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Health at a Glance
Asia/Pacific 2016
Measuring Progress towards Universal
Health Coverage
Health at a Glance:
Asia/Pacific 2016
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FOREWORD
Foreword
M ore than ever, effective and well-targeted data and indicators of health and health care are essential to help
policy makers assessing the quality of care and strengthen efforts to improve the performance of health systems
across the Asia-Pacific region.
Health at a Glance: Asia-Pacific 2016 presents the latest comparable data and trends on key aspects of
health outcomes and health systems in selected Asia-Pacific countries. The indicators provide an overview of
health status, determinants of health, health care resources and utilisation, health expenditure and financing,
and quality of care in the region. As countries strive to achieve universal health coverage, these indicators help
measure their progress.
Comparing health system performance across countries is important to identify and share good practices,
foster innovation, and inspire policy makers to consider new approaches and strategies to advance the 2030
agenda for sustainable development.
We hope that the data reported in this publication will help policy makers make further progress towards
universal health coverage, improving and promoting the health status and well-being of population across the
Asia-Pacific region.
Table of contents
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
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the e-book edition.
Executive summary
H ealth at a Glance: Asia-Pacific 2016 presents key indicators on health status, determinants of health,
health care resources and utilisation, health expenditure and financing, and quality of care for
27 Asia-Pacific countries and economies. Countries in the Asia-Pacific region are diverse, and their
health issues and health systems often differ. However, these indicators provide a concise overview
of the progress of countries towards achieving universal health coverage for their population.
Life expectancy has continued to increase, while maternal mortality is still very high
● Life expectancy at birth across Asian countries reached 73.7 years in 2015, a gain of about 4.6 years
since 2000. OECD countries gained, on average, 3.4 years over the same period.
● The infant mortality rate has fallen dramatically across the region since 2000, with many countries
experiencing declines of greater than 50%. At an average of 21.5 deaths per 1 000 live births in 2015,
infant mortality is still five times the OECD rate.
● Maternal mortality averages around seven deaths per 100 000 live births in OECD countries, while
in Asian countries it is almost 13 times greater. Between 2000 and 2015, the average maternal
mortality rate across Asian countries was cut by more than half.
● The share of the population aged over 65 years in Asia is expected to nearly quadruple in the next
four decades to reach 26% in 2050, surpassing the projected OECD average.
7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Despite the scarcity of national statistics on quality of care, numerous policy initiatives
to evaluate and improve quality of care have been undertaken
● In most Asia-Pacific countries, more than 90% of children aged around one year receive measles,
diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis childhood vaccination – on a par with global best practice.
Myanmar, Pakistan and Papua New Guinea still fall short of this figure.
● Japan has the lowest case-fatality rates for stroke, with 3% of patients dying within 30 days after
ischemic stroke. However, 12.2% of Japanese patients die within 30 days of having a heart attack,
compared to 6.6% in New Zealand and 4.5% in Australia.
● Although death rates from cancer are decreased, little is known about the quality of cancer care in
the Asia-Pacific region. Cervical cancer mortality varies from 1.4 per 100 000 females in New
Zealand to 21.7 in Papua New Guinea, suggesting scope to improve prevention, early detection
through screening and fast access to effective treatment.
● The results of a survey carried out in 2013 (WHO and OECD, 2015) show increasing commitment to
quality of care in the region.
Introduction
H ealth at a Glance: Asia-Pacific presents a set of key indicators on health and health systems for
27 Asia-Pacific countries and economies. It builds on the format used in previous editions of Health at
a Glance to present comparable data on health status and its determinants, health care resources and
utilisation, health expenditure and financing and health care quality.
This publication was prepared jointly by the WHO Western Pacific Regional Office, the WHO
Regional Office for South-East Asia, the OECD Health Division and the OECD/Korea Policy Centre,
under the co-ordination of Luca Lorenzoni from the OECD Health Division.
Chapter 1, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 were prepared by Frederic Daniel and Luca Lorenzoni from
the OECD Health Division, with support from Jun Gao and Therese Maria Reginaldo (WHO/WPRO) and
Mark Landry and Rakesh Mani Rastogi (WHO/SEARO). Chapter 4 was written by Luca Lorenzoni, with
support from Chandika Indikadahena (WHO Geneva), Annie Chu and Maria Teresa Pena (WHO/
WPRO) and Lluis Vinals Torres (WHO/SEARO). Chapter 5 was prepared by Frederic Daniel, Nicolaas
Sieds Klazinga and Luca Lorenzoni, with support from Ali Nurgozhayev (OECD Health Division).
Valuable input was received from Anjana Bhushan, Bai-Fang Xiao Sobel, Britta Monika Baer,
Glenda Gonzales, Hai-Rim Shin, Howard Sobel, Indrajit Hazarika, James Kelley, Jason Ligot, Jonathon
Passmore, Katrin Engelhardt, Khonkar Rifat Hossain, Linh-Vi Le, Mari Nagai, Marie Clem Carlos,
Mina Kashiwabara, Mohd Nasir Hassan, Nobuyuki Nishikiori, Priya Mannava, Rabindra Abeyasinghe,
Rasul Baghirov, Saki Narita, Sergey Diorditsa, Tara Mona Kessaram, Thomas Dale Hiatt, Warrick
Junsuk Kim, Whitney Skowronski, and Ying-Ru Jacqueline Lo (WHO/WPRO), and Gaetan Lafortune
(OECD Health Division).
This publication benefited from the comments and suggestions of Vivian Lin (Director, Health
Systems, WHO/WPRO), Phyllida Travis (Director, Health Systems Development, WHO/SEARO),
Sung-wong Ra (Director General of the OECD/Korea Policy Centre) and Francesca Colombo (Head of
OECD Health Division).
Averages
In text and figures, “Asia-xx” refers to the unweighted average for Asian countries and
economies, where “xx” is the number of countries for which data are available. It excludes the five
Pacific countries (Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands) and the OECD
average.
“OECD” refers to the unweighted average for the 35 OECD member countries. It includes
Australia, Japan, New Zealand and the Republic of Korea, but excludes the Asia average. Data for
OECD countries are generally extracted from OECD sources, unless stated otherwise.
Chapter 1
Health status
13
LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH
Life expectancy at birth continues to increase contribute to this gender difference, such as biological
remarkably in Asia-Pacific countries, reflecting sharp differences resulting in slower ageing of immune systems
reductions in mortality rates at all ages, particularly among and the later onset of cardiovascular diseases such as heart
infants and children (UNESCAP, 2014; see indicators “Infant attacks and strokes among women (UNESCAP, 2014).
mortality” and “Under age 5 mortality” in Chapter 1). These Higher national income – as measured by GDP per
gains in longevity can be attributed to a number of factors, capita – is generally associated with higher life expectancy
including rising living standards, better nutrition and at birth (Figure 1.3). There were, however, some notable
improved drinking water and sanitation facilities (see differences in life expectancy between countries with
indicator “Water and sanitation” in Chapter 2). Improved similar income per capita. Nepal and Bangladesh had
lifestyles, increased education and greater access to quality higher, and Mongolia, and Indonesia had lower life
health services also play an important role (National expectancies than predicted by their GDP per capita alone.
Institute on Ageing, National Institute of Health and the Socioeconomic status and education play an important role
World Health Organization, 2011). in life expectancy as seen in the case of Japan, where the
Life expectancy at birth for the whole population higher educational background of mothers and household
across 22 Asian countries reached 73.7 years on average in wealth are associated with better infant and child survival
2015, a gain of about 4.6 years since 2000. In comparison, (see indicators “Infant mortality” and “Under age 5
OECD countries gained 3.4 years during the same period mortality” in Chapter 1).
(Figure 1.1, left panel).
However, a large regional divide persists in life
expectancy at birth. The country with the longest life Definition and comparability
expectancy in 2015 was Hong Kong, China with 84 years.
Life expectancy at birth is the best known measure
Japan, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, the Republic of
of population health status, and is often used to gauge
Korea and Macao, China also exceeded 80 years for total life
a country’s health development. It measures how
expectancy. In contrast, twelve countries in the Asia-Pacific
long, on average, a newborn infant can expect to live if
region had total life expectancies of less than 70 years, and
current death rates do not change. Since the factors
in Papua New Guinea, a child born in 2015 can expect to live
affecting life expectancy often change slowly,
an average of less than 63 years.
variations are best assessed over long periods of time.
Women live longer than men (Figure 1.1, right panel),
Age-specific mortality rates are used to construct
but the degree of disparities varies across countries. The
life tables from which life expectancies are derived.
gender gap in life expectancy stood at 5.0 years on average
The methodologies that countries use to calculate life
across Asian countries in 2015, less than the OECD country
expectancy can vary somewhat, and these can lead to
average of 5.4 years. The gender difference was particularly
differences of fractions of a year. Some countries base
large in Viet Nam and Mongolia with eight years or longer.
their life expectancies on estimates derived from
Women also have greater rates of survival to age 65
c e n s u s e s a n d s u r v ey s , a n d n o t o n a c c u r a t e
(Figure 1.2), regardless of the economic status of the
registration of deaths.
country. On average across Asian countries, 82.9% of a
cohort of newborn infant women would survive to age 65, Survival to age 65 refers to the percentage of a
while only 73.7% of males will survive to age 65. In Japan, cohort of newborn infants that would survive to age
the Republic of Korea and Hong Kong, China 95% of 65, if subject to current age-specific mortality rates.
newborn infant women will survive to age 65. Many reasons
1.1. Life expectancy at birth, 2000 and 2015, and by sex, 2015
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Years Years
Source: OECD Health Statistics 2016; WHO; the World Bank World Development Indicators Online.
1.2. Survival rate to age 65, 2014 1.3. Life expectancy at birth and GDP per capita, 2015
0 25 50 75 100
% of cohort
Infant mortality, deaths in children aged less than one Republic of Korea had rates of 3 deaths or lower per
ye a r, re f l e c t s t h e e f f e c t o f e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l a n d 1 000 live births in 2015, whereas Pakistan, the Lao PDR and
environmental conditions on the health of mothers and Papua New Guinea had rates greater than 40.
infants, as well as the effectiveness of health systems. Infant mortality rates have fallen dramatically in the
Factors such as the health of the mother, quality of Asia-Pacific region since 2000, with many countries
antenatal and childbirth care, preterm birth and birth experiencing declines of greater than 50% (Figure 1.4). In
weight, immediate newborn care and infant feeding China and Cambodia rates have declined by 70%.
practices are important determinants of infant mortality Across countries, important determinants of infant
(see indicators “Preterm birth and low birthweight” and mortality rates are income status and mother education
“Pregnancy and birth” in Chapter 2). Diarrhoea, pneumonia, (Figure 1.5). In Myanmar and Cambodia, infant mortality
infection and undernutrition continue to be among the rates are almost four times higher in the poorest quintile
leading causes of death in both mothers and infants [see compared to the richest quintile. Similarly, in Viet Nam
indicators “Child malnutrition (including undernutrition infant born to mothers with no education had a six-fold
and overweight)” and “Overweight or obese adults” in higher risk of dying compared to infants whose mothers
Chapter 2]. In the Asia-Pacific region, around two-thirds of had achieved secondary or higher education. Geographical
the deaths in the first year of life occur during the neonatal location (urban or rural) is another determinant of infant
period (i.e. during the first four weeks of life or days 0-27). mortality in the region, though relatively less important in
Infant mortality can be reduced through cost-effective comparison to income or mother’s education (Figure 1.5).
and appropriate interventions. These include immediate Reductions in infant mortality will require not only
skin-to-skin contact between mothers and newborns after improving quality of care, but also ensuring that all
delivery, early and exclusive breastfeeding for the first six segments of the population benefit from improvements in
months of life, and kangaroo mother care for babies care.
weighing 2 000g or less. Postnatal care for mothers and
newborns within 48 hours of birth, delayed bathing until
after 24 hours of childbirth and dry cord care are important
Definition and comparability
to reducing infant deaths, Management and treatment of
neonatal infections, pneumonia, diarrhoea and malaria is The infant mortality rate is defined as the number
also critical (UNICEF, 2013). Oral rehydration therapy is a of children who die before reaching their first birthday
cheap and effective means to offset the debilitating effects in a given year, expressed per 1 000 live births.
of diarrhoea (WHO, 2006) and countries could also Some countries base their infant mortality rates on
implement relatively inexpensive public health estimates derived from censuses, surveys and sample
interventions including immunisation, and provide clean registration systems, and not on accurate and
water and sanitation (see indicator “Water and sanitation” c o m p l e t e r eg i s t ra t i o n o f b i r t h s a n d d e a t h s .
in Chapter 2 and “Childhood vaccination programmes” in Differences among countries in registering practices
Chapter 5). for premature infants may also add slightly to
In 2015, among 20 Asian countries, the average was international variations in rates. Infant mortality
21.5 deaths, half the rate observed in 2000 (Figure 1.4). rates are generated by either applying a statistical
Geographically, infant mortality was lower in eastern Asian model or transforming under age 5 mortality rates
countries, and higher in South and Southeast Asia. Hong based on model life tables.
Kong, China; Japan; Singapore; Macao, China and the
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Ca
m d Pa
ki
bo ( 2 esh st
di 013 Pa an
pu La
66
In
di
a( )
2 aN o
PD
a ( 014
20 )
ew R
In
51
do 0 5
Gu
in
L a nes - 0 6
ia ) M ea
o,
45
ya
DP ( 2 nm
R 01
2) ar
40
M (20
11 In
38
nm la
Lowest education
(2 de
ar 0 1 sh
(2 3
31
00 ) Ne
Ne 9-1 pa
Ba Pa pa 0) So Ca
m l
29
ki lo bo
ng
la st l (2 m
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
an 01 di
Ca de on a
m ( 4) Is
25
Ph
bo ( 20 sh ili 2 01 la
di 1 pp 2- nd
In a ( 3) 13 In s
2 So ine do
24
di lo s ( ) ne
a ( 014
2 ) m 20 Ph si
do 0 0 5 iL pp
La n es - 0 6 an ( 20 slan in
o, ia ) ka 06 d es
( -0 s
22
DP ( 2 As
R 01 Vi 20 0 7 ) ia
2 ) et 6- Ko 20
Highest education
2000
M (20 Na 07 re
o
21
11 m ) a,
-1
nm i a ( 2 4)
Lowest income
ar 01
(2 3 M
Fi
ji
00 )
19
on
Ne 9-1 go
Pa pa 0) Vi lia
ki Ba
19
st l (2 ng et
an 01 la Na
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
( 4) Ca d m
Ph m ( 2 esh Th
17
ili 2 01 bo ai
pp
i
2-
1 d 01 la
So ne 3 In i a ( 3 ) Br nd
2 un
11
lo s ( ) di ei Ch
m 20 a ( 014
Sr on 1 In 20 ) Da
ru
in
a
iL I 3)
9
do 05 ss
an ( 20 slan
La n es - 0 al
k a 0 6 ds ia 6 ) am
(
Highest income
-0 o, Sr
9
Vi 20 0 7 ) DP ( 2 iL
Source: Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) and Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2005-14.
et R 01 an
2015
6- 2)
Na 07 M (20 M ka
m )
8
on 11 al
(2 M g -1
Infant deaths per 1 000 live births
Ne ay
Rural
01
4)
y a olia 2) w si
a
6
nm (2 Ze
ar 01 al
3
1.4. Infant mortality rates, 2000 and 2015 (or nearest year)
(2 an
00 ) d
5
Ne 9-1 OE
Pa pa 0) CD
Au
4
ki
st l (2 st
an 01 Ko ra
Ph ( 4) re li a
3
ili 2 01 a,
pp 2- Re
13
So ine ) Si p.
3
lo s ( 2 ng
m M ap
Sr on 013 ac or
iL ) ao e
Urban
2
an (20Isla ,C
1.5. Infant mortality rates by socio-economic and geographic factor, selected countries and years
k a 0 6 nd hi
(2 -0 s Ho na
2
Vi 00 7) ng
et 6 Ko
Ja
pa
N a - 07 n
m ) ng
2
(2 ,C
01 hi
4) na
2
17
Source: OECD Health Statistics 2016; UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (IGME); Health facts of Hong Kong 2015; Statistics and Census
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933413223
INFANT MORTALITY
UNDER AGE 5 MORTALITY
The under age 5 mortality rate is an indicator of child Childhood malnutrition is the underlying cause of
health as well as the overall development and well-being of death in an estimated 35% of all deaths among children
a population. As part of their Sustainable Development under the age of five. Malnutrition is an impediment to the
Goals, the United Nations has set a target of reducing under progress towards achieving the SDGs. In view of the
age 5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1 000 live births importance of improving nutrition to promote heath and
by 2030 (United Nations, 2015). development, in 2012 the World Health Assembly endorsed
In 2015, 5.9 million children died worldwide before a “Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal,
their fifth birthday and slightly less than 40% of these infant and young child nutrition”, which specified a set of
deaths (2.1 million) occurred in the Eastern and Southern six global nutrition targets. The UN General Assembly has
Asia regions (UNICEF, 2016). The average under age 5 also proclaimed the UN Decade of Action on Nutrition
mortality rate across 20 Asian countries was 24.5 deaths per (2016-25).
1 000 live births (Figure 1.6). Hong Kong, China; Singapore; As is the case for infant mortality (see indicator “Infant
Japan; the Republic of Korea and Australia achieved very mortality” in Chapter 1), inequalities in under age 5
low rates of four or less deaths per 1 000 live births, below mortality rates also exist within countries (Figure 1.7).
the average across OECD countries. Mortality rates in Across countries, under age 5 mortality rates consistently
Pakistan, the Lao PDR and Papua New Guinea were high, in vary based on household income and mother’s education,
excess of 50 deaths per 1 000 live births. These countries and to a certain extent by geographical location. For
also had the highest infant mortality in the region. Due to example, in Indonesia under age 5 mortality was almost
their population, India alone accounted for 21% of total five times higher among children whose mother had no
under age 5 deaths in the world. education compared to those whose mother had more than
Whilst under age 5 mortality has declined by an secondary education. Inequality by education was also
average of 63% in Asian countries since 2000, progress large in Indonesia. In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar
varies significantly among countries. Countries such as disparities in under age 5 mortality according to income
Myanmar, China, Cambodia and Nepal reported a drop of were also large with children in the poorest 20% of the
70% or more. Evidence (WHO, 2014d) suggests that population four times more likely to die before their fifth
reductions in Cambodia are associated with better coverage birthday than those in the richest 20%. Inequalities in
of effective preventive and curative interventions such as mortality rates based on geographic locations were
essential immunisations, malaria prevention and relatively small (Figure 1.7). To accelerate reductions in
treatment, vitamin A supplementation, birth spacing, early under age 5 mortality, populations in need should be
and exclusive breastfeeding and improvements in socio- identified in each national context and health interventions
economic conditions. These efforts also resulted in a 67% need targeted to them effectively.
decline in maternal mortality between 1990 and 2015 (see
indicator “Maternal mortality” in Chapter 1). In order to
achieve the SDG target, countries need to accelerate their Definition and comparability
efforts, for example by scaling effective preventive and
Under age 5 mortality is defined as the probability of
curative interventions including early essential newborn
a child born in a given year dying before reaching their
care, targeting the main causes of post-neonatal deaths,
fifth birthday, and is expressed per 1 000 live births.
namely pneumonia, diarrhoea, malaria and undernutrition,
Since under age 5 mortality is derived from a life table,
and reaching the most vulnerable newborn babies and
it is, strictly speaking, not a rate but a probability of
children (UNICEF, 2013).
death.
The main causes of death among children under five
Age-specific mortality rates are used to construct
include pneumonia (16%), preterm birth complications
life tables from which under age 5 mortality is
(16%), intrapartum-related complications (10%), diarrhoea
derived. Some countries base their estimates on
(9%) and malaria (7%). Undernutrition, suboptimal
censuses, surveys and sample registration systems,
breastfeeding and zinc deficiency are overlapping risk
and not on accurate and complete registration of
factors of childhood diarrhoea and pneumonia – the
deaths.
leading infectious causes of childhood morbidity and
mortality (Fischer Walker et al., 2013; WHO and UNICEF, See indicator “Infant mortality” in Chapter 1 for
2013). More than three-fourth of under age 5 deaths occur definition of rate ratios.
in the neonatal period.
0
25
50
75
100
125
0
125
25
50
75
100
Ca
m d Pa
ki
bo ( 2 esh st
di 013 Pa an
In pu La
81
a( ) o
di 2 aN PD
a ( 014
In 20 ) ew R
0
67
Gu
do 5 in
L a nes - 0 6 M ea
o, ia ) ya
57
DP ( 2 nm
R 01
2) ar
M (20
50
on 11 In
48
nm
Lowest education
(2 la
ar 0 1 de
Under age 5 deaths per 1 000 live births
38
Ne 9-1 Ne
Pa 0) pa
Ba pa Ca l
ki m
36
ng st l (2 So
la lo
25
50
75
100
125
0
01 bo
Ca de an m
m Ph ( 4) on di
a
bo ( 20 sh ili 2 01
29
1 pp Is
di 2-
13 la
In a ( 3) nd
di 2 So ine
lo s ( ) In s
28
a ( 014 do
2 ) m 20
La es - 0 6 an ( 20 slan pp
o, ia ) ka 06 d in
DP ( 2 ( -0 s es
R 01 Vi 20 0 7 )
27
2 ) et 6- As
Highest education
ia
2000
M (20 Na 07
o 11 m )
Ko
re
20
M ngo -1 (2
25
a,
ya l 2) 01 DP
nm i a ( 2 4) R
Lowest income
ar 01
(2 3
00 ) Fi
Ne 9-1 M ji
22
Pa pa 0) on
ki Ba go
st l (2 ng Vi lia
an 01 la
0
125
25
50
75
100
22
Ca et
Ph ( 4) m de Na
ili 2 01 bo ( 20 sh m
pp
i
2-
1 d 1 Th
3
22
So ne In i a ( 3 ) ai
lo s ( ) di 2 la
m 20 a ( 014 Br nd
on 1 2 ) un
12
Sr In
iL I 3) do 0 0 5 ei Ch
an ( 20 slan n - 0 Da in
k a 0 6 ds La es ru a
- ia 6 )
11
Highest income
o, ss
V i ( 2 0 07 ) DP ( 2 al
Source: Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) and Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2005-14.
et 06 R 01 am
2015
-0 2) Sr
10
Na iL
m 1 7) M (20
on 11 an
(2 M g -1 ka
M
Rural
01 y a olia 2)
10
4) nm (2 al
Ne ay
ar 01 w si
Under age 5 deaths per 1 000 live births
(2 3 a
7
00 ) Ze
al
Ne 9-1 an
Pa pa 0) d
6
ki OE
st l (2
an 01 CD
( 4) Au
1.6. Under age 5 mortality rates, 2015 and decline, 2000-15 (or nearest year)
Ph
ili 2 01 st
pp 2- Ko ra
13 li a
So ine ) re
4
lo s ( 2 a,
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UNDER AGE 5 MORTALITY
MORTALITY FROM ALL CAUSES
The burden from non-communicable diseases among Mongolia had the highest mortality for both adults and the
adults – the most economically productive age group – is entire population.
rapidly increasing in the Asia-Pacific region. Increasing The share of deaths due to non-communicable
development in countries is bringing an “epidemiological diseases is increasing in the Asia-Pacific region. Non-
transition”, whereby early deaths are replaced by late communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases
deaths, and communicable diseases by non-communicable and cancers were the most common causes of death, being
diseases (WHO, 2014h). The level of adult mortality, all- responsible for over 70% of all deaths, on average, across
cause mortality for the population and cause of death are 20 Asian countries (Figure 1.10; see also indicator “Mortality
important for identifying the country’s public health from cardiovascular diseases” and indicator “Mortality
priorities and assessing the effectiveness of a country’s from cancer” in Chapter 1). In OECD countries, the average
health system. was higher at 87% and the share was also increasing. But
There are wide disparities in adult mortality in the communicable diseases such as respiratory infections,
region. For males in 2013, the probability of dying between diarrhoeal diseases and tuberculosis, along with maternal
ages 15 and 60 ranged from a low of 69 per 1 000 population and perinatal conditions, also remained major causes of
in Singapore to 319 per 1 000 in Papua New Guinea death among many countries in the Asia-Pacific region. In
(Figure 1.8). It also exceeded 300 per 1 000 population in WPRO, violence and injuries are the leading cause of death
Mongolia, and was less than 100 also in Australia, for those aged 5-49, and the first five leading causes of
New Zealand, Japan and the Republic of Korea. Among deaths in the 15-29 age group are all violence and injury
females, the probability ranged from 40 per subtypes (see indicator “Mortality from injuries” in
1 000 population in the Republic of Korea and Singapore to Chapter 1).
a high of 243 in Papua New Guinea. Probabilities were also
less than 50 in Japan and Australia. Mortality was higher
among men than women across countries and in Viet Nam,
Definition and comparability
Sri Lanka, the Republic of Korea and Mongolia, rates for
men were more than twice as high as those for females. Mortality rates are calculated by dividing annual
Across 20 Asian countries, the average probability of dying numbers of deaths by mid-year population estimates.
was 176 per 1 000 population for adult men and 110 per Rates have been age-standardised to the UN World
1 000 population for adult women, still much higher than the Population Prospects to remove variations arising
average adult mortality in OECD countries (105 per from differences in age structures across countries.
1 000 population for men and 54 per 1 000 population for Complete vital registration systems do not exist in
women). many developing countries, and about one-third of
All-case mortality for the entire population ranged countries in the region do not have recent data (WHO,
from less than 400 per 100 000 population in Macao, China; 2014h). Misclassification of causes of death is also an
Hong Kong, China; Japan; Singapore; the Republic of Korea issue. A g eneral assessment of the coverag e,
and Australia, to over 1 000 in Papua New Guinea, completeness and reliability of causes of death data
Myanmar, Mongolia and the Lao PDR (Figure 1.9). The has been published by WHO (Mathers et al., 2005).
average rate in 20 Asian countries was 745, 50% higher than The WHO Global Health Estimates (GHE) project
that of the OECD. Nonetheless, mortality for the entire draws on a wide range of data sources to quantify
population had declined in the Asia-Pacific region between global and regional effects of diseases, injuries and
2000 and 2012, with a notable exception of the Philippines, risk factors on population health. WHO has also
Brunei Darussalam and Viet Nam, and the gap with OECD developed life tables for all member states, based on a
countries had narrowed. systematic review of all available evidence on
Overall mortality for all populations is highly related mortality levels and trends. The probability of dying
with adult mortality across countries in the region. between 15 and 60 years of age (adult mortality rate)
Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and the Republic derive from these life tables.
of Korea, with the lowest adult mortality, also had the
lowest all-cause mortality, while Papua New Guinea and
1.8. Adult mortality rate, 2013 (probability of dying 1.9. All cause-mortality rates for all populations,
between 15 and 60 years per 1 000 population) 2000 and 2012
Source: WHO (2016), “Global Health Observatory Data Repository”. Source: WHO Global Burden of Disease (2014); Department of Health,
Hong Kong, China, 2014; Statistics and Census Service, Macao, China,
2014
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Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of Success of reducing the mortality rates from CVD in
d e a t h i n t h e A s i a - Pa c i f i c reg i o n , a l t h o u g h h i g h ly OECD countries owes to a decline in smoking rates,
preventable. CVD was the cause of an estimated 9.1 million expanded health system’s capacity to control high
deaths in SEARO and WPRO and accounted for about one- cholesterol and blood pressure, and greater access to
third of all deaths in 2012 (WHO, 2014h). effective care in the event of an acute episode such as a
CVD covers a rang e of diseases related to the stroke or heart attack (OECD, 2015a). As an example, in
circulatory system, including ischaemic heart disease (IHD) Japan population-based interventions such as salt
and cerebrovascular disease (or stroke). Ischemic heart reduction campaigns and an increased use of
disease is caused by the accumulation of an atherosclerotic antihypertensive drugs covered by the health insurance
plaque in the inner wall of a coronary artery, restricting system were successful in controlling blood pressure,
blood flow to the heart. Cerebrovascular diseases refer to a resulting in the reduction of CVD mortality (Ikeda et al.,
group of diseases that relate to problems with the blood 2011).
ve s s e l s t h a t s u p p ly t h e b ra i n . C o m m o n t y p e s o f The types of CVD that are fatal differ across countries
cerebrovascular disease include ischemic stroke, which in the region. In China, Indonesia, DPR Korea, Japan, the
develops when the brain's blood supply is blocked or Republic of Korea, Myanmar, Solomon Islands and Viet
interrupted, and haemorrhagic stroke which occurs when Nam, morbidity and mortality from stroke was greater than
blood leaks from blood vessels onto the subarachnoid space IHD (Figure 1.12). In Brunei Darussalam, Fiji, Singapore and
( s u b a ra ch n o i d h a e m o r r h ag e ) o r w i t h i n t h e b ra i n Sri Lanka in particular, and many other countries in the
(intracerebral haemorrhage). Together, IHD and stroke region, the trend was similar to European and North
comprise 83.4% of all cardiovascular deaths in WPRO and American countries and mortality and morbidity from IHD
SEARO countries combined (WHO, 2014h). was greater than for stroke (Ueshima et al., 2008).
The majority of CVD is caused by risk factors that can Mortality rates for CVD increase with age, and in
be controlled, treated or modified, such as high blood China, India and Indonesia they are higher than OECD
pressure, high blood glucose, high blood cholesterol, obesity countries across all age groups (Figure 1.13).
(see indicator “Overweight or obese adults” in Chapter 2), As the proportion of older people increases in the Asia-
lack of physical activity, tobacco use (see indicator Pacific region (see indicator “Ageing” in Chapter 1), demand
“ To b a c c o ” i n C h a p t e r 2 ) a n d e x c e s s i v e a l c o h o l for health care will increase and the complexity and type of
consumption. care that CVD patients require will change. Increases in
Mortality from cardiovascular disease varied across total cholesterol and blood pressure, along with smoking,
countries with a notably high level, exceeding 500 deaths overweight/obesity and high blood glucose (see indicator
per 100 000 population in Mongolia in 2012 (Figure 1.11). “ D i ab e t e s ” i n C h a p t e r 1 ) h i g h l i g h t t h e n e e d f o r
This was in contrast to a group of developed countries management of risk factors to prevent an epidemic of CVD.
(Republic of Korea, Japan, Singapore, Australia, and New In addition to efforts to improve lifestyles, primary care
Zealand) and Macao, China and Hong Kong, China where needs to be strengthened and quality of acute care also
death rates were below 120 per 100 000 population. The needs to improve through better emergency care and
large variation in mortality may be due to differences in the improved professional skills and training capacity (OECD,
prevalence of risk factors for CVD and also access to high 2015a).
quality acute care (see indicator “In-hospital mortality
following acute myocardial infarction and stroke” in
Chapter 5) across countries. The average mortality rates
Definition and comparability
from CVD were 50% higher in Asian countries than in OECD
countries (242 versus 161 deaths per 100 000 population). See indicator “Mortality from all causes” in
While OECD countries had decreased mortality from CVD, Chapter 1 for definition, source and methodology
the rate increased in Asian countries. underlying mortality rates.
1.11. Cardiovascular disease, estimated mortality rates, 1.12. Proportions of cardiovascular disease deaths,
2000 and 2012 2012
Ischaemic Stroke
2012 2000
Hypertensive Others
Source: WHO (2014), “Global Health Estimates”; Department of Health, Source: WHO (2014), “Global Health Estimates”.
Hong Kong, China, 2014; Disease Registry, Macao, China, 2014.
1.13. Cardiovascular disease, age-specific mortality rates, selected countries and OECD, 2012
1 000
100
10
0
0-4 5-14 15-29 30-59 60-69 70+
Age group
Cancer is the second leading cause of death after CVD hepatitis B (see indicator “Child vaccination programmes”
in the Asia-Pacific region. Cancer was the cause of an in Chapter 5).
estimated 4.1 million deaths (or 14% of total deaths) in Other main causes of cancer deaths were stomach,
Asia-Pacific countries in 2012 (WHO, 2014h). colorectal and breast cancer. Mortality from stomach
There are more than 100 different types of cancers, cancer accounted for 8% of all cancer deaths, linked to
with most named after the organ in which they start. Helicobactor pylori infection, with deaths more prevalent in
Cancer occurs when abnormal cells divide without control Mongolia, China, the Republic of Korea and Viet Nam.
and are able to invade other tissues. While genetics are a Colorectal cancer deaths were higher in New Zealand,
risk factor, only about 5% to 10% of all cancers are inherited. Singapore, Japan, DPR Korea and the Republic of Korea.
Modifiable risk factors such as smoking, obesity, exercise, Breast cancer deaths, the most common cause among
and excess sun exposure, as well as environmental women, were responsible for over 15% of all cancer deaths
exposures, explain as much as 90-95% of all cancer cases in Pakistan and the mortality rate was also high in Papua
(Anand et al., 2008). Prevention, early detection and New Guinea, Fiji, the Philippines and New Zealand.
treatment remain at the forefront in the battle to reduce the Cancer causes the highest economic loss among top
burden of cancer, and progress towards fighting cancer causes of death worldwide as a large proportion of cancer
needs to be monitored not only by mortality rates but also deaths occur in the economically productive age group, and
by survival estimates, taking account of early detection of for a group aged 30-59, the age-specific mortality rate in
the disease and the effectiveness of treatment (OECD, 2013). Japan was lower than China, India and Indonesia
Mongolia; DPR Korea; China; Hong Kong, China; Papua (Figure 1.16). China had high mortality rates among the
New Guinea and the Lao PDR had higher cancer mortality older people while the rate was less than one-third of the
rates, all with over 125 deaths per 100 000 population in Chinese level for the older people in India. For a large
2012 (Figure 1.14). Cancer deaths were less common in Sri number of cancers, the risk of developing the disease rises
Lanka, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Fiji and Pakistan, and they with age but in India, life expectancy is considerably lower
had less than 90 deaths per 100 000 population. than other countries, so the older people die of other
The average rate of death in 20 Asian countries was diseases.
lower than that of OECD countries (106 versus 129 deaths As with cardiovascular disease, the ageing of the
per 100 000 population in 2012). But cancer mortality had population will lead to many more cases of cancer in
increased faster in the Asia-Pacific region than OECD coming decades, taxing underprepared health systems.
countries since 2000, narrowing the gap with OECD Since the drugs and technologies for treating patients are
countries. There was a substantial increase of 33% for expensive, cancer control planning in the Asia-Pacific
prostate cancer deaths, 26% increase for pancreas cancer region might more effectively target smoking, physical
deaths, 23% increase for colorectal cancer deaths, 22% activity and overweight/obesity. Early diagnosis is also a key
increase for lung cancer deaths and 21% increase for breast to reducing mortality, so access to cancer diagnosis and
cancer deaths between 2000 and 2012. During the same care needs to be promoted through public health
period, there was a decline of 11% for stomach cancer interventions or wider health coverage (OECD, 2013).
deaths and 3% for oesophagus cancer deaths (WHO, 2014h).
Lung and liver cancer were two leading types of cancer
in the region (Figure 1.15). Lung cancer accounted for 17% of Definition and comparability
all cancer deaths on average in 20 Asian countries in 2012.
See indicator “Mortality from all causes” in
Ra tes were hi gh i n DPR Ko re a wit h 46 dea ths per
Chapter 1 for definition, source and methodology
100 000 population, followed by China with 38 deaths per
u n d e r l y i n g m o r t a l i t y ra t e s . Fo r B a n g l a d e s h ,
100 000 population, while the average was 17 deaths per
Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal,
100 000 population in Asian countries. Liver cancer
Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Sri
accounted for 16% of cancer deaths in Asian countries in
Lanka mortality rates are estimated from national
2012. In Mongolia, with the highest cancer mortality, the
incidence estimates using modelled survival. For
large proportion of deaths was due to liver cancer,
Korea, DPR rates are those of neighbouring countries
precipitated by hepatitis B infection. Besides Mongolia, liver
or registries in the same area.
cancer deaths occurred frequently in the Lao PDR,
Viet Nam, China and Thailand. Incidence is expected to fall
in coming decades, with increased immunisation for
1.14. All cancers, estimated mortality rates, 1.15. Proportions of cancer deaths,
2000 and 2012 2012
Source: WHO Global Burden of Disease (2014); Department of Health, Source: WHO Global Burden of Disease (2014).
Hong Kong, China, 2014; Disease Registry, Macao, China, 2014.
1.16. All cancers, age-specific mortality rates, selected countries and OECD, 2012
1 000
100
10
1
0-4 5-14 15-29 30-59 60-69 70+
Age group
Injuries are a leading cause of death and disability for enforcement of major risk factors like motorcycle helmet
all age groups and took 2.6 million lives in 2012 in the Asia- wearing, speed, alcohol or seatbelts, pertinent to each
Pacific region, accounting for 9.6% of all deaths. Injuries can country (Peden, 2010). On 11 May 2011, the first ever Decade
result from traffic collisions, drowning, poisoning, falls or of Action for Road Safety 2011-20 was launched with great
burns, and violence from assault, self-inflicted or acts or enthusiasm and optimism across the world. Mandated by
war. Injuries are the leading cause of death for those the United Nations General Assembly, the Decade is a
aged 5-49 in SEARO (29% of deaths from all causes) and historic opportunity for countries to stop and reverse the
WPRO (30.9% of deaths from all causes) (WHO, 2014h). The trend which – without action – would lead to the loss of
magnitude of the problem varies considerably across around 1.9 million lives on the roads each year by 2020
countries by cause, age, sex, and income group. But injury (www.who.int/roadsafety/decade_of_action/en/).
deaths, both intentional and unintentional, are largely The main causes of injury deaths are different across
preventable events. countries in the region (Figure 1.18). In Thailand, Malaysia
Mortality from injuries was highest in India, Myanmar, and Indonesia, 40% or more of all injury deaths were due to
Pakistan and Papua New Guinea with greater than road traffic crashes, while in the Republic of Korea
90 deaths per 100 000 populations, while the rate was mortality rates for road traffic injuries are one of the
lowest in Hong Kong, China; Singapore; Brunei Darussalam; highest in high income countries. In the Republic of Korea,
A u s t r a l i a a n d N ew Z e a l a n d w i t h 4 0 d e a t h s p e r Singapore, Japan and DPR Korea, self-inflicted injuries were
100 000 population or less in 2012 (Figure 1.17). Asian the leading cause of injury mortality, accounting for over
countries had higher rates with 64 deaths per 40% of all injury deaths. Over 90% of people who had
100 000 population than OECD countries with 35 deaths per attempted or committed suicide were diagnosed with
100 000 population. psychiatric disorders such as severe depression, bipolar
Injury deaths have declined in Asian countries since disorder and schizophrenia (Nock et al., 2008) but mental
2000. Between 2000 and 2012, there was a 30% reduction in disorders are still under-treated or ineffectively treated
deaths due to poisoning and a 24% reduction in deaths from (OECD, 2014). Interpersonal violence is the main cause of
both drowning and violence in the region. The large injury deaths for men in the Philippines. Apart from road
decrease in injury deaths in Sri Lanka was due to the end of traffic injuries, drowning and fire-related burns are also
armed conflict in 2009. leading causes of injury-related deaths among children in
the region (Peden et al., 2008).
Deaths due to road traffic crashes have slightly
increased in Asian countries from 2000 to 2012 (+1.7%), Age-specific mortality was consistently higher in India
while a large decreased was observed in OECD countries than China, Indonesia, Japan and the OECD average across
during the same period (-45.4%). However, the figure for all age groups (Figure 1.19). In India, suicide and road traffic
Asian countries should be considered in the context of a crashes were the main causes of injury deaths among the
corresponding global increase in the number of registered population aged 15-59, and falls were the leading cause for
vehicles, suggesting that interventions to improve global older populations aged 60 and over.
road safety have mitigated the expected rise in the number
of deaths (WHO, 2015c). OECD countries improved a safe
systems approach to road safety, which includes education Definition and comparability
and prevention campaigns as well as vehicle design and
See indicator “Mortality from all causes” in
safety, and also adopted new laws and regulations and the
Chapter 1 for definition, source and methodology
enforcement of these laws to improve compliance with
underlying mortality rates.
speed limits, seatbelt use and drink-driving rules (OECD/
ITF, 2013). With the support of Bloomberg Philanthropies, Injury deaths where the intent is not determined
the WHO, the Global Road Safety Partnership and Johns are distributed proportionately to all causes below the
Hopkins University have been implementing the Bloomberg group level for injuries.
Philanthropies Global Road Safety Programme (BP-GRSP) in Estimates for road injury deaths drew on death
ten countries including China, Cambodia, India, and Viet registration data, reported road traffic deaths from
Nam. Those four countries combined represent 50% of the official road traffic surveillance systems and revised
t o t a l g l o b a l b u rd e n o f f a t a l ro a d t ra f f i c i n j u r i e s . regression model for countries without usable death
Commencing in 2010, this five-year programme focuses on registration data (WHO, 2014h).
saving lives and preventing injuries by scaling up enhanced
1.17. Injuries, estimated mortality rates, 2000 and 2012 1.18. Proportions of injury deaths, 2012
Source: WHO Global Burden of Disease (2014); Department of Health, Source: WHO Global Burden of Disease (2012).
Hong Kong, China, 2014.
1.19. Injuries, age-specific mortality rates, selected countries and OECD, 2012
1 000
100
10
1
0-4 5-14 15-29 30-59 60-69 70+
Age group
No en todos los casos parece tan obvio el origen literario del cuento,
por ser muy vulgar la anécdota y no presentar en el texto de Mey
ningún rasgo que arguya parentesco directo con otras versiones. Tal
sucede con la fábula LVI El convidado acudido, que figura, aunque
con distintos accesorios, en el cuadernillo manuscrito de los
Cuentos de Garibay y en la Floresta Española[227]. Cotejando la
versión de Mey que pongo á continuación con la de Santa Cruz, que
va por nota, se palpará la diferencia entre el estilo conciso y agudo
del toledano y la manera más pintoresca, verbosa y festiva del
impresor de Valencia.
«Francisco Quintañon vezino de Bilbao, combidó, segun
acostumbrava cada año, el dia del Santo de su nombre, en el qual
havia nacido, a algunos amigos. Los quales truxeron al combite a
Luis Loçano, estudiante, hombre gracioso, bien entrañado, y que si
le llamavan a un combite, no dezia de no, y por caer aquel año en
Viernes el combite, hubo de ser de pescado. A lo qual proveyó el
Quintañon en abundancia y muy bueno. Sentados a la mesa, dieron
a cada uno su porcion de vesugos, congrios y otros pescados tales.
Sólo a Loçano le dieron sardinas, y no sé qué pescadillos menudos,
por ventura por no haver sido de los llamados, sino que le havian
traido. Como él vio aquella menudencia en su plato, en lugar de
comer como hazian los otros, tomava cada pescadillo, y llegavasele
al oido, y bolviale despues al plato. Reparando en aquello los
combidados, y preguntandole por qué hazia aquéllo? respondio:
«Havrá seys años, que pasando un hermano mio a Flandes, y
muriendo en el viaje, echaron su cuerpo en el mar; y nunca he
podido saber dónde vino a parar, y si tuvo su cuerpo sepultura o no,
y por eso se lo preguntava a estos pececillos, si por dicha lo sabian.
Todos me responden en conformidad que no saben tal, porque en
ese tiempo no havian ellos aun nacido: que se lo pregunte a esos
otros pescados mayores que hay en la mesa, porque sin duda me
daran relacion». Los combidados lo echaron en risa, entendiendo la
causa porque lo dezia; y Quintañon, echando a los moços la culpa
que lo havrian hecho por descuydo, mandó traerle un plato de lo
mejor que havia.