS 10272 Human–Computer Interaction: Interaction Contexts (Part II), edited
by Masaaki Kurosu
3. LNCS 10273, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Information,
Knowledge and Interaction Design (Part I), edited by Sakae Yamamoto
4. LNCS 10274, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Supporting
Learning, Decision-Making and Collaboration (Part II), edited by Sakae
Yamamoto
5. LNAI 10275, Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics: Performance,
Emotion and Situation Awareness (Part I), edited by Don Harris
6. LNAI 10276, Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics: Cognition and
Design (Part II), edited by Don Harris
7. LNCS 10277, Universal Access in Human–Computer Interaction: Design and
Development Approaches and Methods (Part I), edited by Margherita Antona and
Constantine Stephanidis
8. LNCS 10278, Universal Access in Human–Computer Interaction: Designing
Novel Interactions (Part II), edited by Margherita Antona and Constantine
Stephanidis
9. LNCS 10279, Universal Access in Human–Computer Interaction: Human and
Technological Environments (Part III), edited by Margherita Antona and
Constantine Stephanidis
10. LNCS 10280, Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality, edited by Stephanie Lackey
and Jessie Y.C. Chen
11. LNCS 10281, Cross-Cultural Design, edited by Pei-Luen Patrick Rau
12. LNCS 10282, Social Computing and Social Media: Human Behavior (Part I),
edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
13. LNCS 10283, Social Computing and Social Media: Applications and Analytics
(Part II), edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
14. LNAI 10284, Augmented Cognition: Neurocognition and Machine Learning
(Part I), edited by Dylan D. Schmorrow and Cali M. Fidopiastis
15. LNAI 10285, Augmented Cognition: Enhancing Cognition and Behavior in
Complex Human Environments (Part II), edited by Dylan D. Schmorrow and
Cali M. Fidopiastis
16. LNCS 10286, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Ergonomics and Design (Part I), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
17. LNCS 10287, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Health and Safety (Part II), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
18. LNCS 10288, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Theory, Methodology and
Management (Part I), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
X Conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

19. LNCS 10289, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Designing Pleasurable
Experiences (Part II), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
20. LNCS 10290, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Understanding Users and
Contexts (Part III), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
21. LNCS 10291, Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions, edited by Norbert
Streitz and Panos Markopoulos
22. LNCS 10292, Human Aspects of Information Security, Privacy and Trust, edited
by Theo Tryfonas
23. LNCS 10293, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: Interacting with
Information Systems (Part I), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Chuan-Hoo Tan
24. LNCS 10294, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: Supporting
Business (Part II), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Chuan-Hoo Tan
25. LNCS 10295, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Novel Learning
Ecosystems (Part I), edited by Panayiotis Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
26. LNCS 10296, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Technology in Education
(Part II), edited by Panayiotis Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
27. LNCS 10297, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Aging, Design and
User Experience (Part I), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel Salvendy
28. LNCS 10298, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Applications, Ser-
vices and Contexts (Part II), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel Salvendy
29. CCIS 713, HCI International 2017 Posters Proceedings (Part I), edited by
Constantine Stephanidis
30. CCIS 714, HCI International 2017 Posters Proceedings (Part II), edited by
Constantine Stephanidis
 HCI in Business, Government and Organizations
Program Board Chair(s): Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah,
USA and Chuan-Hoo Tan, Singapore
• Miguel Aguirre-Urreta, USA
• Andreas Auinger, Austria
• Michel Avital, Denmark
• Philipp Brauner, Germany
• Hock Chuan Chan, Singapore
• Patrick Chau, Hong Kong, SAR China
• Xi Chen, P.R. China
• Christy Cheung, Hong Kong, SAR China
• Ben C.F. Choi, Australia
• Constantinos K. Coursaris, USA
• Brenda Eschenbrenner, USA
• Schubert Foo, Singapore
• Ann Fruhling, USA
• Nobuyuki Fukawa, USA
• Jie Mein Goh, Canada
• Richard H. Hall, USA
• Milena Head, Canada
• Netta Iivari, Finland
• Qiqi Jiang, P.R. China
• Rajiv Khosla, Australia
• Dongming Kim, Canada
• Harald Kindermann, Austria
• Yi-Cheng (Justin) Ku, Taiwan
• Roderick Lee, USA
• Younghwa “Gabe” Lee, USA
• Honglei Li, UK
• Eleanor Loiacono, USA
• Mei Lu, USA
• Randall Minas, USA
• Robbie Nakatsu, USA
• Chih-Hung Peng, Hong Kong,
SAR China
• David Chee Wei Phang, P.R. China
• Robin Poston, USA
• Lingyun Qiu, P.R. China
• Rene Riedl, Austria
• Shu Schiller, USA
• Norman Shaw, Canada
• Austin R. Silva, USA
• Juliana Sutanto, UK
• Chee Wee Tan, Denmark
• Horst Treiblmaier, Austria
• Wietske Van Osch, USA
• Eric Walden, USA
• Deliang Wang, Singapore
• Dezhi Wu, USA
• I-Chin Wu, Taiwan
• Bo Sophia Xiao, USA
• Dongming Xu, Australia
• Shuang Xu, USA
• Cheng Yi, P.R. China
• Dezhi Yin, USA
• Jie Yu, P.R. China
XII HCI in Business, Government and Organizations

The full list with the Program Board Chairs and the members of the Program Boards of
all thematic areas and affiliated conferences is available online at:

http://www.hci.international/board-members-2017.php
 HCI International 2018

The 20th International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction, HCI International

2018, will be held jointly with the affiliated conferences in Las Vegas, NV, USA, at
Caesars Palace, July 15–20, 2018. It will cover a broad spectrum of themes related to
human–computer interaction, including theoretical issues, methods, tools, processes,
and case studies in HCI design, as well as novel interaction techniques, interfaces, and
applications. The proceedings will be published by Springer. More information is
available on the conference website: http://2018.hci.international/.

General Chair
Prof. Constantine Stephanidis
University of Crete and ICS-FORTH
Heraklion, Crete, Greece
E-mail: general_chair@hcii2018.org

http://2018.hci.international/
 Contents – Part II

E-Commerce and Consumer Behaviour

Sharing Economy Versus Access Economy: A Critical Reflection

on Social Interaction Between Peers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sophie Altrock and Ayoung Suh

Employing Relation Visualizations to Enhance the Shopping Experience

on a Used Car Trading Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Jianxin Chen, Dongqing Zhang, Yingjie Victor Chen,
and Zhenyu Cheryl Qian

Arousal or Not? The Effects of Scarcity Messages on Online

Impulsive Purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Junpeng Guo, Liwei Xin, and Yi Wu

Gamification in E-Commerce: A Survey Based on the Octalysis Framework . . . 41

Jovana Karać and Martin Stabauer

Priming and Context Effects of Banner Ads on Consumer Based Brand

Equity: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Harald Kindermann

Consumers’ Trust in Price-Forecasting Recommendation Agents . . . . . . . . . . 71

Eran Rubin, Young Anna Argyris, and Izak Benbasat

Mobile Shopping Should be Useful, Convenient and Fun! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Norman Shaw and Ksenia Sergueeva

Effect of Timing and Source of Online Product Recommendations:

An Eye-Tracking Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Yani Shi, Qing Zeng, Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah, Chuan-Hoo Tan,
Choon Ling Sia, Keng Siau, and Jiaqi Yan

Optimize the Coupon Face Value for Online Sellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Peng Wang, Rong Du, Yumeng Miao, and Zongming Zhang

Acceptance of Personalization in Omnichannel Retailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Werner Wetzlinger, Andreas Auinger, Harald Kindermann,
and Wolfgang Schönberger

Review-Based Screening Interface for Improving Users’ Decision Process

in E-commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Dongning Yan and Li Chen
XVI Contents – Part II

Eye-Tracking Analysis of Gender-Specific Online Information Research

and Buying Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Silvia Zaharia, Daniela Kauke, and Ella Hartung

Social Media for Business

The Effects of Online Review Message Appeal and Online Review

Source Across Two Product Types on Review Credibility, Product Attitude,
and Purchase Intention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Ardion Beldad, Fitria Avicenna, and Sjoerd de Vries

Participation in Collaborative Consumption - A Value Co-creation

Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Shun Cai, Chee Wei Phang, Xiao Pang, and Yicheng Zhang

How to Get Endorsements? Predicting Facebook Likes Using Post Content

and User Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Wei-Fan Chen, Yi-Pei Chen, and Lun-Wei Ku

Dueling for Trust in the Online Fantasy Sports Industry: Fame, Fortune,
and Pride for the Winners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Craig C. Claybaugh, Peter Haried, Langtao Chen, and Nathan Twyman

Internet Use and Happiness: A Longitudinal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Richard H. Hall

A Theoretical Model of Incorporating Gamification Design

into On-line Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Hsiu Ching Laura Hsieh and Chiao Yu Hwang

Extracting Important Knowledge from Multiple Markets

Using Transfer Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Tokuhiro Kujiraoka, Fumiaki Saitoh, and Syohei Ishizu

Numbers Speak Where Words Fail: Exploring the Effect of Online

Consumer Reviews on Consumer Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fei Liu

Social Presence and Dishonesty: Perceptions from Security Guards . . . . . . . . 264

Susan Siebenaler, Andrea Szymkowiak, Paul Robertson,
Graham Johnson, and Jan Law

The Duality of Envy in Online Social Information Consumption:

An Exploratory Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Yi Wu, Ben C.F. Choi, and Annie Tran
 Contents – Part II XVII

Context Sensitive Digital Marketing - A Conceptual Framework

Based on the Service Dominant Logic Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Konrad Zerr, Rudolf Albert, and Anja Forster

Encouraging the Participation in Mobile Collaborative Consumption Using

Gamification Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Yicheng Zhang, Chee Wei Phang, Shun Cai, and Chenghong Zhang

Analytics, Visualization and Decision Support

Development of an Online Checklist for the Assessment of Alarm Systems

and Alarm Management in Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Martina Bockelmann, Peter Nickel, and Friedhelm Nachreiner

How Correct and Defect Decision Support Systems Influence Trust,

Compliance, and Performance in Supply Chain and Quality Management:
A Behavioral Study Using Business Simulation Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Philipp Brauner, André Calero Valdez, Ralf Philipsen,
and Martina Ziefle

Impact of Mobile IT Consumerization on Organizations – An Empirical

Study on the Adoption of BYOD Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Christian Meske, Stefan Stieglitz, Tobias Brockmann, and Björn Ross

A Review on Neuropsychophysiological Correlates of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah, Tejaswini Yelamanchili, and Keng Siau

Information Visualizations Used to Avoid the Problem of Overfitting

in Supervised Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Robbie T. Nakatsu

Evaluation of Total Quality Management Using CSR Company Reports . . . . 386

Shu Ochikubo, Fumiaki Saitoh, and Syohei Ishizu

Contract Visualisation: Sketches for Generic Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

Lei Shi and Daniela Alina Plewe

Understanding Color Risk Appropriateness: Influence of Color on a User’s

Decision to Comply with the IT Security Policy—Evidence from the U.S.
and India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Mario Silic, Mato Njavro, and Goran Oblakovic

Not All Books in the User Profile Are Created Equal: Measuring the
Preference “Representativeness” of Books in aNobii Online Bookshelves . . . . 424
Muh-Chyun Tang, Tzu-Kun Hsiao, and I-An Ou
XVIII Contents – Part II

A Transaction Cost Equilibrium Analysis on Overlap Between Emergency

Response Task Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Yun-feng Wang

Analyzing Load Profiles of Electricity Consumption by a Time Series Data

Mining Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
I-Chin Wu, Tzu-Li Chen, Yen-Ming Chen, Tzu-Chi Liu, and Yi-An Chen

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

 Contents – Part I

Human-Centred Design in Information Systems

Advanced Nuclear Interface Modeling Environment (ANIME):

A Tool for Developing Human-Computer Interfaces for Experimental
Process Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ronald Boring, Roger Lew, and Thomas Ulrich

How Can Emails from Different Types of Leaders Influence Employees? . . . 16

Eric Brangier and Laura Dovero

Discuss Attractive Factor of E-Scooter with Miryoku Engineering

and Fuzzy Kano Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Jianxin Cheng, Yixiang Wu, and Le Xi

The Relevance of Failure to Ensure Safety in Human-Robot Cooperation

in Work Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Diego Compagna

Enhancing IS User Empowerment and Problem-Solving Behavior

Through Training and Prompting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Brenda Eschenbrenner

Virtual World Versus Real World: An Economic Study of the Cyber

Games Participation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Qingliang Fan, Xin Fu, and Shun Cai

Challenges in Research Generalizability: The Need for Standardization

of Performance Metrics and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Kathryn A. Feltman, Kyle A. Bernhardt, and Amanda M. Kelley

The Adoption of Physiological Measures as an Evaluation Tool in UX . . . . . 90

Vanessa Georges, François Courtemanche, Sylvain Sénécal,
Pierre-Majorique Léger, Lennart Nacke, and Romain Pourchon

Project Management Implications and Implementation Roadmap of Human

Readiness Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Victoria Newton, Alexander Greenberg, and Judi See

Context-Awareness and Mobile HCI: Implications, Challenges

and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Xiangang Qin, Chee-Wee Tan, and Torkil Clemmensen
XX Contents – Part I

Consumer Involvement in NPD Different Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Yanmin Xue and Menghui Huang

Information Systems in Healthcare, Learning,

Cultural Heritage and Government

Communication in Co-innovation Networks: A Moderated Mediation

Model of Social Affordances, Social Experience, and Desire for Learning . . . 139
Kaveh Abhari, Bo Xiao, and Elizabeth Davidson

Implementing Digital Parliament Innovative Concepts for Citizens

and Policy Makers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fotios Fitsilis, Dimitris Koryzis, Vasilios Svolopoulos,
and Dimitris Spiliotopoulos

An Analysis for Difficult Tasks in e-Learning Course Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Ling-Ling Lai and Shu-Ying Lin

Explore the Business Model of MOOCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Yuan Long

Mobile Web Strategy for Cultural Heritage Tourism:

A Study on Italian Opera Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Luisa Mich and Roberto Peretta

Improving Healthcare with Wearables: Overcoming the Barriers

to Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Ksenia Sergueeva and Norman Shaw

Are you Willing to see Doctors on Mobile Devices? A Content Analysis

of User Reviews of Virtual Consultation Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Vania Yuxi Shi, Sherrie Komiak, and Paul Komiak

Factors Influencing Acceptance and Continued Use of mHealth Apps . . . . . . 239

Hanna O. Woldeyohannes and Ojelanki K. Ngwenyama

Embedding the Social Features into E-learning System: A Review . . . . . . . . 257

Yingying Ying, Qiqi Jiang, and Hongwei Wang

Learning as Adventure: An App Designed with Gamification Elements

to Facilitate Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Leijing Zhou, Jie Yu, Chun’an Liao, and Yan Shi
 Contents – Part I XXI

Novel Interaction Devices and Techniques

Towards Accepted Smart Interactive Textiles: The Interdisciplinary

Project INTUITEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Philipp Brauner, Julia van Heek, Anne Kathrin Schaar, Martina Ziefle,
Nur Al-huda Hamdan, Lukas Ossmann, Florian Heller, Jan Borchers,
Klaus Scheulen, Thomas Gries, Hannah Kraft, Hannes Fromm,
Marina Franke, Christian Wentz, Manfred Wagner, Manuel Dicke,
Christian Möllering, and Franz Adenau
Smartglasses Used by Forklift Operators: Digital Accident Hazard
or Efficient Work Equipment? A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Michael Bretschneider-Hagemes and Benno Gross
Finger Extension and Flexion: How Does the Trackpad Orientation
Influence Product Evaluation in Social Media? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Wei Cui and Deliang Wang
Evaluation of the Usage of Support Vector Machines for People Detection
for a Collision Warning System on a Forklift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Armin Lang and Willibald A. Günthner
A Comparison of Attention Estimation Techniques in a Public Display
Scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Wolfgang Narzt
Is Augmented Reality Leading to More Risky Behaviors? An Experiment
with Pokémon Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Romain Pourchon, Pierre-Majorique Léger, Élise Labonté-LeMoyne,
Sylvain Sénécal, François Bellavance, Marc Fredette,
and François Courtemanche
Usage and Physiological Effects of Dynamic Office Workstations - A Field
Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Vera Schellewald, Jens Kleinert, and Rolf Ellegast
Driving Under Voluntary and Involuntary Distraction: An Empirical Study
of Compensatory Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Yuhan Shi and Ronggang Zhou
Cognitive Load by Context-Sensitive Information Provision
Using Binocular Smart Glasses in an Industrial Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Jan Terhoeven and Sascha Wischniewski
Modifications of Driver Attention Post-distraction: A Detection Response
Task Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Oliver M. Winzer, Antonia S. Conti, Cristina Olaverri-Monreal,
and Klaus Bengler

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

E-Commerce and Consumer Behaviour
 Sharing Economy Versus Access Economy
A Critical Reflection on Social Interaction Between Peers

Sophie Altrock1 ✉ and Ayoung Suh2

( )

1
School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
saltrock2-c@my.cityu.edu.hk
2
Department of Information Systems and School of Creative Media,
City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
ahysuh@cityu.edu.hk

Abstract. Disruptions caused by Web 2.0 and easily accessible technologies

have had an impact on many thematic areas. In the economic sector these devel‐
opments have resulted in the creation of a new business model: the sharing
economy (SE). Despite its success in the last decade however, researchers are
debating a clear definition without highlighting the key concept in terms of func‐
tions and processes that are fundamental to the SE model. Therefore, this paper
focuses on functions of peers that are either consuming or providing, and eluci‐
dates the relation in accordance with business transactions in that both peers
interact. Through a critical review of previous papers, we analyze the SE model
by reflecting on prior definitions of sharing. We then compare motivations of
peers to participate in the SE and, as a result, find discrepancies between providing
and consuming peers in relation to their respective functions in the SE. Based on
these findings, we introduce a theoretical framework that exemplifies the SE
concept based on social interactions between peers and, thus, relates motivations
of peers to transaction types and processes based on social interactions
required.

Keywords: Sharing economy · Peer economy · Access economy · Business ·

Social interaction

1 Introduction

Since the introduction of the information communication technologies that enabled Web
2.0 and social media, research in a variety of disciplines has sought to analyze their impact
on our society. In the field of business, these new technological developments have initi‐
ated the creation of a new business model, and with it, have introduced a new area of
research that combines technology, economy, and society. The sharing economy (SE) is a
new economy that disrupts any common idea of business. Instead of business-to-customer
relations (B2C), we now create business transactions between peers (P2P). Uber
(www.uber.com) and Airbnb (www.airbnb.com) are already profiting from their business
models, which are anchored in the concept of sharing [1]. Hence, the SE makes use of
online platforms to connect individuals interested in providing private goods or services to

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

F.F.-H. Nah and C.-H. Tan (Eds.): HCIBGO 2017, PART II, LNCS 10294, pp. 3–15, 2017.
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-58484-3_1
4 S. Altrock and A. Suh

other individuals looking for a convenient way to access these goods or services [2–4].
Fundamental to these transactions is communication between peers [2, 5]. Thus, social
interaction—in an economic process once solely regulated in commercial terms—becomes
an essential cornerstone of the SE model.
Previous research has largely focused on the motivations of peers to participate in
the SE [5–11]. Accordingly, social interaction is not only the key to facilitating the SE,
but it also serves to motivate peers to participate in this economic model. While social
interactions in a virtual space are necessary in the SE to enable business transactions in
the first place, the SE also offers peers the option to interact further in the physical space
[4, 8]. However, two aspects deserve more clarification. First, it is unclear to what extent
the driver to participate in the SE is purely for social reasons—–meaning the partici‐
pant’s interest in social interactions with other users rather than for economic reasons.
Second, the extent to which relations between peers may become more than business
depends on the willingness of peers to further engage socially, after the actual business
transaction is completed. Here, the SE only serves as an incentive for further social
interactions, but the impetus was not social in the first place. Thus, the aim of this paper
is to highlight the role of social interaction in terms of the SE model, as well as to
differentiate social interactions as the foundation of, motivator for, and consequence of
business transactions between peers.
Focusing on the act of sharing in the SE reveals the lack of actual sharing in many
businesses that are referred to as SE [2, 10]. While many studies focus on the term sharing
in the SE, conflict has increased as to its meaning [2–5, 7, 12]. Although the label itself
has been debated [3, 13], no determinant can be found to alter the term and its definition
[7, 10, 13]. Accordingly, many researchers overlook ambiguities and correlations among
the definitions of sharing, social interactions between peers and their motivations. While
research highlights the motivations of individuals, it ignores the key concept of the SE.
To fill this gap in research, this paper seeks to examine social interactions between peers
according to the part they take in the SE, as well as their respective motivations. Specifi‐
cally, we address the following key question: Taking into account the lack of a shared
definition of the SE—–how does the role of social interaction define the concept of the SE?
Towards that end, this study uses an extensive literature review and critical analysis
of previous studies to clarify the definition and the principles of the SE. In an attempt
to justify or amend the terminology, this study compares the definitions of sharing with
the findings on the motivations of peers in the SE and, accordingly, highlights discrep‐
ancies between peers relating to their respective functions. Based on our findings, we
present a theoretical framework that elaborates on transaction types and transaction
processes between peers in accordance with their motivations. Thus, this paper high‐
lights transaction types based on ownership and access, relating to social interactions
between peers. Consequently, the access economy (AE) is often suggested as opposite
to or as replacing the SE concept. While accessing prevails actual sharing transactions
we do not replace the SE label but introduce a framework that simplifies a differentiation
of both. Finally, we propose further research questions based on our framework in order
to derive more tailored motivations of peers in accordance with respective transactions
in the SE.
 Sharing Economy Versus Access Economy 5

2 Defining the Sharing Economy

Reviewing previous research on the SE reveals a variety of definitions, but beyond this lack
of clarification, several similar terms are often equated with the principle of the SE.
Researchers have listed many terms that are used synonymously with the SE [7, 10, 13].
These include inter alia, business sharing, space sharing, P2P lending, skill sharing, crowd-
sourced investments, collaborative economy, and collaborative consumption, as well as P2P
economy, access economy, on-demand economy, reputation economy, trust economy, and
many more. While three papers mention—as referred to by Jiang— label battle, the result
is still far away from a solution [7, 10, 13]. Botsman [10] prefers using the term collabo‐
rative economy, whereas Cartagena [13] is of the opinion that AE would be the correct term
to describe the phenomenon.
A report published by the European Commission in 2013 describes the foundation of
the SE as being “peer-to-peer platforms that enable consumers to access consumer-owned
property or competencies” [14, p. 2]. Eckhardt and Bardhi [2], Samuel and Zhang [4], and
Yan and Zhao [15] all agree with this description by reusing the verb “to access”. Carta‐
gena refers to the SE as a new economy that “is based on sharing, rather than owning”
[13]. The same view is shared by Jiang, who highlights the principles of the SE that lie
within the concept of access “rather than possession of goods and assets” [7]. Finally, an
analysis of more than 30 papers and articles on the SE reveals that terms access and sharing
are used equally in the SE context.
In addition to the principle of the SE, which fits somewhere between accessing and
sharing goods and services, there appears to be one common denominator that divides the
SE from the collaborative economy, also referred to as collaborative consumption (CC).
Kamal and Chen identify the rise of the SE in technological development [8]. Lee et al.
regard “advanced technologies and social media” [3, p. 2] as drivers of the SE. However,
there is still disunity among researchers in terms of separating the SE from the collabora‐
tive economy. Some researchers use CC or collaborative economy synonymously to mean
the SE. For example, John observes a correlation between CC, sharing, and Web 2.0 and
describes CC as a “high-tech phenomenon” [16, p. 2]. Lee et al. [3], however, clarify CC
as only the foundation of the technology-mediated SE. Botsman, one of the leading figures
in the CC sector, also prefers the term collaborative economy, arguing it best explains “the
shift from centralized institutions towards decentralized connected communities” [10]. Yet,
Botsman’s preference is related to the fact that she regards sharing ventures as separate from
other collaborative economies [10]. Consequently, she reveals the core issue in clarifying
the definition of the SE: not all SE businesses are actually based on the principle of sharing.
Thus far, it is still unclear what phenomenon we describe when referring to the SE, and
whether the common definitions of the SE do, in fact, describe what we refer to as the SE.
Prior attempts to choose one term to describe the phenomenon have not succeeded. Some
researchers have only one objective: to divide CC from the SE. For the following sections
we shall keep in mind one aspect that will be of high importance for the further discussion:
we find that, on the one hand, access is a key principle: on the other hand, the act of sharing
is just as relevant. To solve the continuing issue of inconsistency in the application of a
label and definition of this new economic phenomenon, we will elaborate on the details of
the SE concept in the following section.
6 S. Altrock and A. Suh

3 Peer Interaction in the Sharing Economy

In the SE, social interaction is found to be the key element enabling business transactions
[9]. Yet, the role of social interaction in the SE remains unclear. As seen in Fig. 1, social
interaction between peers usually takes place online, enabling business transactions in
the first place [16]. Social interaction may then continue in a physical place when two
peers have to exchange goods or services [14]. Furthermore, social interaction may take
place between parties with the same function in the form of reputation systems that
enable peers to communicate experiences to other interested users [17, 27].

Fig. 1. Participants in the sharing economy

3.1 Different Parties in the Sharing Economy

Other than traditional business models such as B2C, the SE enables a new economy that
is based on consumer to consumer (C2C) transactions. These consumers are usually
referred to as peers, hence the P2P economy. However, peers per se do not yet facilitate
business in the SE; thus, we have one additional intermediary that makes the SE possible.
Jiang is one of few researchers who has elaborated on participating parties within the
SE [7]. Accordingly, a classification scheme by Jiang reveals the role of online platforms
provided by a third party that can be either an individual or business. This third party
helps to connect the two other parties [7]. Further, Eckhardt and Bardhi confirm this
third party in the form of a company that would serve as the regulating party in the SE [2].
Focusing on two of the three participating parties in the SE, providing and consuming
peers, Schor highlights that “[those] can be on either side of a transaction” [19, p. 4].
Several researchers have defined peers according to the actions they take part in the SE. One
side of peers is described as a using [4], consuming [19], buying [14, 20], demanding [7],
and obtaining [21] party, whereas the other side of peers is described as a providing [5],
 Sharing Economy Versus Access Economy 7

contributing [19], selling [20], sharing [8, 21, 22], supplying [7, 14], and giving [21] party.
Yet, most prior studies describe peers as consuming and providing. Figure 1 shows a brief
overview of the previously described features and structures of the SE.
The new and highly important phenomenon concerning this business model, which
is mainly ruled by consuming and providing peers, is the shift of power that the P2P
economy enforces. Labrecque et al. [24] and Owyang [25] both mention the empower‐
ment of consumer or customer. Thus, while the main business transaction occurs
between peers, the role of the company regulating these processes becomes minor. While
providing peers are now responsible for facilitating their own success in business,
consuming peers also have to actively engage with the providing peers in order to make
a deal. The responsibility of creating business now lies only within the willingness of
peers to do so. Primary business transactions occur between two equally standing parties,
as the term peer already implies. The role of peers or consumers, opposite to the role of
businesses, has changed significantly. There is no obvious sign of a business or a
company in the P2P economy, highlighting the novelty of business transactions between
two equally standing parties using the concept of sharing.

3.2 Sharing in the Sharing Economy

In the SE, business transactions between peers enable an exchange of services or
goods; however, it is debated whether the principle of the SE is actual sharing.
Seeking to clarify the definition of sharing and, accordingly, the SE, two opposite
views can be revealed: Whereas many researchers simply adapt to the usage of the
term sharing or justify it [5, 8, 16], other researchers criticize or even try to alter it
[2, 7, 10, 17, 23]. Wittel focuses in his paper on the act of sharing and the qualities
of it [5]. Wittel is of the opinion that sharing exists in two forms: sharing as distri‐
bution and sharing as social exchange [5]. In his view, sharing can describe different
social practices with different functions and motivations. Further, it depends on the
individual’s subjective reasoning and the willingness to share [5]. Kamal and Chen,
too, see the roots of sharing in a broader cultural context [8]. Accordingly, sharing
is anchored in humans in the form of natural instinct [8]. Kamal and Chen [8]
suggest that the sharing principle in the SE has overcome the previous boundaries
of only sharing between closely related people, such as family and friends.
Opposite to the views that sharing can define a large spectrum of phenomena, many
more researchers tend to reject the use of the term sharing in terms of the SE. Botsman
prefers the term collaborative economy, or CC, instead of SE [10]. Botsman believes
that sharing is too overarching of a term for all marketplaces in this sector, and she notes
the importance of discerning different forms of sharing [10]. Belk agrees with Kamal
and Chen that sharing usually takes place within a close circle of acquaintances and
points out the ambiguity of the act of sharing [8, 17]. Accordingly, “although giving and
receiving are involved in sharing, they differ from the giving and receiving involved in
commodity exchange and gift giving” [16, p. 127]. Hence, different forms of giving and
receiving exist, as in gift giving and sharing, opposite to providing and consuming, as
in exchange.
8 S. Altrock and A. Suh

The most common principles used when defining the SE, are reciprocity and owner‐
ship, according to Belk [23]. Thus, giving and receiving may or may not include transfer
of ownership, temporary ownership, and/or exchange in either material or immaterial
forms. For example, giving someone temporary access to one’s car may be a non-recip‐
rocal act between friends, but the same act between people who are not very closely
related might include expectance of compensation, or a reciprocal act. Supporting Belk,
Jiang defines giving, exchanging, and sharing independently [7, 17]. Thus, gift giving
is a caring act that does not involve compensation. In contrast, exchange is defined as
being impersonal and includes the transfer of ownership. Finally, sharing is similar to
giving and can be described as nonreciprocal and voluntarily [7]. The main difference
here is that sharing, according to Jiang [7], does not involve the transfer of ownership.
However, companies such as Uber and Airbnb that are commonly quoted in the SE
context [22, 24, 25] are, against definition, of a reciprocal nature; drivers and hosts are
being paid for their services.
Various terms are representative of the SE model. Confirming the incorrectness of
the label SE for different internal processes, a few researchers have introduced new
labels; these reveal that most processes are in fact not about sharing, but about accessing.
Whereas Botsman [10] prefers the overarching term of the collaborative economy,
Cartagena [13] and Jiang [7] share the view that the main principle of the SE is access.
Thus, Jiang [7] introduces the economy of access-based distribution that is marked by
balanced reciprocity and no full ownership transfer—an “alternative view of how
sharing with a calculated return may actually work” [7, p. 9]. In seeking to clarify prin‐
ciples in the SE model, scholars have pointed to ownership and reciprocity as two main
aspects that influence the relation between peers and the way in which they interact.

4 Motivations to Participate in the Sharing Economy

After analyzing the act of sharing, the definition of the SE is still unclarified. To move
towards a clear description of the SE, peer motivations can help to highlight discrepan‐
cies according to the function of a peer: consuming or providing. Three main motivations
of peers to participate in the SE can be identified: social, economic and environmental.
This section, first, briefly examines all three motivations and, second, continues to high‐
light socially driven peers according to their consuming or providing function.
Recently, researchers have focused on peers’ general willingness to share [3, 4, 21, 26].
Anti-capitalism, the burden of ownership, enjoyment in sharing, hedonic motivations,
income, knowledge, modern lifestyle, product variety, quality, a sense of belonging, social
experience, social influence, substitutability, sustainability, thriftiness, ubiquity, availa‐
bility, and uniqueness have been found to be factors that positively influence participation
in the SE [26]. Further, some researchers have also mentioned convenience as an impor‐
tant factor [2, 4, 11, 17, 27]. A study by Owyang and Samuel [11] shows that the most
popular reasons to choose sharing services are convenience (78%), followed by price
(68%). In terms of choosing sharing over buying though, the price is more important (53%)
than convenience (30%). Another aspect here that appears to be even more important is
brand (33%). The most prominent, however, are the given overarching motives—economic,
 Sharing Economy Versus Access Economy 9

social, and environmental [6, 9, 18]. Thus, some peers choose the SE for economic or envi‐
ronmental benefit, whereas others embrace the opportunity to socially engage. Yet, the role
of a social motivator has been largely overlooked. Social interaction is a key construct on
which the SE model is built. Social interaction is more than simply an impetus to partici‐
pate. Taking into account the diversity of consuming and providing peers, as well as the two
given acts of accessing and sharing, reveals a new dimension of the P2P economy.

4.1 Social Interaction as Motivator in the Sharing Economy

One aspect that has not yet been largely considered in terms of motivations is the prom‐
inence of three different parties in the SE: intermediaries and consuming and providing
peers. While this paper focuses on the individual level [3], we highlight the relation
between peers, more precisely, two different types of peers that have different functions
in the SE model either providing or consuming. While a few papers specify the moti‐
vations of providing or consuming peers, others simply analyze the willingness to share
[3, 4, 21, 26]. While sharing can include providing as well as consuming peers, as in
sharing a car ride or rooms in an apartment, lending someone a drill clearly implies a
utilitarian benefit for the consuming party but does not clearly suggest a benefit for the
providing party. Thus, it is necessary to specify the motivations of different types of
peers to understand the role of social interaction in the SE model.
Researchers focusing on the motivations of providing peers mostly find that
economic motives drive them to provide services or goods in the SE. For example,
Dillahunt and Malone are one of few researchers to specifically target providers in the
SE [28]. Their research focus is on the economic benefits that the SE has to offer to
providers; in this case, drivers in disadvantaged communities. A professional’s report
from Ernst & Young also highlights the creation of new jobs—hence, the benefits for
providers. However, the findings are not consistent. Bellotti et al. [29] find that users
seek convenient and valuable services, while providers “place great emphasis on ideal‐
istic motivations such as creating a better community and increasing sustainability” [29,
p. 1]. Furthermore, Scholdan and Van Straaten [25] mention that social aspects motivate
both providers and consumers due to “socio-demographic changes nowadays”. It is
likely that economic benefit is an advantage of the SE, but not all participating peers are
seeking an economic benefit. Social interaction can be a significant reason to decide for
or against being part of a P2P economy.
The most significant aspect when analyzing motivations is the specific occasion during
which the action takes place. For example, car sharing and accommodation sharing place
different requirements on both peers. The way in which interaction is required depends on
this type of sharing occasion, as shown in a study by Böcker and Meelen [9]. Böcker and
Meelen focus on the discrepancies between providing and consuming parties based on the
three previously mentioned main motivations, which are economic, social, and environ‐
mental [9]. Their findings reveal that sociality is most important for providing and
consuming parties in terms of meal sharing. The least important are social factors in the
case of car sharing, which is even less important for users compared to providers,
confirming the Bellotti et al.’s study suggesting that providers have a more pro-social or
pro-environmental stance in the SE [29]. In contrast, accommodation sharing is the most
10 S. Altrock and A. Suh

economically driven sharing opportunity for both providers and consumers [9]. However,
users appreciate the social aspect more than their providing counterparts [9]. Finally, the
most environmentally driven are users in terms of ride sharing; however, providers—again
mirroring the findings of Bellotti et al. [29] —regard car sharing, tool sharing, and ride
sharing as the most environmentally beneficial SE types [9]. Interestingly, providers are
least driven by economic factors when sharing a ride or tool [9].
Combining the findings shown in Fig. 2, the willingness to participate in the SE, and
the different motivations of providing and consuming peers, we find that food sharing
is not only the most social activity, but it is also the least interesting form of sharing,
especially for consuming peers. Further, tool sharing is not only the most interesting
form of sharing in the SE but also the most balanced one. Consumers and providers are
almost equally interested in tool sharing. However, the motivations here are highly
unequal. Whereas users are motivated mostly by economic reasons, providers are least
motivated by economic and most influenced by environmental reasons. One last aspect
that we will point out because of the highest discrepancy of willing providers opposite
to willing users is accommodation sharing. As Fig. 2 shows, only 13.1% are willing to
provide accommodation, while 58% would like to rent an accommodation from peers.
However, adding the second findings of the motives of providers and consumers reveals
that for both parties, economic reasons are the most prevalent in either providing or
renting accommodation.

Fig. 2. Willingness of providing and consuming peers to participate in the SE by Böcker and
Meelen, 2016

This section highlights the small amount of research that focuses on the different
motivations between providing and consuming peers and the significant differences that
these previous findings reveal. A pattern can hardly be found. An overview of the
findings reveals that meal sharing is most social and least interesting. Sharing a meal
means to give part of a meal away to someone else. The act of sharing a meal may be
social as it might happen in the same place at the same time but it also implies a benefit
 Sharing Economy Versus Access Economy 11

for only one side of the sharing process and a loss for the giving party. Tool sharing and
accommodation sharing imply temporary ownership and no final loss for the giving
party. However, while using a tool is done by one party, accommodation sharing can
imply use by two people at the same place at the same time, entailing possible further
interactions rather than a pure transfer of business-related commonalities.
As previous studies show, motivations between providing and consuming peers can
be very different. As Fig. 2 illustrates, the highest discrepancy exists among accommo‐
dation sharing, and the least interest is in meal sharing. Taking into account the required
social interaction in meal sharing and accommodation sharing, it appears that purely
social activities are not favoured by SE participants. Referring to the previous sections,
sharing is usually a personal act between people who are known to each other. Sharing
a home or a meal cannot usually be referred to as a kind act between strangers. However,
giving someone a ride or lending someone a tool can happen in a short time window
that does not require more interaction than necessary. Not only is the divide of
consuming or providing peer important but also is the transaction occasion as well as
the actual process in terms of social interactions between peers required. Böcker and
Meelen argue that it is important “to not conceive the sharing economy as one coherent
phenomenon” [9, p. 9]. Schor [18] also sees the importance to distinguish transaction
types. Thus, to fully understand the SE concept and its participants it is fundamental to
synthesize not only motivations but especially transactions types and processes.

5 Social Interaction in P2P Economies

Combining the findings that the literature review of the previous sections revealed, the
lack of a uniform definition of the SE is found to be linked to an interdependence of
three overlooked but significant factors; first, the divide between consuming and
providing peers, second, the act of sharing in contrast to acts of accessing in relation to,

Fig. 3. Theoretical framework: social interactions between peers in the SE model

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Ever triumphant! whose victorious charms,
Without the needless aid of high descent,
Had awed mankind, and taught the world’s great lords
To bow, and sue for grace. But who is he,
Fresh as a rose-bud newly blown, and fair
As opening lilies, on whom every eye
With joy and admiration dwells? See, see!
He reins his docile barb with manly grace.
Is it Adonis, for the chase array’d?
Or Britain’s second hope? Hail, blooming youth!
May all your virtues, with your years, improve,
Till, in consummate worth, you shine the pride
Of these our days, and, to succeeding times,
A bright example. As his guard of mutes
On the great sultan wait, with eyes deject,
And fix’d on earth, no voice, no sound, is heard
Within the wide serail, but all is hush’d,
And awful silence reigns; thus stand the pack,
Mute, and unmoved, and cowering low to earth,
While pass the glittering court, and royal pair:
So disciplined those hounds, and so reserved,
Whose honour ’tis to glad the hearts of kings:
But soon the winding horn, and huntsman’s voice,
Let loose the general chorus; far around
Joy spreads its wings, and the gay morning smiles.

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 405-429.

 Unharbour’d now, the royal stag forsakes
His wonted lair; he shakes his dappled sides,
And tosses high his beamy head; the copse
Beneath his antlers bends. What doubling shifts
He tries! not more the wily hare: in these
Would still persist, did not the full-mouth’d pack,
With dreadful concert, thunder in his rear.
The woods reply, the hunter’s cheering shouts
Float through the glades, and the wide forest rings.
How merrily they chant! their nostrils deep
Inhale the grateful steam. Such is the cry,
And such the harmonious din, the soldier deems
The battle kindling, and the statesman grave
Forgets his weighty cares; each age, each sex,
In the wild transport joins; luxuriant joy,
And pleasure in excess, sparkling, exult
On every brow, and revel unrestrained.
How happy art thou, man! when thou’rt no more
Thyself; when all the pangs, that grind thy soul,
In rapture, and in sweet oblivion lost,
Yield a short interval, and ease from pain!
See, the swift courser strains, his shining hoofs
Securely beat the solid ground. Who now
The dangerous pitfall fears, with tangling heath
High-overgrown? or who the quivering bog,

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 430-454.

Soft yielding to the step? All now is plain,
Plain as the strand, sea-laved, that stretches far
Beneath the rocky shore. Glades crossing glades,
The forest opens to our wondering view:
Such was the king’s command. Let tyrants fierce
Lay waste the world; his the more glorious part,
To check their pride; and when the brazen voice
Of war is hush’d, as erst victorious Rome,
To employ his station’d legions in the works
Of peace; to smooth the rugged wilderness,
To drain the stagnate fen, to raise the slope
Depending road, and to make gay the face
Of nature with the embellishments of art.
How melts my beating heart! as I behold
Each lovely nymph, our island’s boast and pride,
Push on the generous steed, that strokes along
O’er rough, o’er smooth; nor heeds the steepy hill,
Nor falters in the extended vale below;
Their garments loosely waving in the wind,
And all the flush of beauty in their cheeks:
While at their sides their pensive lovers wait,
Direct their dubious course; now chill’d with fear,
Solicitous, and now with love inflamed.
O grant, indulgent Heaven, no rising storm
May darken, with black wings, this glorious scene!

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 455-478.

Should some malignant power thus damp our joys,
Vain were the gloomy cave, such as, of old,
Betray’d to lawless love the Tyrian queen:
For Britain’s virtuous nymphs are chaste, as fair;
Spotless, unblamed, with equal triumph reign
In the dun gloom, as in the blaze of day.
Now the blown stag through woods, bogs, roads, and streams,
Has measured half the forest; but, alas!
He flies in vain; he flies not from his fears.
Though far he cast the lingering pack behind,
His haggard fancy still, with horror, views
The fell destroyer; still the fatal cry
Insults his ears, and wounds his trembling heart.
So the poor fury-haunted wretch, his hands
In guiltless blood distain’d, still seems to hear
The dying shrieks; and the pale threatening ghost
Moves as he moves, and, as he flies, pursues.
See here, his slot; up yon green hill he climbs,
Pants on its brow awhile; sadly looks back
On his pursuers, covering all the plain;
But, wrung with anguish, bears not long the sight,
Shoots down the steep, and sweats along the vale;
There mingles with the herd, where once he reign’d
Proud monarch of the groves; whose clashing beam

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 479-503.

His rivals awed, and whose exalted power
Was still rewarded with successful love.
But the base herd have learn’d the ways of men;
Averse they fly, or, with rebellious aim,
Chase him from thence: needless their impious deed,
The huntsman knows him by a thousand marks,
Black, and imboss’d; nor are his hounds deceived;
Too well distinguish these, and never leave
Their once devoted foe: familiar grows
His scent, and strong their appetite to kill.
Again he flies, and, with redoubled speed,
Skims o’er the lawn; still the tenacious crew
Hang on the track, aloud demand their prey,
And push him many a league. If haply then
Too far escaped, and the gay courtly train
Behind are cast, the huntsman’s clanging whip
Stops full their bold career: passive they stand,
Unmoved, an humble, an obsequious crowd,
As if, by stern Medusa, gazed to stones.
So, at their general’s voice, whole armies halt,
In full pursuit, and check their thirst of blood.
Soon, at the king’s command, like hasty streams
Damm’d up a while, they foam, and pour along
With fresh recruited might. The stag, who hoped
His foes were lost, now once more hears, astunn’d,

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 504-528.

The dreadful din: he shivers every limb;
He starts, he bounds; each bush presents a foe.
Press’d by the fresh relay, no pause allow’d,
Breathless and faint, he falters in his pace,
And lifts his weary limbs with pain, that scarce
Sustain their load: he pants, he sobs, appall’d;
Drops down his heavy head to earth, beneath
His cumbrous beams oppress’d. But if, perchance,
Some prying eye surprise him, soon he rears
Erect his towering front, bounds o’er the lawn,
With ill-dissembled vigour, to amuse
The knowing forester; who inly smiles
At his weak shifts, and unavailing frauds.
So midnight tapers waste their last remains,
Shine forth a while, and, as they blaze, expire.
From wood to wood redoubling thunders roll,
And bellow through the vales; the moving storm
Thickens amain, and loud triumphant shouts,
And horns, still warbling in each glade, prelude
To his approaching fate. And now, in view,
With hobbling gait, and high, exerts, amazed,
What strength is left: to the last dregs of life
Reduced, his spirits fail, on every side
Hemm’d in, besieged; not the least opening left
To gleaming hope, the unhappy’s last reserve.

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 529-553.

Where shall he turn? or whither fly? Despair
Gives courage to the weak. Resolved to die,
He fears no more, but rushes on his foes,
And deals his deaths around; beneath his feet
These grovelling lie, those, by his antlers gored,
Defile the ensanguined plain. Ah! see, distress’d,
He stands at bay against yon knotty trunk,
That covers well his rear, his front presents
An host of foes. O shun, ye noble train,
The rude encounter, and believe your lives
Your country’s due alone. As now aloof
They wing around, he finds his soul upraised,
To dare some great exploit; he charges home
Upon the broken pack, that, on each side,
Fly diverse; then, as o’er the turf he strains,
He vents the cooling stream, and, up the breeze,
Urges his course with eager violence:
Then takes the soil, and plunges in the flood
Precipitant; down the mid-stream he wafts
Along, till, like a ship distress’d, that runs
Into some winding creek, close to the verge
Of a small island, for his weary feet
Sure anchorage he finds, there skulks, immersed;
His nose, alone above the wave, draws in
The vital air; all else beneath the flood

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 554-578.

Conceal’d, and lost, deceives each prying eye
Of man or brute. In vain the crowding pack
Draw on the margin of the stream, or cut
The liquid wave with oary feet, that move
In equal time. The gliding waters leave
No trace behind, and his contracted pores
But sparingly perspire: the huntsman strains
His labouring lungs, and puffs his cheeks in vain.
At length a blood-hound, bold, studious to kill,
And exquisite of sense, winds him from far;
Headlong he leaps into the flood, his mouth
Loud-opening, spends amain, and his wide throat
Swells every note with joy; then fearless dives
Beneath the wave, hangs on his haunch, and wounds
The unhappy brute, that flounders in the stream,
Sorely distress’d, and, struggling, strives to mount
The steepy shore. Haply once more escaped;
Again he stands at bay, amid the groves
Of willows, bending low their downy heads.
Outrageous transport fires the greedy pack;
These swim the deep, and those crawl up with pain
The slippery bank, while others on firm land
Engage; the stag repels each bold assault,
Maintains his post, and wounds for wounds returns.
As when some wily corsair boards a ship

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 579-602.

Full-freighted, or from Africk’s golden coasts,
Or India’s wealthy strand, his bloody crew
Upon her deck he slings; these in the deep
Drop short, and swim to reach her steepy sides,
And, clinging, climb aloft; while those, on board,
Urge on the work of fate; the master bold,
Press’d to his last retreat, bravely resolves
To sink his wealth beneath the whelming wave,
His wealth, his foes, nor unrevenged to die.
So fares it with the stag; so he resolves
To plunge at once into the flood below,
Himself, his foes, in one deep gulf immersed.
Ere yet he executes this dire intent,
In wild disorder once more views the light;
Beneath a weight of woe he groans distress’d:
The tears run trickling down his hairy cheeks;
He weeps, nor weeps in vain. The king beholds
His wretched plight, and tenderness innate
Moves his great soul. Soon, at his high command,
Rebuked, the disappointed, hungry pack
Retire, submiss, and grumbling quit their prey.
Great prince! from thee, what may thy subjects hope;
So kind, and so beneficent to brutes?
O mercy, heavenly born! sweet attribute!

BOOK III THE CHASE v. 603-608.

Thou great, thou best prerogative of power!

Justice may guard the throne, but, join’d with thee,
On rocks of adamant it stands secure,
And braves the storm beneath; soon as thy smiles
Gild the rough deep, the foaming waves subside,
And all the noisy tumult sinks in peace.
BOOK IV
 Argument.
Of the necessity of destroying some beasts, and preserving others, for the use
of man. Of breeding of hounds; the season for this business. The choice of
the dog, of great moment. Of the litter of whelps. Of the number to be
reared. Of setting them out to their several walks. Care to be taken to
prevent their hunting too soon. Of entering the whelps. Of breaking them
from running at sheep. Of the diseases of hounds. Of their age. Of
madness; two sorts of it described, the dumb, and outrageous madness: its
dreadful effects. Burning of the wound recommended, as preventing all ill
consequences. The infectious hounds to be separated, and fed apart. The
vanity of trusting to the many infallible cures for this malady. The dismal
effects of the biting of a mad dog, upon man, described. Description of the
otter-hunting. The conclusion.
Whate’er of earth is form’d, to earth returns,
Dissolved: the various objects we behold,
Plants, animals, this whole material mass,
Are ever changing, ever new: the soul
Of man alone, that particle divine,
Escapes the wreck of worlds, when all things fail.
Hence great the distance ’twixt the beasts that perish,
And God’s bright image, man’s immortal race.
The brute creation are his property,
Subservient to his will, and for him made.
As hurtful, these he kills; as useful, those
Preserves; their sole and arbitrary king.
Should he not kill, as erst the Samian sage

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 14-37.

Taught, unadvised, and Indian Brachmans now
As vainly preach, the teeming ravenous brutes
Might fill the scanty space of this terrene,
Incumbering all the globe. Should not his care
Improve his growing stock, their kinds might fail:
Man might once more on roots and acorns feed;
And through the deserts range, shivering, forlorn,
Quite destitute of every solace dear,
And every smiling gayety of life.
The prudent huntsman, therefore, will supply
With annual large recruits, his broken pack,
And propagate their kind. As from the root
Fresh scions still spring forth, and daily yield
New blooming honours to the parent tree.
Far shall his pack be famed, far sought his breed;
And princes, at their tables, feast those hounds
His hand presents, an acceptable boon.
Ere yet the sun through the bright ram has urged
His steepy course, or mother earth unbound
Her frozen bosom to the western gale;
When feather’d troops, their social leagues dissolved,
Select their mates, and on the leafless elm
The noisy rook builds high her wicker nest;
Mark well the wanton females of thy pack,

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 38-62.

That curl their taper tails, and, frisking, court
Their piebald mates enamour’d: their red eyes
Flash fires impure; nor rest, nor food, they take,
Goaded by furious love. In separate cells
Confine them now, lest bloody civil wars
Annoy thy peaceful state. If left at large,
The growling rivals in dread battle join,
And rude encounter. On Scamander’s streams,
Heroes of old with far less fury fought,
For the bright Spartan dame, their valour’s prize.
Mangled and torn, thy favourite hounds shall lie,
Stretch’d on the ground; thy kennel shall appear
A field of blood: like some unhappy town,
In civil broils confused, while discord shakes
Her bloody scourge aloft, fierce parties rage,
Staining their impious hands in mutual death.
And still the best beloved, and bravest fall:
Such are the dire effects of lawless love.
Huntsman! these ills, by timely prudent care,
Prevent: for every longing dame select
Some happy paramour; to him, alone,
In leagues connubial join. Consider well
His lineage; what his fathers did of old,
Chiefs of the pack, and first to climb the rock,
Or plunge into the deep, or thread the brake,

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 63-86.

With thorns sharp-pointed, plash’d, and briers in-woven.
Observe with care, his shape, sort, colour, size.
Nor will sagacious huntsmen less regard
His inward habits: the vain babbler shun,
Ever loquacious, ever in the wrong.
His foolish offspring shall offend thy ears
With false alarms, and loud impertinence.
Nor less the shifting cur avoid, that breaks
Illusive from the pack; to the next hedge
Devious he strays; there, every meuse he tries;
If haply then he cross the steaming scent,
Away he flies, vain-glorious; and exults,
As of the pack supreme, and in his speed
And strength unrivall’d. Lo! cast far behind,
His vex’d associates pant, and, labouring, strain
To climb the steep ascent. Soon as they reach
The insulting boaster, his false courage fails,
Behind he lags, doom’d to the fatal noose;
His master’s hate, and scorn of all the field.
What can from such be hoped, but a base brood
Of coward curs, a frantick, vagrant race?
When now the third revolving moon appears,
With sharpen’d horns, above the horizon’s brink,
Without Lucina’s aid, expect thy hopes

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 87-110.

Are amply crown’d: short pangs produce to light
The smoking litter; crawling, helpless, blind,
Nature their guide, they seek the pouting teat,
That plenteous streams. Soon as the tender dam
Has form’d them with her tongue, with pleasure view
The marks of their renown’d progenitors;
Sure pledge of triumphs yet to come. All these
Select with joy; but to the merciless flood
Expose the dwindling refuse, nor o’erload
The indulgent mother. If thy heart relent,
Unwilling to destroy, a nurse provide,
And to the foster-parent give the care
Of thy superfluous brood: she’ll cherish kind
The alien offspring; pleased, thou shalt behold
Her tenderness, and hospitable love.
If frolick now, and playful, they desert
Their gloomy cell, and on the verdant turf,
With nerves improved, pursue the mimick chase,
Coursing around; unto thy choicest friends
Commit thy valued prize. The rustick dames
Shall at thy kennel wait, and in their laps
Receive thy growing hopes; with many a kiss
Caress, and dignify their little charge
With some great title, and resounding name

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 111-135.

Of high import. But, cautious, here observe
To check their youthful ardour, nor permit
The unexperienced younker, immature,
Alone to range the woods, or haunt the brakes,
Where dodging conies sport: his nerves unstrung,
And strength unequal, the laborious chase
Shall stint his growth, and his rash forward youth
Contract such vicious habits, as thy care,
And late correction, never shall reclaim.
When to full strength arrived, mature and bold,
Conduct them to the field; not all at once,
But as thy cooler prudence shall direct,
Select a few, and form them, by degrees,
To stricter discipline. With these, consort
The stanch and steady sages of the pack,
By long experience versed in all the wiles,
And subtle doublings, of the various chase.
Easy the lesson of the youthful train,
When instinct prompts, and when example guides.
If the too forward younker, at the head,
Press boldly on, in wanton sportive mood,
Correct his haste, and let him feel, abash’d,
The ruling whip. But if he stoop behind,
In wary modest guise, to his own nose
Confiding sure, give him full scope to work

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 136-160.

His winding way, and with thy voice applaud
His patience and his care; soon shalt thou view
The hopeful pupil leader of his tribe,
And all the listening pack attend his call.
Oft lead them forth where wanton lambkins play,
And bleating dams, with jealous eyes, observe
Their tender care. If at the crowding flock
He bay presumptuous, or with eager haste
Pursue them, scatter’d o’er the verdant plain,
In the foul fact attach’d, to the strong ram
Tie fast the rash offender. See! at first,
His horn’d companion, fearful and amazed,
Shall drag him, trembling, o’er the rugged ground,
Then with his load fatigued, shall turn a-head,
And, with his curl’d hard front, incessant peal
The panting wretch; till, breathless and astunn’d,
Stretch’d on the turf he lie. Then spare not thou
The twining whip, but ply his bleeding sides,
Lash after lash; and with thy threatening voice,
Harsh echoing from the hills, inculcate loud
His vile offence. Sooner shall trembling doves,
Escaped the hawk’s sharp talons, in mid air,
Assail their dangerous foe, than he once more
Disturb the peaceful flocks. In tender age,
Thus youth is train’d; as curious artists bend

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 161-184.

The taper pliant twig, or potters form
Their soft and ductile clay to various shapes.
Nor is’t enough to breed, but to preserve
Must be the huntsman’s care. The stanch old hounds,
Guides of thy pack, though but in number few,
Are yet of great account; shall oft untie
The Gordian knot, when reason at a stand,
Puzzling, is lost, and all thy art is vain.
O’er clogging fallows, o’er dry plaster’d roads,
O’er floated meads, o’er plains with flocks distain’d,
Rank scenting, these must lead the dubious way.
As party chiefs, in senates who preside,
With pleaded reason, and with well-turn’d speech,
Conduct the staring multitude; so these
Direct the pack, who with joint cry approve,
And loudly boast discoveries not their own.
Unnumber’d accidents, and various ills,
Attend thy pack, hang hovering o’er their heads,
And point the way that leads to death’s dark cave.
Short is their span; few at the date arrive
Of ancient Argus, in old Homer’s song
So highly honour’d: kind, sagacious brute!
Not even Minerva’s wisdom could conceal
Thy much-loved master, from thy nicer sense.

BOOK IV THE CHASE v. 185-209.