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 SOL AR SYSTEM EXPLORATION UNIVERSE ASTRONOMY
W
NE

Life in
space

A tour of the ISS

180
Inside Jupiter's
PAGES
volcanic moon
OF SPACE
BOOK OF FACTS!

Everything you want to know about the universe we live in

Explore
the moon

Space
engineering

Discover
spectrography

Uncover the
Ariane 5
 Welcome to
BOOK OF

SPACE
Space has fascinated mankind from the earliest days of
civilization, and as we keep scratching the surface of the
vast universe in which we live, our sense of awe and wonder
continues to grow unabated. Now, with the technological
advancements being made by the world’s space agencies,
we understand more than ever about the things that are
happening beyond our own planet. This fifth revised edition
of the How It Works Book of Space has been updated with
more of latest astronomical advancements, stunning space
photography from the most advanced telescopes on the
planet, and glimpses at what the future of space exploration
holds, such as the planned mission to Mars. Taking you from
the heart of our Solar System and out into deep space, we
show you incredible solar tornadoes, supernovae, zombie
stars, black holes and much more. Get ready for lift off.
 BOOK OF

SPACE Imagine Publishing Ltd

Richmond House
33 Richmond Hill
Bournemouth
Dorset BH2 6EZ
 +44 (0) 1202 586200
Website: www.imagine-publishing.co.uk
Twitter: @Books_Imagine
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Publishing Director
Aaron Asadi

Head of Design
Ross Andrews

Production Editor
Sanne de Boer

Senior Art Editor

Greg Whitaker

Assistant Designer
Alexander Phoenix

Photographer
James Sheppard

Printed by
William Gibbons, 26 Planetary Road, Willenhall, West Midlands, WV13 3XT

Distributed in the UK, Eire & the Rest of the World by

Marketforce, Blue Fin Building, 110 Southwark Street, London, SE1 0SU
Tel 0203 148 3300 www.marketforce.co.uk

Distributed in Australia by
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Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia Tel +61 2 8667 5288

Disclaimer
The publisher cannot accept responsibility for any unsolicited material lost or damaged in the
post. All text and layout is the copyright of Imagine Publishing Ltd. Nothing in this bookazine may
be reproduced in whole or part without the written permission of the publisher. All copyrights are
recognised and used specifically for the purpose of criticism and review. Although the bookazine has
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This bookazine is fully independent and not affiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein.

How It Works Book of Space Volume 1 Fifth Revised Edition © 2015 Imagine Publishing Ltd

ISBN 978-1785461095

Part of the

bookazine series
 BOOK OF SPACE

CONTENTS
“The Sun’s most Solar System
intense sight is a 010 Journey through the solar system
solar tornado” 014 Earth from space
018 Inside the Sun
020 The Sun, not as we know it
021 Solar eclipse
022 Solar tornadoes
024 The Moon
028 The first moonlanding
030 Amazing facts about eclipses
034 Mercury
021 036 Venus
Solar 038 Mars
eclipse
040 Farming on Mars
040 The V1 star
Earth from space 041 Weather on Jupiter
014 042 Jupiter
044 Saturn
046 Saturn’s rings
048 Uranus
050 Neptune
052 Neptune’s boomerang moon
052 Mercury’s orbit
053 Secrets of transits
054 Pluto
Life in 158 056 Europa
space Evolution of
058 Dwarf planets
telescopes
072 060 Auroras on other planets
062 Planet killers

Solar
tornadoes
022
All Images © NASA

058
Dwarf planets

006
 Exploration Universe
068 Astronaut training 114 10 secrets of space
070 Inside a space suit 118 The Big Bang
071 Space diving 122 A star is born
072 Life in space 124 Zombie stars
076 International Space Station 128 Magnetic stars
080 Mission to Mars 130 Mystery of dark matter
086 The Mars Hopper 136 Space volcanoes
087 Galileo Space Probe 136 Meteor showers
137 Light years
088 Rocket science
137 Hidden planets
092 Mega rockets
138 Search for a new Earth
096 The Orion spacecraft
142 Galaxy classification
098 Spacecraft re-entry
144 Supernovas
100 European Space Agency
148 Black holes
104 ELS launch site
152 Search for extraterrestrial life
106 Evolution of space travel
108 Voyager probes
044
110 The Herschel crater
111
111
Antstronauts
Companion robots
Saturn 036
Venus
Astronomy
Mystery of
dark matter 158 Evolution of telescopes

130 160
162
Seeing stars
Telescope classification
164 James Webb Space Telescope
166 ALMA telescope
167 Measuring stars
167 Star clusters
168 Spectrography
169 Meteor showers
170 Wildest weather in space
174 Radio telescopes
174 Listening to the universe
175 Spitzer Space Telescope

170
Wild space weather
© SPL

007
 SOLAR
SYSTEM
010 Journey through the
Solar System
Find out what’s orbiting the Sun
014 Earth
Phenomenal views of home
018 Inside the Sun
The giant star that keeps us alive
020 Our amazing Sun
The Sun, but not as we know it
021 Solar eclipse
When the Moon obscures the Sun
022 Solar tornadoes
Huge explosions from the Sun
024 Exploring the Moon
Discovering lunar secrets
028 First Moon landing
One small step for man...
030 Amazing facts about eclipses
The smallest planet
034 Mercury
The smallest planet
036 Venus
Earth’s sister planet
038 Mars
The red planet
040 Farming on Mars
We need agriculture to survive
040 The V1 star
Why is this star so special?
041 Weather on Jupiter
Raging storms and swirling winds
042 Jupiter
The most massive planet
044 Saturn
Famous for its rings
046 Rings of Saturn
Saturn’s stellar crown
048 Uranus
First to be seen by telescope
050 Neptune
The windiest planet
052 Neptune’s boomerang moon
A satellite with an odd trajectory
052 Mercury’s orbit
This planet’s curvature is unique
053 Secrets of transits
Sizing up our Solar System
054 Pluto
The ex-planet
056 Europa
Hidden life under the ice?
058 Dwarf planets
In orbit but undersized
060 Auroras on other planets
This phenomenon is universal
062 Planet killers
Meet the space assassins

024
Exploring
the Moon
008
 062
Planet
killers

022
Solar
tornadoes

010
Journey through
the Solar System
009
 SOLAR SYSTEM

Journey through the

Solar System
Bound to the immense mass of the Sun by
gravity, the contents of our Solar System
are numerous and spectacular
The Solar System formed about 4.6 billion
years ago, when part of a giant molecular
cloud had a gravitational collapse. The
centre became the Sun, which comprises
more than 99 per cent of the Solar System’s total mass.
The rest became a dense, flat rotating disk of gas from
which planets formed, called a protoplanetary disk.
In our Solar System, most of that disk became the
eight planets, each of which orbits the Sun.
There are two different categories of planets: gas
giants and terrestrials. The gas giants are the four
outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
They are much bigger than the terrestrial planets and
are mostly made of helium and hydrogen, although
Uranus and Neptune also contain ice. All of the outer
planets have ring systems made of cosmic dust. These
planets comprise more than 90 per cent of the rest of
the solar system’s mass.
The four inner planets are very close to the Sun. To
grant perspective, for example, the distance between
Jupiter and Saturn is larger than the radius of all the
inner planets put together. These terrestrials are
made up from rocks and metals, have no ring systems
and have a low number of satellites (moons). They
include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Except for
Mercury, the inner planets also have recognisable
weather systems operating in their atmospheres.
In addition to the eight main planets, there are also
dwarf planets such as Pluto. The five dwarf planets
are Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. In
addition, the Solar System is home to numerous small
solar system bodies, which include all minor planets,
asteroids and comets.

Earth to Saturn
Can’t afford that ticket on the next spaceship out of
town? Well, fear not, for if you are the patient type and
hold an interplanetary driving licence then you can

in a Mini Metro!
How long would it take to reach the
drive to that Earth colony orbiting Saturn in next to no
time… well, relatively speaking. In our souped-up Mini
Metro, travelling at an average speed of 120mph, any
traveller can reach Saturn in only 842 years. Better
planets in a moderately priced car? stock up on travel sweets then…

010
HEAD
HEAD
LARGEST
PLANETS
2 BIG 1. Uranus
Diameter at equator: 25,559km
Average distance from Sun:
2.88 billion km (19 AU)
Orbital period: 84.02 years
Mass (Earth=1): 14.37
Earth masses
BIGGER 2. Saturn
Diameter at equator:
60,260km
Average distance from Sun:
1.4 billion km (9.4 AU)
Orbital period: 29.5 years
Mass (Earth=1): 95 Earth masses
BIGGEST 3. Jupiter
Diameter at equator:
142,985km
Average distance from Sun:
778 million km (5.2 AU)
Orbital period: 11.86 years
Mass (Earth=1): 318 Earth masses

DID YOU KNOW? Astronomers estimate there may be billions of solar systems in our galaxy. About 70 have been discovered

What and where are Measuring our

Image courtesy of NASA

the asteroid belts?
There are a few asteroid belts in
our Solar System, but none can
compare to the main belt, a massive
ring between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter. Here the dwarf planet Ceres, the
large asteroids 2 Pallas, 10 Hygiea and 4
Vesta, and millions of small asteroids and
dust particles orbit the Sun. Most of the larger
asteroids have elliptical orbits and an orbital
period of a few years. Some astronomers
believe that the main belt’s contents are left
over from a planetary collision or from a
planet that never formed due to the strong
gravitational pull of Jupiter.
Solar System
Understanding the size of
planets and where they are
Before the development of radar, astronomers
measured the distance between planets
Below shows the placement of inner Solar System objects on 20 July through trigonometry, a process where distance
2002. Light blue lines are planet orbits. Green dots show asteroids.
to an object is derived from the measurements of
Red dots are asteroids that come within 1.3AU of the Sun. Comets are
dark blue squares, and dark blue points are Jupiter Trojans angles and distances taken between two known
positions. Today, radar is the predominant
method of measuring distance and allows for
more accurate measurements to be attained.
This process works by astronomers timing how
long it takes the radar beam, which is travelling
at the speed of light, to travel the distance to an
object and back. By multiplying the speed of
light by time taken, then dividing that in two,
scientists can derive the distance to the object.
Once distance has been derived, the mass of
the object can be ascertained by monitoring the
orbital periods of circling satellites. To do this
astronomers measure the angular separation

Bound together between the satellite and the object and then
use trigonometry to convert that angular
separation into distance. Astronomers can then
by gravity use Kepler’s third law to determine total mass.

1 AU (astronomical unit) = 92,960,000

When the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined
planets in 2006, part of that definition included the miles, the mean distance between the
Sun and the Earth
requirement that a planet has enough mass that its self-
gravity causes it to reach hydrostatic equilibrium. The
MERCURY

VENUS

EARTH

MARS

JUPITER

SATURN

URANUS

NEPTUNE

PLUTO
planet is able to resist compressive forces in space to hold
THE SOLAR
together and stay rounded in shape.
SYSTEM IN
Planets also “clear the neighbourhood” around their
AU
orbits. This means that there are no other bodies of the
same size in its orbit. The Sun has a strong enough pull to
keep the planets and other bodies orbiting around it.

A map of Earth’s
gravitational
strength
9.54AU
0.39AU

5.20AU
0.72AU

39.5AU
30.1AU
1.52AU

19.2AU
1AU

Pluto the dwarf

Since its discovery in 1930, Pluto had been considered the ninth planet
Size compared
to Earth
Pluto is a dwarf-planet,
smaller than
in our Solar System. However, more recent discoveries of dwarf planets our own moon
larger in size and mass than Pluto have made some astronomers
question its status. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union
(IAU) decided upon a conclusive definition of what
constituted a planet. Pluto’s low mass – not even a fifth the
mass of the Moon – excluded it from that definition. Now
Pluto is considered a dwarf planet.

Jupiter – 459 years

Mars a little too dusty? Then why not visit Jupiter,
only 459 years of 120mph driving away

Neptune – 2,497 years

Mars – 134 years One for colder climates? Then Neptune should be top of
At 120mph you could drive to the planet named your list. At 2,497 years distance, though, it is a long drive,
after the Roman god of war in only 134 years so make sure you take regular breaks and keep at 120mph!

011
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Our Solar System
8. Neptune 5. Jupiter
Neptune was imaged for the first The largest and most
time in 1989, discovering an massive of all planets in the
encircling set of rings and six of its Solar System, Jupiter has
13 moons. Neptune’s structure is almost 2.5 times the mass of
very similar to that of Uranus, with the other eight planets
no solid surface and central layers combined and over 1,300
of water, methane and ammonia Earths could fit inside it.
ices as well as a possible rock/ice- Jupiter is also the first of the
based core. gas giants and is largely not
solid in composition,
consisting of an outer layer of
The Statistics gaseous hydrogen and
helium, an outer layer of
Neptune liquid hydrogen and helium
and an inner layer of metallic
hydrogen. However, deep in
7. Uranus its body (roughly 37,000
The first planet to be discovered by telescope, miles in) there is a solid core
Uranus appears to the eye as a pale blue, made up of rock, metal and
characterless disk, encircled by a thin system of 11 hydrogen compounds.
rings and 27 tiny moons. Its blue colour is a result of
the absorption of the sunlight’s red wavelengths by
methane-ice clouds within the planet’s cold
atmosphere – a process which also renders its 6. Saturn
Type: Gas giant atmosphere calm and inert thanks to the creation of A massive ball of gas and liquid, Saturn is the least dense of all the
Rotation (Equatorial): haze particles. In reality, however, Uranus’s planets in the Solar System. Circled by a spectacular system of
atmosphere is active and consistently changing with rings, which are composed of stellar dust, boulders and gases,
60,179 days
huge winds driving systems of ammonia and water Saturn has a hazy appearance and due to its rapid spin is a
Rotation (Polar): 16.11 hours massive ten per cent larger at its equator than at its pole.
over its surface.
Volume: (Earth = 1) 57.74 Interestingly, Saturn is so light – thanks to its
Average distance from Sun: composition from the lightest elements – that if it
2.8 billion miles
Number of moons: 13
The Statistics could be hypothetically placed in a galactic-sized
ocean of water it would float. As with Jupiter,
Speed: 5.43km/s
Uranus Saturn is a gas giant with a tiny solid core
Surface temp: -220°C composed of rock and ice.

Comets
Comets are small,
fragile, irregularly
The Statistics
shaped bodies Saturn
composed of a
mixture of non-
volatile grains and
frozen gases The Sun
Type: Gas giant 4.6 billions years old and
Rotation (Equatorial): currently in its main-sequence
9. Pluto 30,799 days stage, our Sun is a huge
sphere of exceedingly hot
Often mistaken as the last planet in our Solar System, Rotation (Polar): 17.24 hours
Pluto is actually not one but instead a dwarf planet. plasma containing 750 times
Volume: (Earth = 1) 63.1
Dwarf planets are bodies that orbit the Sun and have the mass of all the solar
Average distance from Sun: system’s planets put together.
enough mass and gravity to be spherical, but ones that Type: Gas giant
1.78 billion miles Deep in its core nuclear fusion
have not cleared the region around its orbit. Pluto is such Rotation (Equatorial):
Number of moons: 27 of hydrogen produces
a dwarf planet and is one of the furthest circling bodies 10,759 days
of our solar system. Pluto’s atmosphere is 99.97 per cent Speed: 6.81km/s massive energy that is
Rotation (Polar): 10.66 hours
nitrogen and it is astronomically cold, with an average Surface temp: -214°C gradually carried outwards
Volume: (Earth = 1) 763.59 through convection before
temperature of -230 degrees Celsius. Average distance from Sun: escaping into space.
888 million miles

The Statistics Number of moons: 34

Speed: 9.69km/s The Statistics
Pluto Surface temp: -140°C
The Sun

Type: Dwarf
Rotation (Equatorial): Type: Star
90,613 days Rotation (Equatorial): 25 days
Rotation (Polar): N/A
Main belt Rotation (Polar): 34 days
Often referred to as the
Volume: (Earth = 1) 0.0059 Mass: (Earth= 1) 333,000
asteroid belt, the Main belt
Average distance from Sun: is an encircling ring of Surface temperature: 5,500°C
3.7 billion miles meteors, asteroids, dwarf Core temperature:
Number of moons: 3 planets and dust particles 15 million °C
Speed: 4.666km/s that sits between the Diameter (Equatorial):
Surface temp: -230°C terrestrial planets and the 864,900 miles
gas giants.

012
5 TOP 1
Lightweight
FACTS
SOLAR
SYSTEM
Our solar system is nearly five billion years old and is made up of eight planets and 170 moons
The Statistics
Jupiter
Type: Gas giant
Rotation (Equatorial):
4,331 days
Rotation (Polar): 9.93 hours
Volume: (Earth = 1) 1,321
Average distance from Sun:
483.6 million miles
Number of moons: 63
Speed: 13.07km/s
Surface temp: -110°C
Map of the
Solar System
Discover the star, planets
and space phenomena that
make up our Solar System
The Statistics
Mercury
Type: Terrestrial
Rotation (Equatorial): 88 days
Rotation (Polar): 59 days
Mass: (Earth = 1) 0.056
Average distance from Sun:
36 million miles
Number of moons: 0
Speed: 47.87km/s
Surface temp: -187°c – 427 °C
Hypothetically speaking,
Binary
2 Due to the size and short
Dust bowl
3 Mars, often referred to by
4
Big boy
Jupiter is so large that over
5
Tantastic
During the day on Mercury,
Saturn is so light that if it were
placed in a galactic sized
swimming pool it would float.
Hard experiment to carry
orbital distance between Pluto
and its largest moon Charon, it
is often treated as a binary
system as its centre of mass
people as the ‘red planet’, is
actually red thanks to its
coating of iron dust, which
prevails in its carbon
1,300 Earths could fit inside it
and it has a mass which is 2.5
times larger than the total of
all other eight planets in the
the closest planet to our
Sun in the solar system, the
temperature reaches up to a
positively scorching 430
out though! lies with neither. dioxide-rich atmosphere. solar system combined. degrees Celsius.
3. Earth 4. Mars
The Statistics While similar in internal
composition to its
Known as the red planet thanks to its rust-red colouring, and
named after the Roman god of war, Mars is home to the highest
Earth neighbouring planets – volcanoes (albeit dry and inactive) of any planet in the Solar
composed of three distinct System. Current research and evidence suggests that while Mars is
layers made up mainly of iron, an inert planet now, in the past it was very much active, with
magnesium and silicates volcanic activity and water existing over large parts of it. Mars is
respectively – Earth differs on the outermost of the four terrestrial ‘rocky’ planets and its internal
its surface thanks to an structure is rich in sulphur, iron sulphide and silicate rock.
abundance of liquid water and
an oxygen-rich atmosphere.
Due to Earth’s rotation the
planet bulges at its equator by
The Statistics
13 miles when compared to Mars
Type: Terrestrial both its poles and its spin axis
Rotation (Equatorial): is tilted at an angle of 23.5
365.26 days degrees, one of the factors
Rotation (Polar): 23.93 hours that gives rise to its seasons.
Mass: (Earth = 1) 1
Average distance from Sun:
93 million miles
Number of moons: 1
Speed: 29.783km/s
Surface temp: 15°C Type: Terrestrial
Rotation (Equatorial):
687 days
Rotation (Polar): 24.63 days
Mass: (Earth = 1) 0.15
Average distance from Sun:
141.6 million miles
Number of moons: 2
Speed: 24.007km/s
Surface temp: -125°C – 25°C
The Statistics
Venus
2. Venus
The hottest of all planets, Venus –
thanks to its permanent
atmospheric blanket of dense
gaseous clouds – has an average
temperature of 464 degrees
Celsius. The surface is dry, lifeless, Type: Terrestrial
scorching hot and littered with Rotation (Equatorial):
1. Mercury volcanoes and dust storms. 224.7 days
Iron-rich Mercury is the smallest of the main planets in the Named after the Roman goddess
Rotation (Polar): 243 days
Solar System and the closest to the Sun. There is almost no of love and beauty due to its
protective atmosphere surrounding Mercury and, because of beautiful, sun-reflecting, cloud- Mass: (Earth = 1) 0.86
Average distance from Sun:
this, temperatures on the planet fluctuate massively from based atmosphere, in reality
All images © NASA
427 degrees Celsius during the day to -187 degrees Celsius Venus holds one of the most 67.2 million miles
during the night. Worryingly, if an observer were able to hostile environments of any Number of moons: 0
stand on the planet they would experience a period of 176 planet. Interestingly, Venus spins Speed: 35.02km/s
Earth days between one sunrise and the next. Better stock in the opposite direction from Surface temp: 464°C
up on suntan lotion and woolly socks then… most other planets.
013
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Earth

Earth
From astronaut snaps taken with handheld cameras to
advanced satellite imagery that enables us to predict natural
disasters, discover the planet as you’ve never seen it before

Spectacular aspect of On Christmas Eve 1968, the crew of Apollo 8 captured

the Great Barrier Reef this unique view of Earth. Known as ‘Earthrise’, this
photo of Earth rising over the lunar horizon was
humankind’s first glimpse of the Earth from deep space
© NASA

© NASA

© NASA
© NASA

014
5 TOP First
1 Explorer VII was the first
2
Largest
The ESA’s environmental
Worldwide terrain map
3 1.3 million images from the
Accuracy
4 The Landsat satellites
Polar
5 Most Earth observation

FACTS
EARTH
Earth observation satellite.
It was launched on 13
October 1959 and measured
thermal energy that was
OBSERVATION reflected by the Earth.
satellite Envisat is the
world’s largest operational
non-military Earth observation
satellite. It is the size of a
double-decker bus.
Terra satellite’s telescopes,
covering 99% of the Earth’s
surface, have created the
most complete terrain map of
our planet.
discovered that maps of small
islands in the Pacific Ocean
were indicated as much as
16km (10 miles) from their
satellites travel in polar orbits
that go over the North and
South Poles, and are able to
view the whole of the globe as
true position. it turns beneath it.

ISS astronauts spend ten mins each day taking photos of Earth with digital and 35mm and 70mm film cameras
Aurora australis
taken from the ISS

ESA’s Envisat
The European Space Agency’s environmental satellite (Envisat)
was launched into a polar orbit on 1 March 2002. Its instruments
© NASA

are used to study the ocean, agriculture, ice formations and

atmospheric conditions of Earth.

RA-2 LRR
Radar Altimeter 2 (RA-2), The Laser Retro-Reflector (LRR) is
working on the 13.575GHz positioned on the Earth-facing side of

© ESA
(Ku-band) and 3.2GHz the Envisat, close to the RA-2 antenna.
(S-band) frequencies, It’s a passive device that allows
bounces the two-way high-power pulsed ground-based
radar echo off the Earth’s lasers to accurately determine the
GOMOS
The Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars
surface in less than a position of the satellite to calibrate the
(GOMOS) is the first instrument to use the occultation
nanosecond. The power RA-2 and DORIS instruments
of stars to measure trace gases and aerosols from
and shape of these pulses
15-100km (9-62mi) above the Earth. In each orbit, it can
enables it to define land
check 40 stars and determine the presence of
and ocean topography
atmospheric chemistry by the depletion of their light
and monitor snow and
ice fields

ASAR
An Advanced Synthetic
Aperture Radar (ASAR)
monitors ocean wave and
land heights within fractions
of a millimetre. It works in the
microwave C-band (5.3GHz)
range of the electromagnetic
spectrum and can operate in
a variety of different modes,
coverage ranges and angles
DORIS
The Doppler Orbitography
and Radiopositioning
Integrated by Satellite
(DORIS) instrument is
concerned with the accurate
tracking of Envisat, which it
achieves by measuring
microwave radio signals
transmitted by 50 ground
beacons that cover 75% of
its orbit. By determining its
orbit within ten centimetres
(four inches), with an
error of one centimetre, it is
used for navigating the
satellite and calibrating its
on-board instruments
MWR
The MicroWave Radiometer operates at
frequencies of 23.8GHz and 36.5GHz. It’s a
nadir-pointing instrument (faces down at
the Earth) that can measure vapour
content of clouds and the atmosphere, as
well as moisture levels of landscapes
MERIS
The MEdium Resolution Imaging
Spectrometer (MERIS) consists of five
cameras that are each linked to
spectrometers to measure the
reflectance levels emitted from the Earth.
These determine the amount of
chlorophyll and sediments in oceans and
coastal waters, and can examine the
effectiveness of plant photosynthesis
MIPAS
The Michelson Interferometer for
Passive Atmospheric Sounding
(MIPAS) spectrometer works in the
near to mid-infrared wavelengths to
measure nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
nitrous oxide (N2O), ammonia (NH3),
nitric acid (HNO3), ozone (O3) and
water (H2O) in the stratosphere
AATSR
The Advanced Along Track Scanning
Radiometer (AATSR) is a passive
SCIAMACHY radiometer with a wide-angle lens
Scanning Imaging Absorption spectroMeter for Atmospheric that measures visible and infrared
CartograpHY measures solar radiation primarily transmitted, emissions from land and ocean
backscattered and reflected in the stratosphere and surfaces. Its measurements of
troposphere. By examining UV, visible and near-infrared thermal brightness are accurate to
wavelengths, it detects low concentrations of gases and aerosols at least 0.05°C

The crew of Apollo 8 were
the first people to see and
photograph our planet as a
globe in its entirety.
During the fourth orbit around the
Moon, Lunar module commander
William Anders took a series of
photographs of the Earth that became
known as ‘Earthrise’. They revealed
the true splendour of our planet
suspended in stark contrast with the
barren lunar surface, and became an
icon for showing that our home is a
fertile and fragile dot of life in an
immense and deadly universe.
From the Sixties onwards an
enormous number of Earth
observation satellites have been
launched to look at the hard facts
about the state of our global
environment, as it is assaulted by
extremes of natural events and the
impact of human activities.
Observations from space can study
large patterns of change throughout
the Earth’s surface and in the
atmosphere, and can be used to
supplement information gained by
ground or ocean-going instruments.
The additional benefit of satellites is
they can transmit data continuously,
and cover areas of the Earth that are
inaccessible or too hostile for any
other methods of gaining information.
At first, Earth observation satellites
simply used visible light and infrared
sensors to monitor the position of
clouds for weather forecasting. Later,
microwave sensors were introduced
to improve these forecasts by
obtaining measurements of the
temperature, pressure and humidity
in different layers of the atmosphere.
The success of such satellites led
NASA to launch the Landsat series of
observation satellites in July 1972.
Using multi-spectral scanner
instrumentation, Landsats were able
to produce images of the Earth’s
surface gained from up to eight
different wavelengths, showing the
distribution of snow and ice cover,
vegetation, landscapes, coastal
regions and human settlements,
which proved to be a rich source of
new data for cartography, geology,
regional planning, forestry,
agriculture, climate studies and
educational purposes.
In the Seventies, Landsat data about
the worldwide state of wheat crop
growth was used to forecast yield
rates and stabilise the market for this
crop, which led to more stable prices
for consumers. Using data from
Landsat images, researchers recently
discovered 650 previously unknown
barrier islands, including a chain of 54
islands that stretch 563km (350mi)
from the mouth of the Amazon River.
Satellites save lives and reduce
property damage by tracking and

015
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Earth
warning of the arrival of hurricanes,
tornadoes, floods and other extremes
of weather or natural disaster. For
example, in August 2005 satellites
provided an accurate early warning of
the approach of Hurricane Katrina
and, a month later, Hurricane Rita.
Unfortunately, responses to these
warnings were slow, resulting in
extensive damage and loss of life.
Afterwards, satellites (NASA’s TRMM
and NOAA’s GOES and POES) provided
imagery of the damaged areas to help
in the reconstruction of the areas
affected. This helped bring about the
pledge by nations that operate
satellites to provide imagery to any
nation affected by a major disaster
under the terms of the International
Disaster Charter.
The sensing technologies used by
satellites consist of optical sensors
that can detect the strength of
reflections from the Earth in the
visible/near infrared spectrum and
thermal infrared rays that are
radiated from the surface. Microwave
sensors can detect radiation in this
MODIS
The MODerate-resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer gathers data from
36 bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Its twin-mirror 17.78cm
(7in) telescope gains data on the
distribution and temperature of
clouds and water vapour, and marine
and lower-atmosphere processes as
it passes over the equator at 10.30am
CERES
The Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES)
uses two identical instruments to determine how clouds
influence the flux of thermal radiation from the Earth’s surface to
the top of the atmosphere. One radiometer instrument scans the
© NASA
Earth across the track of the satellite and the other scans along it
016
longer wavelength of the spectrum
coming from the Earth’s surface, or
active microwave sensors can send
microwaves to the Earth and observe
their reflections.
Civilian Earth observation satellite
surveillance is co-ordinated by the
committee on Earth observation
satellites (CEOS), which is currently
affiliated to agencies that are
operating 116 active satellites. These
broadly study the long-term and
changing global environment from
the atmosphere, land, ice and snow,
oceans, gravity and magnetic fields to
the oceans. In the next 15 years, CEOS
agencies are planning 260 satellites,
which will carry 400 instruments to
develop better weather forecasting
and knowledge of climate changes.
Since the Nineties, NASA has run
the Earth observing system (EOS)
program that co-ordinates the
activities of its polar-orbiting satellites
to study “radiation, clouds, water
vapour and precipitation; the oceans;
greenhouse gases; land-surface
hydrology and ecosystem processes;
NASA’s Terra satellite
© NASA
NASA’s range of satellites in their Earth observing system (EOS) program includes Terra and
a planned launch of Aquarius in June 2011, to measure the salt levels of our oceans. Overall,
they cover every aspect of surface and atmospheric environmental conditions
glaciers, sea ice and ice sheets; ozone also plans several ‘Earth explorer’
and stratospheric chemistry and missions, which includes the launch
natural and anthropogenic aerosols.” of three satellites in 2013 to study the
To further this research, it plans to Earth’s magnetic field (‘Swarm’)
launch 15 Earth observation satellites and one to profile global winds
by 2020. The European Space Agency (ADM-Aeolus).
Launched on 18 December 1999, Terra (EOS AM-1) investigates the
impact of natural and man-made climate changes. It travels in a
north-to-south, near-polar orbit at an altitude of 705km (438mi),
viewing the entire surface of the Earth every two days
ASTER
The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection radiometer (ASTER) consists of three
telescopes that during eight minutes of every orbit
acquire high-resolution images of land heights, surface
temperatures, emissions and reflections. They are able
to detect changes in land surfaces and are used to
calibrate data gained by the other Terra instruments
MISR
The Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-
Radiometer (MISR) uses nine digital
cameras pointing at different angles
to obtain images in the blue, green,
red and near-infrared wavelengths
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
They are able to provide monthly
trends in the distribution of aerosol
particles, cloud formations and
seasonal vegetation changes
MOPITT
The Measurements Of Pollution In The
Troposphere (MOPITT) instrument
package measures the amount of carbon
monoxide (CO) in the troposphere by
analysing infrared radiation vertically
radiating from the Earth. These
measurements enable the production of
models of the composition and
distribution of fossil fuel consumption
and biomass burning on a global scale
HEAD
2 NATURAL DISASTER
HEAD
Images captured
DID YOU KNOW? Only 24 astronauts have seen the entire Earth from space while on their Apollo missions to the Moon
Which aspects of Earth are
the satellites observing?
Atmosphere
NASA launched eight Nimbus Earth
observation satellites between 1964
and 1978. They pioneered the use of
‘sounders’ that measure the
humidity and temperature of the
atmosphere. They obtain
temperature measurements by
analysing infrared radiation (IR) on
wavelengths linked with oxygen or
carbon dioxide. IR or microwave
sounders identify water vapour in
the atmosphere to measure
humidity. Microwave sounders
have a lower resolution, but can be
used in all weather conditions as
they can sound through clouds.
The red portion of this view of the
US reveals the highest ground
levels of ultraviolet radiation
Radiation
Visible blue, green and red
light only provides a limited
amount of information about
the Earth’s surface, so
satellites use spectrometers to
study the invisible near-
infrared and infrared parts of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
They can identify and track
the growth of plant species, as
they all reflect infrared light.
The infrared ‘fingerprint’ of
plants can also indicate the
amount of water present and
can warn of potential
droughts. Likewise, exposed
rocks radiate their own
infrared fingerprint that
allows geologists to identify
valuable mineral/oil deposits.
Infrared data from satellites
is ‘false coloured’, so invisible
light from up to three
wavelengths is rendered into
a combination of visible red,
green and blue.
1. Japanese
earthquake
STARTLING IMAGES 2. Natural and
man-made
ASHES 3. Icelandic
volcanic eruption
MODIS Rapid Response Team
© courtesy of Earth Sciences
Laboratory, NASA Johnson
© courtesy Jeff Schmaltz,
Within hours of the AATSR instruments When Iceland’s Eyjafjallajokull
and Image Analysis
Japanese earthquake and recorded images of the volcano erupted in April 2010,
at NASA GSFC
tsunami on 11 March 2011, Buncefield oil depot fire in MERIS on Envisat recorded
Space Center
Terra and Aqua satellites 2005 and the decline of composition and distribution
transmitted images. Arctic sea ice during 2007. of the volcanic ash.
Gulf oil spill creeps towards the
Mississippi Delta
ICESat image, showing clouds
and aerosols over Africa
© NASA
Oceans
In the Seventies the USA and USSR ran ocean observation
satellite programmes, which carried synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) equipment. A number of radar images are taken by SARs
and combined to produce a single detailed image. This is able
to determine the height of sea levels, waves, currents and their
distribution and can detect oil slicks and shipping movements.
The Jason 1 and 2 spacecraft currently use these techniques to
© NASA
study the topography and characteristics of the oceans, to give
a better warning of floods or climate changes.
Land Image using ICESat technology Ice
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) by Carrying on from the work of
the Endeavour space shuttle in February 2000 used Envisat, which discovered
two radar antennas to produce the most that every decade since 1978
comprehensive hi-res digital topographical map of the Arctic ice fields have
the Earth’s terrain. The data is used by Google Earth shrunk by 2.7%, the
to create maps that can be viewed in 2D or 3D. European Space Agency
Earth observation satellites are important in launched CryoSat-2 on 8
monitoring the seasonal variation of vegetation. April 2010. It uses radar
Besides studying long-term changes, they are also altimeters with SAR
used to observe and issue warnings of natural technology, specifically
© NASA
disasters such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires designed for its mission to
study the thickness and
and earthquakes.
distribution of ice in the
Perspective view of Santa Barbara, View of Antarctica, showing ice
generated using data from the shuttle
radar topography mission
sheet elevation and cloud data
polar oceans. NASA’s ICESat
(2004) carried a Geoscience
Laser Altimeter System
(GLAS), which used pulses of
laser light to measure the
height and characteristics of
Greenland and Antarctic ice
fields. These satellites have
indicated the role of
greenhouse gases in the
polar atmosphere and that
© NASA
© NASA
the ozone layer has shown
signs of recovery.
Gravity
The European gravity field and steady-state ocean circulation
explorer (GOCE), launched in March 2009, carries an Electrostatic
Gravity Gradiometer (EGG) to measure the gravity field of Earth. By
measuring the minute variations in the tug of gravity, it enables the
production of Geoid maps of the globe that can indicate ocean
circulation and changes, the movement and composition of polar ice
sheets and the physics of the Earth’s interior.
In March 2002, NASA launched two Gravity Recovery And Climate
Experiment (GRACE) spacecraft. They use a microwave system that
© NASA
accurately measures any minute changes between their speed and
distance, indicating the influence of the Earth’s gravitational pull.
017
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Dissecting the Sun

Inside the Sun

The giant star that keeps us all alive…
A celestial wonder, the Sun is a huge star formed
from a massive gravitational collapse when space
dust and gas from a nebula collided, It became an
orb 100 times bigger and weighing over 300,000
times that of Earth. Made up of 70 per cent hydrogen and about
28 per cent helium (plus other gases), the Sun is the centre of our
solar system and the largest celestial body anywhere near us.
“The surface of the Sun is a dense layer of plasma at a
temperature of 5,800 degrees kelvin that is continually
moving due to the action of convective motions driven by
heating from below,” says David Alexander, a professor of
physics and astronomy at Rice University. “These convective
motions show up as a distribution of what are called
granulation cells about 1,000 kilometers across and which
appear across the whole solar surface.”
At its core, the Sun’s temperature and pressure are so high
and the hydrogen atoms are moving so fast that it causes fusion,
turning hydrogen atoms into helium. Electromagetic raditation
travels out from the Sun’s core to its surface, escaping into space
as electromagnetic radiation, a blinding light, and incredible
levels of solar heat. In fact, the core of the Sun is actually hotter
than the surface, but when heat escapes from the surface, the
temperature rises to over 1-2 million degrees. Alexander
explained that astronomers do not fully understand why the
Sun’s atmosphere is so hot, but think it has something to do
with magnetic fields.

Radiative zone
The first 500,000k of the Sun is a radioactive layer
that transfers energy from the core, mostly toward
the outer layers, passed from atom to atom
Beneath the
surface of
Sun’s core
The core of a Sun is
a dense, extremely
hot region – about
the Sun
What is the Sun
15 million degrees
– that produces a
nuclear fusion and
made of?
emits heat through
the layers of the
Sun to the surface Convective zone
The top 30 per cent of
the Sun is a layer of hot
plasma that is
constantly in motion,
heated from below

The Statistics
The Sun
All images courtesy of NASA

Diameter: 100 times Earth

Right conditions Engine room Mass: 300,000 times Earth
The core of the Sun, which acts like a The centre of a star is like an engine Average surface temp:
nuclear reactor, is just the right size room that produces the nuclear fusion 1-2 million degrees
and temperature to product light required for radiation and light Core temp: 15 million degrees

018
 Magnetic influence
How the Sun affects the
Earth’s magnetic field

Solar wind
Solar wind shapes the
Earth’s magnetosphere and
magnetic storms are
illustrated here as
approaching Earth

Plasma release Bow shock line

The Sun’s magnetic field and plasma The purple line is the bow shock line and
releases directly affect Earth and the the blue lines surrounding the Earth represent
rest of the solar system its protective magnetosphere

What is a Solar eclipses

When the Moon blocks out the Sun
solar flare? A solar eclipse is a unique phenomena where the Moon passes
directly into a line between the Earth and the Sun, partially or
A massive explosion, but one that completely blocking our view of the Sun. The Sun is blocked
happens to be several million according to the relative orbits of each celestial body. There
degrees in temperature… are two kinds of eclipses: one where the Moon orbit shows the
outer edge of the Sun, or where the Moon lines up perfectly
“A solar flare is a rapid release of energy in the solar and the Sun is blocked completely from view.
atmosphere (mostly the chromosphere and corona)
resulting in localised heating of plasma to tens of millions
of degrees, acceleration of electrons and protons to high
energies, some to near the speed of light, and expulsion of How big
material into space,” says Alexander. “These
electromagnetic disturbances here on Earth pose
potential dangers for Earth-orbiting satellites, space-
is the
walking astronauts, crews on high-altitude spacecraft,
and power grids on Earth.” Sun?
Our Sun has a
diameter of
1.4 million km
and Earth a
diameter of
Sometimes, the orbits of the Earth and Sun line up
almost
Solar flares can cause geomagnetic storms on the
Sun, including shock waves and plasma expulsions
perfectly so that the Sun is blocked (eclipsed) by the
Moon, shown here with a shadow cast from the
13,000km
eclipse, taken from the ISS

What is a sunspot?
Signifying cooler areas, sunspots show up as dark dots on the
photosphere (the visible layer of plasma across the Sun’s
surface). These ‘cool’ regions – about 1,000 degrees cooler than
the surface temperature – are associated with strong magnetic
fields. Criss-crossing magnetic-field lines can disturb the flow
of heat from the core, creating pockets of intense activity. The
build up of heat around a sunspot can be released as a solar
flare or coronal mass ejection, which is separate to but often If the Sun were the size of a
accompanies larger flares. Plasma from a CME ejects from the basketball, Earth would be a little
Sun at over 1 million miles per hour. dot no more than 2.2 mm

019
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Our amazing Sun

It’s the Sun, but not

as we know it
Q These amazing images of the Sun are the first taken by NASA’s Solar Dynamics
Image © NASA

Observatory (SDO). Taken on 30 March 2010, this false colour image traces the
different gas temperatures with reds relatively cool (about 60,000 Kelvin or
107,540 F), while blues and greens are hotter (1 million Kelvin or 1,799,540 F). The
SDO provides images with clarity ten times better than high-definition TV.

020
5 TOP Larger than it appears
1 In a total eclipse the Sun and
Don’t stare directly
2 Our retinas cannot sense any
3
’Tis the season
Eclipse season happens twice
A brief observation
4 Total eclipses generally
An indirect view
5 The best and safest way

FACTS
SOLAR
the Moon appear to be the
same size, due to their
respective diameters and
distances. The size difference is
ECLIPSES actually monumental.
pain, so permanent vision loss
caused by staring at an eclipse
may not become evident until
hours later, so be sensible
when viewing.
a year (approximately every
173 days), when the Moon
crosses the orbital plane of the
Earth. Each season lasts
between 24 and 37 days.
take a couple of hours from
start to finish, with the period
of totality lasting for a few
minutes and plunging an area
to view any kind of eclipse
is through a special solar
filter (such as eclipse
sunglasses) or possibly
into complete darkness. a pinhole camera.

DID YOU KNOW? Ancient cultures were often frightened by solar eclipses and attributed them to supernatural beings

This is an image of the

Solar eclipse
Moon’s transit across the
Sun, taken from NASA’s
STEREO-B spacecraft

Solar eclipses occur During a solar eclipse, the Moon casts

shadows on the Earth known as
when the Moon umbra or penumbra. The umbra is the
darkest part of the shadow, while the
passes between the penumbra is the area where part of the Moon is
blocking the Sun. Partial eclipses happen when
Earth and the Sun the Sun and Moon are not in perfect alignment –
only the penumbra of the Moon’s shadow passes
over the surface of the Earth. In a total eclipse, the
umbra touches the Earth’s surface.
There are also annular eclipses, in which both
the Sun and the Moon are in alignment but the
Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the Sun.
© NASA
The Sun appears as a bright ring, or annulus,
around the Moon’s profile. The umbra is still in
line with a region on the Earth’s surface, but the
distance is too great to actually touch the surface
of the Earth.
Depending on your location, an eclipse may
appear to be any of the three possible types. For
example, if your region lies in the path of totality,
you will experience a total eclipse, while people
in other regions may only see a partial eclipse.
The solar eclipse is a truly Solar eclipses occur between two and five times
breathtaking sight per year, with most of these being partial or
annual eclipses.
Total eclipses have four phases. First contact
occurs when you first notice the shadow of the
Moon on the Sun’s surface. During second contact,
you will observe a phenomenon called Baily’s
beads, when sunlight shines jaggedly through the
rugged peaks and valleys of the Moon’s surface.
When one bead of light is left, it appears as a
© NASA

single dot in the ring, known as the diamond ring

The view of the shadow cast by the
Moon during a solar eclipse in
1999, taken by the Mir space station
effect. Next, the Moon completely covers the Sun’s
surface with only a corona of light showing. The
final stage is third contact, when the Moon’s
shadow moves away from the Sun.

When the
Moon blocks
out the Sun
The relationship between
the Sun, Moon and Earth
during an eclipse is
geometric

1. Sun 2. Moon 3. Umbra 4. Penumbra 5. Earth

The Sun and the Moon often appear to
be the same size, because the ratio
between their diameters is about the
same as the ratio between their
respective distances from Earth
The magnitude of an eclipse is
the ratio between the angular
diameters of the Moon and Sun.
During a total eclipse this ratio
is one or greater
The umbra is the central area of
the shadow of the Moon. If this
area passes over you, you’ll see
a total eclipse. The sky will be
completely dark
The penumbra is the outer part of
the Moon’s shadow. You will see a
partial eclipse if this part passes
over you and the sky will only be
partially dark
In an annular solar eclipse, the umbra
never touches the Earth because the
Moon is too far away in its orbit. The
Sun appears as a bright ring around
the Moon’s profile

021
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Solar tornadoes

Solar tornadoes
The story behind twisters on the Sun, a thousand
times larger than their Earthling counterparts
A gigantic sphere of hydrogen plasma
(ionised gas), our Sun is by far the
most dominant body in the Solar
System and one of its most visually
intense events is the solar tornado. These twisting
magnetic fields are between 100 to 1,000 times
larger than their equivalents on Earth and have
been observed at a gigantic 70,000 kilometres
(43,496 miles) tall. Over 11,000 of these phenomena
are on the Sun’s surface at any time and they are
believed to potentially be the source of heating for
the outer reaches of the Sun and could contribute
to auroras on our planet.
Solar tornadoes differ from Earth-based
twisters because they are comprised of a
magnetic field of plasma. They are more
Fiery atmosphere
In 2012, small-scale
magnetic tornadoes were
discovered in the corona
- where temperatures can
poles, as this is where magnetism is most reach over a million degrees
prominent. They exist on other stars as well as the - as well as the photosphere
Sun, burn at over a million degrees Celsius (1.8
million degrees Fahrenheit) and have swirling
speeds of 10,000 kilometres (6,213 miles) per hour.
They appear in clusters and their main function
is to heat the star’s outer atmosphere by moving
energy from the surface to the uppermost layer,
the corona. They generate 100 to 300 watts per
square metre (10.8 square feet) and are believed to
be the reason for the corona’s heat production,
which has puzzled scientists and astronomers for Gas twisters
generations. Observations from the Swedish 1m The rotating magnetic
fields of the Sun
Solar Telescope in 2008 have increased our generate the ionised
understanding of how nature heats magnetised gas twisters, creating
plasma and how the ‘chromospheric swirls’ we its spiral shape

frequently spotted around the Sun’s equator and can see are the result of the tornadoes.

The Swedish 1m Solar Telescope

discovered chromospheric
swirls, the visible sign of
magnetic tornadoes

Why is the corona so hot?

A curious anomaly of our nearest star
is the fact that the corona, an aura of
plasma surrounding the star, is hotter
than many other areas of the Sun
closer to its core. The corona can get
up to two million degrees Celsius (3.6
million degrees Fahrenheit) while on
the surface it is a measly 5,500
degrees Celsius (9,932 degrees
Fahrenheit). Scientists and
astronomers have long been
perplexed by this but some new
theories might explain why. Recent
notions reason that heat is injected
into the corona by wave heating from
the core. As the corona is dominated
by magnetic fields that are constantly
connecting and engaging with each
other, a convection zone is created,
which releases high amounts of
energy and heat. Solar tornadoes are
linked to the plasma’s astonishing heat
levels as they contribute to coronal
mass ejections (CME) and the solar
winds in the Sun’s atmosphere. To
discover more, NASA has planned a
mission known as the Solar Probe
Plus, which is pencilled in for 2018.

022
5 TOP Solar flare
1 A massive magnetic energy
Coronal mass ejection
2 An eruption of solar wind
Sunspot
3 A relatively dark and cool area
4
Geomagnetic storm
Caused by CMEs and solar
Solar prominence
5 Similar to a solar flare, solar

FACTS
release on the Sun’s surface, a
solar flare shows sudden
concentrated brightness and
emits huge amounts of
SUN PHENOMENA radiation into the Solar System.
caused by magnetic
instabilities, CMEs can cause
electrical problems to
satellites and the Earth’s
magnetosphere.
of the photosphere, they have
temperatures of around
3,500°C (6,330°F) and can
reach over 50,000km
(31,069mi) in diameter.
flares, radiation-charged
particles affect the Earth’s
magnetic field and cause
auroras in the North and
South Polar regions.
prominences are loops of
unstable plasma that extend
from the surface to the
corona, adding to the Sun’s
already vibrant appearance.

DID YOU KNOW? There are two types of solar tornado: giant and small-scale magnetic. Experts are unsure whether they are linked

Solar storm
chaser
Dr Sven Wedemeyer-Böhm from the Institute
of Theoretical Astrophysics explains more
How similar are solar tornadoes to
tornadoes on Earth?
Aside from the visible appearance, tornadoes
on Earth and on the Sun are very different
phenomena. In both cases, the tornado funnel
is narrow at the bottom and widens with
height in the atmosphere. Particles inside
tornadoes are forced to move in spirals.
Tornadoes on Earth occur as a result of
temperature and gas pressure differences and
strong shear winds. Solar tornadoes are
generated by rotating magnetic field
structures, which force the plasma, ie the
ionised gas, to move in spirals.

How do solar tornadoes contribute to

auroras on Earth?
It has been speculated that giant tornadoes
may serve as a possible trigger of solar
eruptions, where they build up a magnetic
Solar power field structure until it destabilises and erupts.
This image illustrates a As a consequence, ionised gas could get
giant solar tornado ejected towards Earth, which would then
rather than a smaller contribute to auroras. However, as of now,
chromospheric swirl. there’s no direct connection confirmed.
The latter were only
discovered in 2008 and Do you know about future planned missions
had only been to investigate this phenomenon?
observed in the There are missions such as Solar Orbiter and
photosphere until 2012 Solar-C, which may fly in foreseeable future.
There will be also some major progress with
ground-based observatories with the 4-m
Daniel K Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST,
formerly the Advanced Technology Solar
Telescope, ATST), which is currently built on
Hawaii, and possibly the 4-m European Solar
Telescope (EST), which may be built in the
future. These new instruments will allow for
an even closer look at our Sun and will enable
us to answer the many open questions that
we still have about solar tornadoes.

What is the primary difference between

giant solar tornadoes and small-scale
magnetic tornadoes?
It is currently not clear if these are different
Far-reaching phenomena or not. Small-scale magnetic
This twister extends all tornadoes have only been observed from the
the way through the Sun’s top so far, ie in the middle of the solar disk,
atmospheric layers from whereas giant tornadoes are seen more
the convection zone all towards the limb of the Sun, in other words:
the way to the outer from the side. In general, magnetic tornadoes
teaches of the corona tend to have somewhat smaller diameters
than giant tornadoes but it is too early to draw
solid conclusions.
© SST/ISP; Wedemeyer-Böhm et al; NASA/SDO

What is the primary difference between

giant solar tornadoes and small-scale
Spiraling out magnetic tornadoes?
of control There are still many questions concerning
Like on Earth, solar solar tornadoes and we hope to address some
tornadoes have a of the most important aspects during the next
narrow funnel at three years in a project, which has just started
the bottom, which at the University of Oslo in collaboration with
widens as it rises international experts.

023
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Exploring the Moon
Exploring
the Moon
We’ve visited the lunar body several times
but it still has many secrets to reveal…
The Moon has been shrouded in
mystery since the dawn of time. For
a start, where did it come from?
The popular current hypothesis is
the giant impact theory. We’ve learned from
dating lunar rocks that the Moon formed about
4.5 billion years ago, a good 30-50 million years
after the Solar System. But while the Earth was
just finishing its formation, it was struck by a
giant celestial body about the size of Mars,
which has been christened Theia. This
collision blasted material out into space near
the Earth, which coalesced into the body that
today we call the Moon. Whether the material
came from Earth or the planetoid that caused
the impact (or both) is still a matter of debate.
024
The Moon is the second-brightest object in
our sky after the Sun and it has influenced life
on Earth in countless ways. The gravitational
interactions with our world and the Sun give us
ocean tides and lengthen our days by a tiny
amount. We’ve also created calendars based
on its phases. Until a Soviet spacecraft landed
on it in 1959, we’d only been able to study the
Moon from Earth. Then in 1969, humans visited
the Moon – and it remains the only other body
in the universe we’ve actually stood upon.
Thanks to decades of study, we’ve learned a
great deal about our satellite. For example, we
know that the Moon has a differentiated
interior, just like Earth – it contains a core,
mantle and crust. The core is rich with iron
GO
FIGURE
How many of
these objects
would fit into
1.5 22
MILLION
4,631.6
TRILLION

MOON MASSES the Moon? PLUTOS DEIMOSES BASKETBALLS

DID YOU KNOW? Smoke and ash from volcanic eruptions on Earth, eg Krakatoa, have actually caused the Moon to appear blue

A closer look at the surface The statistics…

The Moon’s two hemispheres – the one nearest to us and earlier volcanism on the Moon. The far side of our satellite,
the one farthest away, or the ‘dark side’ – have very in contrast, contains almost no maria at all. Both sides of The Moon
different surface features. The nearer side is dominated by our lunar neighbour are covered with impact craters, left Average distance from Earth:
maria and highlands. The maria, or ‘seas’ (so-named by meteors; they can be tiny or many kilometres across. 384,403km (238,857mi)
because early astronomers assumed they were full of Especially strong impacts can leave rays of dust extending Surface temperature:
water) are the darker areas visible from Earth. The lighter hundreds of metres from the crater centre. Mountains and Day: 107°C (224.6°F)
areas are the highlands. Instead of water, the maria are other volcanic features emerged shortly after the Moon’s Night: -153°C (-243°F)
dark because they contain hardened lava, left over from formation, as the surface cooled and buckled. Mean radius:
1,737km (1,079mi)
Mare Orientale Oceanus Archimedes Mare Tranquillitatis Van de Graaff
A distinctive target-ring Procellarum An 83km (51.5mi)- Aka the Sea of Tranquillity; Appears to be two Volume (Earth=1): 0.02 Earths
shaped feature, but it’s Aka the Ocean of Storms; diameter impact crater site of Apollo 11 landing craters merged into Orbit period; length of lunar
tricky to see from Earth site of Apollo 12 landing a figure-of-eight year: 27.32 Earth days (tidally
locked)
Rotational period; length of
lunar day: 29.53 Earth days
Mass (Earth=1): 0.0123 Earths
Mean density:
3.344g/cm3 (1.94oz/in3)
Gravity at equator (Earth=1):
0.16 Earths

Tycho Bailly Mare Fecunditatis Tsiolkovskiy Fermi Apollo

A relatively young crater A 311km (193mi)-wide An 840km (522mi)-wide 180km (112mi) crater 180km (112mi)-wide crater 537km (334mi) crater made
(108 million years old) crater and the largest lunar mare, aka the Sea of with a prominent known as a walled plain; it up of smaller craters named
found on the Moon Fecundity, or Fertility central peak is highly eroded after late NASA employees

– solid in the centre and surrounded by a fluid
outer core. The core is small in comparison to
the rest of the Moon, however – roughly 350
kilometres (217 miles) thick, about 20 per cent of
the Moon’s total size. Surrounding the core is a
500-kilometre (311-mile), partially melted
boundary layer. This is thought to have formed
when a magma ocean in the mantle cooled and
crystallised shortly after the Moon’s formation.
The mantle is the next layer, a hard and rocky
area 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) thick. The
Moon’s crust is also rocky, and about 60-100
kilometres (37-62 miles) in thickness. Analysing
seen on the Moon and subsequently found on
Earth) fairly abundant as well. The top layer is
covered with dusty, broken rock that smells a
bit like gunpowder and has a snowy texture,
called regolith.
There’s a reason why astronauts had to wear
helmets on the Moon – there’s very little
atmosphere, and what there is doesn’t contain
oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen; indeed, the
atmospheric mass is less than ten metric tons.
Since there’s nothing to block the solar wind, it
bombards the surface and causes sputtering –
sprays of particles into the air. The Moon’s
compounds of argon, radon and polonium,
while solar wind contributes helium-4. All of
these have been found in the atmosphere and
are continually replenished. Oxygen and other
neutral elements found on Earth are present in
the regolith, but they don’t exist in the
atmosphere – probably because the solar wind
quickly sweeps them out into space.
Our Moon is the second-densest to be found
in the Solar System, behind Jupiter’s Io. It’s also
the fifth largest moon in diameter, only beaten,
in ascending order, by Io (Jupiter), Callisto
(Jupiter), Titan (Saturn) and Ganymede
© NASA; Reisio

rocks has shown us that most of the lunar crust surface also experiences outgassing, when (Jupiter). The Moon’s diameter is about
comprises aluminium and titanium, with the volatile gases vent from the interior. These one-quarter that of Earth’s, but its mass
elements pyroxferroite and tranquillityite (first processes contribute sodium, potassium and is just under 0.0125 Earth masses.

025
 SOLAR SYSTEM
Exploring the Moon
The Earth-
Moon system
A closer look at the relationship
between our planet and the Moon
What many people don’t know is the
Moon doesn’t just orbit the Earth, but
Earth orbits the Moon too. While the
Moon is propelled around Earth in an
elliptical orbit, the pull of the Moon’s
own gravity causes our planet to
move slightly off its own centre and
around in a small circle. Think of it like
an Olympic hammer thrower
swinging the hammer around their
body while holding onto the chain:
even though the hammer is many
times smaller than the thrower, it’s
enough to pull the thrower slightly off
their mark. The barycentre marks the
centre of mass for this Earth-Moon
relationship. The forces involved in
Earth-Moon barycentre dynamics are
very regular, but even so, tiny
variances mean the Moon is gradually
moving away from our world. When
the Moon was first formed it was
very close and had a powerful effect
on the development of the early
Earth. At first it moved away from us
at a rate of ten kilometres (6.2 miles)
per year, slowing down over billions
of years to its current rate of just 3.8
centimetres (1.5 inches) per year.
Barycentre
This is the centre of mass
Plane of the Moon’s orbit
at which the Earth and the
the ecliptic plane – the path the Earth
Moon balance each other,
located 1,710km (1,062mi)
below Earth’s surface
The Moon’s orbital plane is close to
takes as it orbits the Sun, or to be
more specific, the barycentre of the
Solar System
Earth’s centre of mass
This is the average location of the
Earth’s weight distribution, also
known as its centre of gravity
The lunar body has some unique
gravitational properties too. Unlike Earth, the
Moon does not have a dipolar magnetic field,
but it does have an external magnetic field that
results in a gravity of about a sixth of that here
on Earth. In addition, the Moon has ‘mascons’
(mass concentrations), which are large positive
gravitational anomalies mostly centred around
some of its largest basins. We aren’t sure what
causes them, although the ones in basins may
come from the extremely dense lava flows
filling them. We continue to search for water on
the Moon, which can’t exist on its surface, but
might be lurking in some of the shadowy
basins, deposited by comets or formed by
interactions between hydrogen from the solar
wind or oxygen from the regolith deposits.
The Moon is in synchronous rotation with
our world. This means that its orbit and
revolution periods are of equal length, so the
same side of the Moon faces the Earth all of the
time. We call these the near side and the far
side, or the ‘dark side’, but the latter actually
gets just as much sunlight as the former.
The phases of the Moon describe how it
appears to us, which changes over the course of
the Moon’s orbit around our planet and Earth’s
orbit around the Sun. When the Sun and Moon

Apollo mission profile 3. Trans-Earth

injection
We break down the key stages of a former lunar Liftoff from the Moon was
mission, from Earth to the Moon and back again timed so that when the
Service Module engine
fired, the midpoint of the
spacecraft would be
opposite the projected
landing site on Earth

2. Lunar orbit
insertion
The spacecraft passed
behind the Moon, and the
Service Module engine fired
briefly to insert Apollo into
the Moon’s orbit
1. Saturn V launch
The Saturn V was a
three-stage rocket that
carried the Apollo
Command and Service
Modules to the Moon
4. Service
Module jettison
Before re-entering Earth’s
atmosphere, the Service
Module was jettisoned

5. Command
Module rotation
The Command Module
rotated 180 degrees prior to
re-entry, turning its blunt
end towards the Earth
6. Command
Module splashdown
Parachutes helped to slow
down the Command Module
before it splashed down into
the ocean

026
STRANGE What a coincidence…
BUT TRUE Many have wondered why the Moon is just the right size and distance to cover
the Sun during an eclipse. The Sun is 400 times greater in diameter than the
THE PERFECT FIT Moon; the Sun just so happens to be 400 times farther away from Earth too.

DID YOU KNOW? In 1970, two Soviet researchers theorised that the Moon was actually a hollow alien spacecraft

are on the opposite sides of the Earth, the
Moon appears full. When the Sun and Moon
are on the same side of the Earth, the Moon
appears dark (known as a ‘new moon’). The
phases in between are the half and quarter-
moons. Eclipses occur when the Sun, Moon
and Earth all line up, also known as syzygy
(pronounced siz-i-gee). A solar eclipse occurs
when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth,
while a lunar eclipse happens when the Earth
is between the Sun and Moon. Variations in the
orbits mean eclipses happen not with each
new and full moon but according to the Saros
cycle – a period of 18 years first identified by
ancient Babylonian astronomers.
A focus on Apollo
On 25 May 1962, US President John F Kennedy
proposed a goal of putting men on the Moon and
returning them back to Earth by the end of the
decade. It was a lofty ambition, but NASA
achieved it on 21 July 1969 with Apollo 11. NASA
sent astronauts to the Moon a total six times.
Budgetary cuts and a shift to planning for the
Skylab and Space Shuttle programmes led to the
end of the Apollo programme after Apollo 17
returned to Earth in December 1972. No human
has touched down on the Moon since.
thought that the Moon was a smooth sphere.
Once the telescope was invented in 1608, we
soon set our sights on the satellite. Near the
orbiter and later by man. The USSR got there
first, when the Luna 2 spacecraft smashed into
the surface in 1959. It also completed the first
soft landing and the first orbit of the Moon in
1966. However, the United States famously won
the race of getting a man on the Moon with the
seminal Apollo 11 mission in 1969.
It once seemed inevitable that we’d
eventually establish a base on the Moon – but it
hasn’t happened yet, and with the future of
NASA’s manned space programme in flux, it
may be up to another programme or even a
private enterprise. But NASA, the European
Space Agency, the China National Space
Administration, the Indian Space Research

© NASA; DK Images; Thinkstock

These astronomers created the first records
of the Moon, in the 5th century BCE. Over the
years astronomers in India, Greece, Persia and
China theorised about everything from the
source of moonlight to the tides and the Moon’s
phases. Astronomers in the Middle Ages
end of the 17th century, many of the features on
the Moon had been named by Italian
astronomers like Francesco Maria Grimaldi.
The Space Race in the Fifties and Sixties
between the USA and the Soviet Union ramped
up interest in exploring the Moon, first by
Organisation and others continue to send
orbiters and landers to the Moon. In January
2012, two spacecraft called GRAIL (Gravity
Recovery and Interior Laboratory) began
orbiting the Moon to better map it and learn
more about its complex interior and gravity.

Transport Communications
Could we ever
Pressurised rovers and
other vehicles can carry
A state-of-the-art
communications system
live on the Moon?
colonists across the will keep us in regular
We already have the technology to set up a
surface, so we won’t need contact with Earth
colony on the Moon, but a lack of finance and
to wear spacesuits when interest means it’s only a pipe dream – for now…
outside the pressurised
dome buildings
Power storage modules Biospheres
Power generated from solar cells must be We’d need to grow our
stored. Electricity might also come from a own food. This would
nuclear plant or fuel cells, using elements mean importing
found on the surface of the Moon chemicals that aren’t
available on the surface
or in the atmosphere

Solar cells
Solar panels are the most
likely way to obtain power,
Habitats but in most places on the
Initial shelters would Moon, the Sun only shines
likely be inflatable, but for part of the time, so
permanent ones will storage facilities and
subsequently be made other sources of power
of steel and ceramic would be needed too

027
028
THE FIRST The
crew
From left to right: Commander
Neil A Armstrong; Command
Module pilot Michael Collins;
Lunar Module pilot Edwin
MOON LANDING ‘Buzz’ E Aldrin Jr. Collins
remained in orbit while
Over 40 years ago on 21 July 1969 Neil Armstrong and Aldrin
explored the surface.
Armstrong became the first person in
history to set foot on the surface of a
celestial body other than Earth, marking
the culmination of a decade of work Payload
In the Sixties the ‘Space Race’ between the USA and USSR was heating At almost
up. Russia had struck the initial blow by launching the first man-made 47,000kg,
satellite – Sputnik 1 – in 1957, and four years later they sent the first (103,600lbs)
the payload
human – Yuri Gagarin – into space. The Americans followed suit a few
consisted
weeks later but it was readily apparent they were playing catch-up to the Russians. of the
To reassure the American people, President Kennedy issued an impassioned speech Command,
to Congress in 1961 announcing the ambitious goal of placing a human on the Moon Service
before the end of the decade. As a result Project Apollo was born, and with it NASA and Lunar
Modules that
was tasked with fulfilling Kennedy’s lofty aim. An unprecedented technological
travelled to
marvel, the Apollo missions would come to define not only a generation, but also the Moon
the standard by which all future manned space missions would be compared.

LEVA
The Lunar
JOURNEY Extravehicular
Visor Assembly
OF A (LEVA) contained
gold-coated
visors to protect
LIFETIME against the Sun
The Apollo 11
mission lasted 195
hours, 18 minutes
and 35 seconds
© NASA

16 July PLSS
1332 GMT The Apollo Portable
Apollo 11 launches atop a Life Support System
Saturn V rocket from the (PLSS) contained the Third stage
Kennedy Space Center life-support apparatus
and enters Earth’s orbit. including cooling
water, oxygen tanks
(S-IVB)
The final rocket
stage contained just
The Eagle lander
The lander was a two-stage craft
and electrical power one J-2 engine and
19 July accelerated the
1721 GMT spacecraft towards
built to separate from the Command
After a three-day the Moon at about
journey across almost 39,400km/h
and Service Module then travel to
400,000km (250,000 (24,500mph) before
miles) Apollo 11 is detaching and being and from the Moon’s surface
placed into lunar orbit. left in space
 Crew A plaque was left
20 July Lunar boots that read: ‘Here men
1811 GMT The slip-on boots compartment from the planet
Neil Armstrong and reduced the transfer of If the ascent stage
had failed the crew Earth first set foot
‘Buzz’ Aldrin enter the heat from the Moon’s
would have had no upon the Moon,
Lunar Module (LM) and surface and helped to
limit surface abrasion hope of rescue July 1969 AD.
separate from the
We came in
Command and Service
Ascent stage peace for all
Module (CSM).
© NASA

This part of the mankind.’

Weight Lunar Module (LM)
20 July The spacesuit and contained the
backpack weighed pressurised crew
2017 GMT 14kg (31lb) on the compartment and
The Lunar Module lands
Moon, but 82kg (181lb) controls, and took
in Mare Tranquillitatis
on Earth, due to the the astronauts back
(the Sea of Tranquillity),
Moon’s weaker gravity to the Command
tracked by Collins in orbit
and Service Module
Descent
aboard the CSM. stage
(CSM) in orbit
Equipment for
use on the
21 July Spacesuits Moon was
0256 GMT stored in this
Armstrong steps onto Second lower section,
the lunar surface, the
To walk on the stage which also
first human to set foot contained a
on another world. Moon the Apollo (S-II) rocket and
Aldrin follows 19 minutes The five J-2
landing gear for

© DK Images
later, and they begin 11 crew required liquid hydrogen
a controlled
deploying instruments engines of S-II
landing. It was
and taking photos. took Apollo 11
some practical left behind on
to an altitude
the Moon
of 185km (115
21 July ‘space clobber’ miles) before
they were
1754 GMT discarded
Size
Having traversed a The Saturn V rocket was as tall as a
distance of about 250m 36-storey building and, fully loaded, it
(820ft) and collected 22kg weighed almost 3,000 tons
(48lb) of lunar rock and
soil, the two astronauts
return to the LM and
launch back into orbit.

21 July
2134 GMT
The LM docks with
the CSM and, once all
three astronauts are
safely in the CSM, the
LM is jettisoned into The Saturn V rocket used to take Apollo First stage
lunar orbit.

24 July
1650 GMT
After separating from the
Service Module, the
into space still retains the record of being
the most powerful rocket of all time
(S-IC)
S-IC contained
five F-1 engines
that used liquid
oxygen and
kerosene fuel.
c
Second-stage Third-stage
separation
First-stage
separation
separation
Command and
Service Module
docks with
They separated third stage
Command Module
at an altitude of
splashes down in the
61km (38 miles)
Pacific Ocean after
completing its 195-
hour mission.
Command and Service
Module remains in orbit
Lunar Module
separates and lands
on the Moon

© NASA

029
2x © DK Images

The flight
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Vous me croirez si vous voulez, la chose est authentique, et il n’y
a pas à hausser les épaules et à dire : « Mon bel ami, vous nous en
contez », puisque je l’ai vu. Oui, j’ai vu l’endroit précis où la sainte
Vierge s’arrêta après son voyage du ciel à Tolède. Le sacristain,
personnage digne et grave, m’a montré l’empreinte de son pouce
sur la pierre où elle posa le pied, pierre religieusement enchâssée
dans le mur. Si vous ne me croyez pas, allez-y voir. Vous trouverez
même l’inscription gravée qui l’atteste :

Cuando la Reina del Cielo

Puso los pies en el suelo
En esta piedra los puso.

« Quand la Reine du ciel posa le pied sur le sol, c’est sur cette
pierre qu’elle le posa. » Il faut croire qu’elle était fatiguée du voyage,
car elle pesa lourdement.
Comme bien vous le supposez, les Tolédains furent
excessivement flattés de cette bonne visite. Mais dans l’impossibilité
de la lui rendre ils ont tenu à lui prouver leur gratitude, et par de
petits cadeaux entretenir cette amitié distinguée.
Dans une chapelle belle comme un rêve des Mille et une Nuits,
ils parèrent leur Vierge comme jamais sultan amoureux ne para
l’odalisque chérie. Ils lui achetèrent les plus riches écrins, la plus
somptueuse des garde-robes. Certaines de ces jupes sont chargées
de pierreries d’une valeur de plusieurs millions de réaux. A chaque
fête de l’année, on renouvelle sa toilette, on lui change de robe, de
diadème, de boucles d’oreilles, de bagues, de collier.
Le grand luxe des dames espagnoles consistant principalement
en bagues, il est tout naturel que la Dame du Paradis en soit
chargée.
Vous avouerez avec moi que les bons Tolédains ne pouvaient
mieux faire les choses et montrer plus décemment combien ils
étaient sensibles aux excellents procédés de la Mère de Dieu.
 En m’extasiant devant cette splendide toilette, l’idée me vint de
demander si le trousseau était complet, si enfin en lui changeant de
robe on lui changeait aussi de chemise.
Le sacristain que j’interrogeai timidement me répliqua, indigné de
mon doute :
« Une chemise ! certainement elle a une chemise, et toute brodée
de fleurs d’argent.
— Ah !
— Oui, monsieur, et je vous prie de croire qu’elle est aussi propre
que le reste. »
Le reste ! quel reste ? Le fonctionnaire avait une mine si
rébarbativement dévote que je n’osai pousser plus loin mes
investigations.
A côté d’une aussi somptueuse Vierge, le pauvre Jésus fait triste
figure, sur sa vieille croix de bois, affublé de son jupon qu’on
change, j’espère, aussi quelquefois.
Que n’est-il venu rendre visite, comme sa mère, à la cathédrale
de Tolède !
Devant cet inconvenant jupon, je me suis remémoré le mot de
Diderot : « L’indécent n’est pas le nu, mais le troussé, » car il me
semble placé là tout exprès pour donner une furieuse envie aux
curieuses petites Espagnoles de le trousser pour voir ce qu’il y a
dessous.
Ce jupon, dont on affuble non seulement Jésus, mais les deux
larrons qui le flanquent, est un obstacle sérieux à l’investigation que
citait Fra Gabriele de Barletta, l’une des lumières de la chaire au
quinzième siècle, et dans les sermons macaroniques duquel la
Fontaine tira, dit-on, sa fable des Animaux malades de la peste.
Prêchant à Naples pendant un carême, il raconta aux dévotes
extasiées que la belle Samaritaine reconnut Jésus-Christ à trois
choses : son vêtement râpé, sa barbe blonde et sa circoncision.
Voilà qui était pousser un peu loin l’examen !
 XXIII
LES BONNES LAMES DE TOLÈDE

Venir à Tolède pour voir Steel ou Sheffield, marqué sur le

couteau dont vous vous servez à table, produit le même
désenchantement que lire sur les pyramides une réclame vantant les
bienfaits du cirage américain ou de la moutarde anglaise.
C’est ce qui nous arriva dans le comedor de Santa-Cristina.
« Il n’y a donc plus de coutelleries à Tolède ? demandai-je,
indigné, au patron de l’auberge.
— Si, señor, et de belles, aussi bien garnies qu’à Madrid. Et la
preuve, c’est que ce sont les Anglais et les Allemands qui les
approvisionnent.
— Les Allemands ! »
Je venais justement d’acheter un superbe couteau. Je le tirai de
ma poche, et, après avoir vérifié la marque de Tolède gravée au
milieu d’un grand luxe d’arabesques, je l’exhibai fièrement à mon
hôte.
« Ça, dit-il, après l’avoir examiné, c’est un Berlin tout pur. Vous
l’avez acheté chez le señor Pedro, la grande boutique du coin. Il ne
se fournit qu’en Allemagne.
— Vous plaisantez. Et cette marque de fabrique ?
 — C’est pour filouter les étrangers. Les Anglais mettent leur
marque sur leur coutellerie ; celle-là, les Espagnols l’achètent ; les
Allemands, au contraire, mettent la nôtre, et on la vend aux
visiteurs. »
Encore une désillusion. Qu’on vienne nous parler des bonnes
lames de Tolède : elles sont confectionnées de l’autre côté du Rhin !
Le posadero disait vrai. Là, comme partout, comme à Paris,
comme à Londres, comme à New-York, l’Allemagne envahit, gagne
du terrain, se faufile dans les industries privées dont elle finit par
s’emparer entièrement. Les Allemands ont donc obtenu, de la
plupart des armuriers, à l’aide de fortes remises, le droit de forger
une coutellerie de pacotille qu’ils leur expédient frappée de la
marque de la maison espagnole.
La manufacture de l’État garde heureusement le monopole des
armes blanches pour l’armée, mais je n’oserais jurer qu’il ne s’y
introduit pas des cargaisons des manufactures prussiennes.
Elle fabrique en même temps une certaine quantité d’armes de
luxe pour les très rares amateurs. Ces armes portant l’estampille
officielle, ce qui est au moins une garantie, ne sont pas au-dessous
de leur antique réputation. On ploie des sabres et des épées devant
vous aussi aisément que branches de saule.
On y fait aussi de menus objets de bijouterie d’acier, broches,
épingles affectant la forme de poignards et de yatagans très
habilement ornés d’arabesques d’argent et d’or. Les ouvriers
cherchent leurs modèles dans les magnifiques reproductions de
l’Alhambra de Grenade, réduites avec beaucoup d’art et d’exactitude
par un artiste grenadin, Diego Fernandez Castro, et qui fournissent
des variétés infinies de merveilleux dessins.
La manufacture se trouve à un kilomètre environ des derniers
remparts de la ville, au bord du Tage, à l’extrémité d’une riche plaine
couverte de jardins et d’abricotiers, l’une des ressources de Tolède.
On y arrive par un joli chemin carrossable, le Paseo de la Vegabaja.
C’est un bel et vaste édifice, construit par Charles III, qui fit de
louables efforts pour relever cette vieille industrie moribonde. Rien
qu’à cause de cela, on peut lui pardonner d’avoir vécu vingt-neuf
années sans femme et sans maîtresse.
Quand on traverse ces grands ateliers presque déserts, on se
demande ce que sont devenus ceux d’où, au premier appel,
s’élancèrent vingt mille armuriers pour suivre Jean de Padilla, le chef
des communeros, au secours de Ségovie !
Mais alors Tolède comptait deux cent mille habitants, réduits
aujourd’hui à dix-huit mille.
Aussi les bourgades des environs, jadis si riches, si populeuses,
ne sont plus que de misérables hameaux.
Les ruines mêmes des palais ont disparu. Plus trace de celui des
rois visigoths, et c’est par hasard qu’un paysan découvrit, il y a une
trentaine d’années, en heurtant le soc de sa charrue à une pierre de
taille enfouie, un caveau du palais où se trouvaient encore
suspendues neuf couronnes royales.
A propos de Visigoths, comme nous suivions les bords du Tage,
passant devant les forts éventrés des Sarrasins, nous aperçûmes
une vieille tour et quelques débris d’arcades.
« C’est la tour de Roderic, » nous dit une jolie lavandière à jupon
jaune.
La tour de Roderic ! Quel réceptacle de souvenirs !
Nous voici en face du seul témoin d’un de ces épisodes
romanesques comme il en fourmille dans les dessous de l’histoire
officielle et grave et qui changent et bouleversent mieux encore que
les coups d’État et les Parlements la destinée des peuples.
Un après-midi, un gracieux essaim de jeunes patriciennes,
folâtrant sur les rives du Tage, s’assit pour chercher la fraîcheur sous
l’ombre projetée de la tour solitaire.
La place était déserte. Les grands arbres des jardins royaux
bordaient le fleuve et empêchaient d’être vu des sentinelles des
remparts. Qui fit la proposition d’un bain ? Qu’importe ! Elle fut
acceptée avec joie, et voilà les jouvencelles s’ébattant dans les
eaux ; elles se livrent aux plus folâtres jeux, et quand elles furent
lasses du bain, dans le simple appareil des Naïades, on paria sur les
plus gros mollets. La belle Florinde l’emporte. Des mollets on passe
aux cuisses. Encore Florinde. Sur cette voie, il n’était guère possible
de s’arrêter, bien qu’on allât remontant. Une feuille de glaïeul, unité
de circonférence suffisante pour toutes, se trouva au point extrême
trop courte pour Florinde ; il fallut chercher parmi les robes éparses
une cordelette de lin.
A ce concours, plus divin que celui dont fut juge le sot et placide
Pâris, la belle Florinde fut donc déclarée victorieuse, et chose
surprenante, elle l’emporta aussi pour la finesse de la taille. Cette
victoire lui valut mieux que la pomme de la fable. Elle lui gagna le
cœur du jeune et beau Roderic, roi des Visigoths. Caché derrière
une meurtrière traîtresse, il assistait, témoin invisible et muet, mais
non aveugle, aux émouvantes péripéties de la lutte callipyge. Si,
comme vous le pensez, il n’en perdit pas un détail, il en perdit la tête
et enleva la belle Florinde qui, sans doute, ne se fit pas trop prier.
Amour, tu perdis Troie et aussi Tolède ! Florinde était la fille du
comte Julien, gouverneur de l’Andalousie et de Ceuta. Pour venger
le déshonneur de sa maison, il ne trouva rien de mieux que de livrer
Ceuta aux Maures et de les appeler en Espagne. Le brave et
amoureux Roderic courut à leur rencontre, fut vaincu, et tomba
noblement à la bataille de Xérès. Et voilà à quoi tiennent les
destinées des peuples !
Et voilà aussi pourquoi les femmes de Tolède, filles et matrones,
dont pas une n’eût hésité à faire ce que fit la belle Florinde, ont flétri
l’endroit où se baigna avec ses compagnes l’aimable fille, cause
inconsciente des malheurs de sa patrie, du nom odieux qu’il porte
encore : El baño de la cava (le bain de la p…).
Mais nous autres, étrangers, d’une vertu moins farouche, nous
ne pouvons que féliciter la divine Florinde. Sans elle, nous n’aurions
pu admirer ni la mosquée de Cordoue, ni l’Alhambra de Grenade, ni
les jardins du Généralife, ni l’Alcazar de Tolède, ni la Puerta del Sol,
ni les autres merveilles mauresques. Tout ce qu’il y a de beau, de
vraiment artistique, d’utile et d’agréable, vient des vainqueurs des
Visigoths, depuis les palais jusqu’aux poteries ; depuis les canaux
d’irrigation [12] jusqu’à la guitare et au fandango. Ils ont été les
éducateurs de l’Europe. Astronomie, mécanique, médecine, histoire
naturelle, philosophie, nous leur devons tout, et l’Espagne plus que
tous.
[12] Les magnifiques jardins qui entourent Valence,
ceux de Cordoue, de l’Alhambra de Grenade et du
Généralife sont dus aux Arabes. Depuis eux, nulle
amélioration n’a été apportée.

Le sombre et néfaste Philippe III, qui, à la sollicitation du Saint-

Office, promulgua le funeste édit qui chassait définitivement les
Maures, porta un coup fatal à l’industrie et au génie espagnols. Et à
travers les siècles écoulés, c’est encore le reflet de leur grande et
majestueuse image qui couvre l’Espagne de ses plus brillantes
couleurs.
En rentrant en ville par la porte Cambron, construite par le roi
Wamba et réédifiée par les Arabes, nous nous trouvâmes en face de
San Juan de los Reyes, dont les fenêtres sont ornées de guirlandes
de chaînes énormes, qu’on dit être celles des captifs chrétiens
délivrés à Malaga et à Alméria par Ferdinand et Isabelle. Pour porter
de pareilles chaînes, ces captifs devaient être de terribles géants.
Cette église, dont l’architecte Juan Guas occupa cent vingt-deux
maîtres tailleurs de pierre, est bien l’un des monuments religieux les
plus curieux qu’on puisse voir. Je parle de l’intérieur, car la façade,
construite cinquante ans après la mort d’Isabelle la Catholique, n’est
en quelque sorte qu’une muraille laide et sans style.
Malheureusement, les splendeurs architecturales de la nef, la frise,
le transept, les statues, les tableaux des vieux maîtres, furent
mutilés pendant l’invasion et les guerres civiles, et le sacristain nous
montra de vieilles et précieuses toiles sur lesquelles une
soldatesque ivre avait tiré à mitraille, vandalisme qu’il ne manqua
pas d’attribuer aux Franceses.
 XXIV
VISITE AUX FOUS

Je ne sais si c’est à notre qualité d’étrangers — qualité

cependant peu appréciée partout, excepté en France — que nous
eûmes l’avantage de pénétrer sans lettre d’introduction, sans ticket,
sans formalité aucune et sans pétition préalable dans l’hospice des
fous et des folles de Tolède.
En revenant de l’Alcazar, l’ancien palais de Charles-Quint, assis
sur les fondations de celui des rois maures, qui domine
majestueusement la ville et sert d’École militaire aux cadets, nous
trouvâmes la porte ouverte et nous entrâmes comme chez nous.
« Il faut d’ordinaire la permission du docteur, nous dit le
concierge, auquel nous offrîmes un bonjour métallique ; il est absent,
mais je vais prévenir la mère Gertrudis. »
Nous attendons dans un vestibule coupé par un long corridor, et
en examinant les bondieuseries de la muraille, nous arrivons à une
solide grille, porte donnant accès à une cour plantée d’arbres et
entourée d’arcades. Quatre ou cinq hommes assis sur un banc,
vêtus les uns du costume andalou, les autres de la courte blouse
des Manchois, coiffés de sombreros ou de foulards, semblent causer
paisiblement comme de tranquilles citoyens devisant du changement
de ministère.
 Mais nous sommes aperçus. Une tête de Don Quichotte après
ses mésaventures s’avance précipitamment vers la grille :
« Caballeros, nous dit à la hâte ce chevalier de la Triste Figure,
béni soit le ciel ! Je m’appelle Pedro Lopez d’Alsasua, et j’offre
100 000 réaux à qui me fera sortir d’ici.
— Il faut le croire, nous cria un petit vieux à cheveux blancs et à
mine également lamentable ; don Pedro n’est pas plus fou que moi,
et si ma fille ne m’attendait pas…
— Cent mille réaux, señores, continua le premier, il suffit d’aller
trouver l’alcade… Mon frère, pour me voler, m’a fait enfermer ici.
Une enquête… »
Une religieuse d’une quarantaine d’années, à physionomie dure,
la mère Gertrudis sans doute, arrivait avec un énorme trousseau de
clefs, suivie d’une compagne plus jeune et de mine plus avenante.
Elles nous jetèrent un regard scrutateur et voyant que nous
n’avions l’air ni d’huissiers ni de procureurs, on nous donna sans
plus de formalité l’accès de l’antre.
Nous voici dans la cour. Une vingtaine d’hommes, les uns assis
sur les bancs, fument des cigarettes ; d’autres sont étendus à
l’ombre des arbres ; ils se lèvent et viennent nous examiner avec
curiosité. Nos bérets nous firent d’abord prendre pour des Basques.
Un superbe gaillard d’encolure herculéenne et de fière tournure sous
son vêtement de montagnard du Guipuzcoa nous adressa quelques
mots en langue vasconne. Nous lui faisons signe que nous ne
comprenions pas, et dès lors il se tut, mais s’attacha à nous avec
ténacité ; sa veste rejetée sur l’épaule à la manière castillane laissait
à découvert ses bras musculeux et nus, ornés et réunis aux poignets
par une solide paire de menottes.
« Il est très dangereux, nous dit la plus jeune sœur chargée de
nous chaperonner, et d’une force extraordinaire. Quand il est furieux,
il n’y a pas trop de huit à dix hommes pour le contenir. C’est
pourquoi on lui met les menottes… par précaution. C’est plus sûr. »
L’hôpital est bien tenu. Je ne dirai pas qu’il est dans les
conditions de Sainte-Anne ou de la Salpêtrière, mais cellules, préau,
dortoirs, cuisine, sont d’une grande propreté. De la salle de
récréation, c’est-à-dire du jeu de paume, large galerie d’où l’on
domine la ville, on jouit d’un splendide panorama sur la riche vallée
du Tage, et bien que les Espagnols passent pour être insensibles à
la beauté de la campagne, la vue de ces fertiles huertas ne peut
avoir sur les fous qu’un effet bienfaisant.
Quelques-uns, le visage collé contre les grilles, suivaient
mélancoliquement les méandres du fleuve ou la route blanche qui
serpente, comme s’ils y cherchaient les traces de l’écroulement de
leur vie.
Beaucoup de ces fous d’ailleurs me paraissaient en possession
de leur raison entière. Qui sait le point précis où la folie commence ?
Que de gens courent libres par les rues plus fous que les fous
enfermés ! Il est vrai que le chancelier Bacon disait, il y a quelques
siècles : « Les Espagnols paraissent plus sages qu’ils ne le sont. »
C’était aussi l’avis de Charles-Quint qui ajoutait : « Les Français, au
contraire, sont sages tout en ayant l’air de fous. »
Était-il réellement fou ce malheureux qui me répétait sans cesse
à l’oreille :
« Monsieur, je vous jure que je suis aussi sain d’esprit que vous.
Ce que je vous dis est sérieux. Des parents infâmes m’ont fait
enfermer pour s’emparer de mon bien. J’offre cent mille réaux…
— Il dit vrai, interrompit encore le petit vieux ; si ma fille n’était
pas si jeune, elle s’occuperait de son affaire ; ce serait beau pour
elle, cent mille réaux ! Quelle dot ! Elle est si jolie ; mais si jeune…
comment voulez-vous ? Seize ans, monsieur, seize ans ! Puis elle
elle est toute seule, puisqu’elle n’a plus de mère et que je suis ici. »
Il réfléchit un moment et continua se parlant à lui-même :
« O santa Maria ! comment suis-je ici ? Comment peut-il se faire
que j’aie laissé ma fille toute seule ! Comment ? Comment ?… »
Il se tut, regarda autour de lui comme s’il cherchait à se rappeler
le drame, et de grosses larmes coulèrent sur ses vieilles joues
parcheminées.
 « Allons ! Manuelo, dit la sœur d’une voix douce… Encore ! Votre
fille va venir vous chercher ; elle vous grondera si vous avez les
yeux rouges. »
Le bonhomme s’essuya rapidement de ses doigts, puis regardant
ses hardes usées :
« Je vais vite changer d’effets pour sortir avec Anita.
— Tenez-vous tranquille, Manuelo, il n’est pas l’heure. Quand elle
viendra, je vous appellerai. »
Et, s’adressant à nous :
« C’est tous les jours ainsi. Il a perdu la raison à la suite de la
mort de sa fille. Et, depuis dix ans, il l’attend chaque jour. »
Les fous s’étaient mis à une partie de paume, et chacun rivalisait
d’adresse voulant nous montrer son savoir-faire, se tournant,
heureux, de notre côté, à chaque coup habile, cherchant notre
approbation.
Quelques-uns interrompaient de temps en temps la partie pour
nous demander ou nous offrir des cigarettes.
Nous laissâmes quelques pesetas pour ceux qui me pouvaient
se procurer du tabac, et en honnêtes gens, ils nous remercièrent
avec beaucoup de dignité, puis nous prîmes congé de la section des
hommes pour nous diriger vers celle des femmes, suivis de tous les
locataires qui nous serrèrent la main avec effusion, comme à des
confrères, même l’athlète à menottes qui nous tendit forcément à la
fois les deux siennes, tandis que le vieux se haussait sur la pointe
des pieds pour voir si sa fille n’apparaissait pas au fond du corridor
et que le señor don Pedro Lopez d’Alsasua me répétait une dernière
fois à l’oreille :
« Cent mille réaux, monsieur, cent mille réaux ! Ne l’oubliez pas.
Cent mille réaux… »
 XXV
LE COIN DES FOLLES

« Comment cela est-il arrivé ? » demande un personnage de

roman espagnol à quelqu’un qui vient de lui raconter le désastre et
la ruine de toute une famille : « Le vin et les femmes, señor ; la
cause de tous les malheurs. »
On ne pouvait pas dire du troupeau enjuponné, parqué dans la
cour ouverte devant nous, que le vin et les femmes l’avaient poussé
dans cet enclos de misère. Un certain nombre, les hommes peut-
être ; en tous cas, pas la boisson. Les maisons de folles de la
Grande-Bretagne renferment quatre-vingts pour cent de détraquées
par l’alcool ; en Espagne, on en trouverait à peine une sur mille. Le
mysticisme et toutes les formes du délire religieux, l’érotomanie,
l’abandon d’un amant, et aussi, là comme partout, l’avidité d’héritiers
et de collatéraux impatients, peuplent les hospices d’aliénés.
Beaucoup de vieilles, plus idiotes que folles, des filles mûres à
l’aspect ascétique et terrible, une dizaine de très jeunes, deux ou
trois très jolies.
Parmi celles-ci, je remarquai une étrange figure de gitana, aux
cheveux noirs ébouriffés, crépus, coupés à la Ninon ; quinze ou
seize ans au plus. Couchée sur le ventre, au soleil et nu-tête, malgré
la chaleur, le menton appuyé sur les mains, elle regardait
attentivement une fille d’à peu près son âge qui, à genoux, à
quelques pas, marmottait des prières coupées de signes de croix,
exécutés avec une rapidité risible, tandis que non loin d’elle, une
autre jeune fille à mine vulgaire, se tâtait successivement et sans
relâche les membres et toutes les parties du corps comme pour
s’assurer que rien ne manquait.
Notre arrivée, ou plutôt les exclamations des folles arrachèrent la
gitana à la contemplation de la dévote ; elle tourna vers nous son
visage doré de lumière, ses grands yeux ardents et noirs, puis, se
dressant d’un bond, accourut grossir le groupe qui déjà nous
entourait.
Deux gardiennes laïques, redoutables matrones, se précipitèrent,
lui barrant le passage.
« Niña, va-t’en, lui dirent-elles, il faut être sage, va-t’en.
— Je veux, moi ! riposta la jeune fille en se débattant.
— Tu n’approcheras pas, coquine. »
Elle cherchait vainement à se dégager des solides bras qui la
retenaient, essayant de griffer et de mordre, et, dans son
impuissance, se mit à pousser des cris aigus.
La religieuse avait prêté main-forte aux gardiennes, et les folles
regardaient la scène, les unes avec indifférence, les autres en riant.
« La douche ! et au cabanon ! » cria, d’une galerie supérieure, la
mère Gertrudis.
On l’entraîna et elle s’engouffra bientôt dans les ténèbres d’une
cellule d’où, même à travers la porte close, perçaient ses cris et ses
supplications de petite fille :
« Je serai sage, pardon, ma bonne sœur, je serai sage ! »
Nous étions assez émus de cette exécution subite, par notre
présence occasionnée, car nous comprîmes, d’après les explications
brèves et indignées de la religieuse, vertueuse sans doute par vice
de nature ou manque d’occasion, que la pauvre enfant n’était que
malade d’amour et que plus sûrement que toutes les douches, un
vigoureux dragon eût suffi pour la calmer.
 Nous quittâmes bien vite la cour, et à l’extrémité d’un long
corridor la sœur nous arrêta devant une porte fortement verrouillée.
Elle frappa quelques petits coups cabalistiques et une gardienne à
l’air horriblement féroce ouvrit. Nous nous attendions au spectacle
de quelque folle furieuse essayant de se briser le crâne aux
murailles ou dansant dans l’état de nature une gigue du sabbat :
nous nous trouvâmes, au contraire, en face d’une grosse dame fort
tranquille, aux cheveux grisonnants, à la physionomie sympathique,
résignée et douce. Assise dans un fauteuil, près d’une fenêtre
barricadée d’une double rangée de grilles, elle semblait n’avoir
d’autre occupation que de contempler la campagne ou, triste
diversion, la vilaine figure de sa gardienne.
« C’est une señora, nous dit la religieuse, qui appartient à une
des plus grandes familles de la Manche. Elle a quarante-neuf ans et
est depuis trente-deux ans notre pensionnaire. Comme vous le
voyez, on la traite avec égards. Sa famille paye pour qu’elle ait un
appartement à part et toutes ses commodités. »
Et elle nous montra avec beaucoup de complaisance
l’appartement de la señora qui se composait de la salle à manger,
d’une chambre à coucher et d’un oratoire, le tout meublé à
l’espagnole, c’est-à-dire de la façon la plus lacédémonienne.
« Vous le voyez, beaucoup voudraient être folles pour être aussi
bien logées.
— Et en quoi consiste sa folie ?
— C’est difficile à dire : depuis des années, elle devient très
calme ; mais autrefois elle avait des crises, hurlait jour et nuit,
refusait de manger, voulait se détruire ; on lui a donné tant de
douches, tant de douches, qu’elle a fini par devenir un peu plus
raisonnable. Maintenant elle reste des semaines sans prononcer
une parole. »
Un cas bien singulier pour une femme que celui de ne pas parler,
et le sien m’intéressait vivement, d’autant qu’on m’expliqua qu’un
frère aîné l’avait fait enfermer parce qu’en dépit de ses
remontrances elle s’était enfuie avec un jeune caballero sans nom et
sans fortune, dont elle était éperdument éprise.
« Mais la pauvre fille n’était pas folle ?
— Cela dépend du point de vue où l’on se place, répondit la
sœur, l’amour entraîne à toutes les extravagances. D’ailleurs, ajouta-
t-elle, si elle n’avait pas été folle, on ne l’eût pas reçue ici. »
Devant cette raison concluante, nous ne pouvions que nous taire,
et la pauvre femme demeurait impassible.
Ses regards ne se tournaient même pas vers nous. Elle avait
l’aspect résigné des victimes qui savent qu’il n’y a plus d’espoir.
Combien de fois depuis trente-deux ans, combien de fois alors
qu’elle était encore belle jeune fille, et depuis, femme mûre, le
grincement des verrous de sa porte a dû la faire tressaillir ! Était-ce
la délivrance ?
Fouillez les hospices d’aliénés, vous y trouverez, soyez-en sûrs,
avec des variantes, l’histoire de la folle de Tolède. Car si, comme le
dit le romancier espagnol, le vin et les femmes occasionnent toutes
les folies, elles sont encore en moins grand nombre que les crimes
patronisés par la société.
 XXVI
A TRAVERS LA MANCHE

Traverser la Manche à pied ; voir poindre au matin, dans les

teintes violettes de l’horizon au delà des plaines safranées le
hameau terreux où l’on gîtera le soir ; suivre le monotone chemin
tracé au milieu des pierres et des gigantesques chardons aux tiges
bleues ; n’avoir pour rompre l’implacable uniformité du paysage que
l’aile décarcassée d’un moulin à vent, une tour éventrée, un mur en
ruines, ou le rocher solitaire et nu où viennent tourbillonner les
aigles ; ne pouvoir s’abreuver qu’au vin surchauffé de la gourde
battante aux flancs, voilà qui est fait pour lasser les plus intrépides
marcheurs : aussi, dès la troisième journée après notre départ de
Tolède, nous hissâmes-nous sur un coche qui passait.
Arre ! Arre ! Il pouvait contenir huit personnes au plus : deux à
côté du cocher et six à l’intérieur. Mais le nombre limité des places
n’arrête jamais le voiturier espagnol, non plus du reste le voyageur.
Quinze déjà occupaient le coche quand nous l’arrêtâmes ; en
m’accrochant aux colis et en enlaçant de mes jambes une sœur des
pauvres, juchée sur un panier de grenades et qui s’offrit avec
complaisance à me servir de point d’appui, je réussis à m’installer.
Cinq cents mètres plus loin, on remorqua une marchande de
pastèques qui, sans façon, s’assit sur mon ventre, et l’on se
remettait à peine en route, que deux gendarmes suants et
poussiéreux voulurent à leur tour monter à l’assaut.
Cette fois, voyageurs et voyageuses protestèrent énergiquement.
La religieuse allégua les carabines dont elle avait grand’peur et
qu’elle soutint être chargées malgré les dénégations officielles ;
d’autres, plus irrévérencieux, alléguèrent les bottes qui, elles aussi,
étaient chargées et fortement. Ils durent céder devant l’indignation
générale et, pour les consoler, la marchande de pastèques leur offrit
un de ses fruits qu’ils se partagèrent aussitôt fraternellement.
Arre ! Arre ! Nous dévorons le pays. Les cochers de Paris
devraient bien prendre exemple sur leurs confrères espagnols et
changer leurs somnolentes rosses contre des mules de Castille. Ils
verseraient tout autant, mais iraient au moins plus vite. Nous
traversons Temblèque et sa ceinture de moulins à vent ; Puerto
Lapice où Don Quichotte rencontra de si aimables demoiselles. Mais
d’aimables demoiselles nous n’en vîmes point. Quelle collection de
laiderons que toutes ces petites Manchoises ! Peut-être nous
eussent-elles semblé moins laides sous la mantille, mais coiffées
d’un affreux foulard plié en triangle et noué sous le menton, elles
semblaient toutes affligées de maux de dents.
Femmes et jeunes filles paraissent suffisamment malpropres. Si
elles prennent des bains, ce ne doit être que rarement. Ces races
méridionales ont l’eau en horreur. Récemment, sur le versant sud
des Alpes-Maritimes, dans la vieille et pittoresque bourgade de
Roquebrune, assise sur des blocs de conglomérats écroulés, dont
les pentes plantées d’orangers vont se perdre dans les flots bleus, je
demandais à de brunes jeunes filles si elles descendaient souvent
se baigner dans la mer.
« Nous baigner ! s’écrièrent-elles. Nous ne nous baignons jamais.
— Et pourquoi ?
— Nous n’aimons pas cela. Ce n’est pas la coutume. C’est bon
pour les belles dames de Mantoue et de Monaco. On se moquerait
de nous. »
 Et à quoi servent donc les maîtres et les maîtresses d’école s’ils
n’enseignent pas aux enfants les premiers principes d’hygiène ?
Espagnoles ou Provençales, petites-nièces ou petites-filles des
Arabes ne devraient pas ignorer que, dans la sagesse de l’Islam, il
est prescrit aux femmes cinq ablutions par jour.
Partout dans la Manche, le sang maure est visible, dans l’éclat
des yeux, la teinte orangée de la peau, le noir des chevelures. Au
village de Villasecca, entre Tolède et Aranjuez une coutume qui
empêche les femmes de se montrer sur la place aux heures du
marché témoigne encore de cette origine musulmane.
Si les posadas et les ventas des Castilles laissent à désirer,
celles de la Manche sont pires. C’est toujours le réduit blanchi à la
chaux, avec des images coloriées de saints jusque sur la couchette
de fer, pour les voyageurs de distinction ; mais, s’il est déjà occupé,
le nouvel arrivé s’étend comme il peut et où il peut sur les cailloux
pointus de la salle commune, vestibule ouvert à tout venant, gens ou
bêtes. On ne peut pas dire que cela soit sale, malgré l’irruption
incessante de poules faméliques escortées de leurs couvées, à
cause des fréquents coups de balai que donne la matrone ou ses
filles, mais certains sentiments de propreté, surtout une délicatesse
des nerfs olfactifs, font absolument défaut. Comme beaucoup de
Parisiens habitués dès l’enfance à la mauvaise odeur des ruches
malsaines et des égouts pestilentiels, ces gens ne la sentent plus.
C’est ainsi qu’à Santa-Elena, bourgade d’aspect civilisé où nous
trouvâmes le luxe d’une posada qui s’intitulait hôtel, nous fûmes
saisis dès notre entrée dans la salle à manger par d’affreuses
émanations dont ni hôtelier ni servante ne semblaient incommodés.
Un petit garçon et une petite fille, aimables chérubins, pêchaient
à la ligne dans un vase de nuit complet laissé négligemment près de
la porte par quelque maritorne paresseuse. La maman les voyait
faire et souriait. Il faut bien que les enfants s’amusent.
La Manche était, affirme-t-on, autrefois, le pays d’Espagne où
l’on chantait et où l’on dansait le plus. Peut-être du temps de Don
Quichotte ou de Gil Blas, mais on a, semble-t-il, changé cela. Tous
ces Manchois m’ont paru fort tristes, aussi taciturnes que peu
hospitaliers. Quand vous êtes chez eux, on dirait qu’ils n’ont qu’une
pensée, celle d’être débarrassés de vous. Ce n’est pas là qu’il faut
s’attarder à politicailler autour du comptoir. Le marchand de vins de
Val de Peñas diffère essentiellement de celui de la Villette. « Nous
payons, nous buvons, nous sortons, » répète constamment, dans un
roman espagnol, un mastroquet à ses clients, pour leur rappeler leur
devoir. Si tous les confrères ne le disent pas, leur mine renfrognée
démontre suffisamment l’impatience de vous voir reprendre votre
route aussitôt que vous avez bu, mangé et payé. L’Espagnol ignore
l’art si français de pousser à la consommation.
Pas partout, cependant ; la femme, loin du mâle, maître légitime
ou non, se déride. Une joyeuse commère chez qui nous nous étions
rafraîchis nous engagea à demeurer.
« Mon mari est parti ce matin pour Mançanarès, nous dit-elle ; il
ne reviendra que demain soir ; je puis vous offrir un lit et vous
fricasser un poulet. »
Le poulet fut aux tomates et excellent, mais le lit fut aux puces.
La dame était ornée de deux assez jolies filles, brunes à point et
de l’âge d’un vieux bœuf, comme eût dit maître Alcofribas, ce qui
nous avait tentés.
Après avoir passé la soirée en jeux aimables et innocents, nous
nous retirâmes dans la chambre commune. Avant de se dévêtir, la
mère et les deux sœurs s’agenouillèrent au pied de leur lit et firent
leurs prières à la señora du ciel. Puis l’on souffla la chandelle et l’on
se déshabilla chastement dans l’ombre.
Tout se passa convenablement. Encore cette fois, la vertu, objet
de mes plus chers désirs, fut sauve. Rien ne fut perdu, pas même
l’honneur. En cette chaude nuitée manchoise, dans les combats qui
se livrèrent, il n’y eut que des puces de tuées.
 XXVII
MANÇANARÈS

A mesure que nous avançons, les plaines deviennent plus

désolées, les chardons plus hauts, plus grosses et nombreuses les
pierres. Elles y poussent comme marmaille en logis de mendiants.
Chaque année, les paysans les rassemblent, en forment de grands
tas, mais l’année suivante, ils en trouvent encore et toujours plus
nombreuses. Triste récolte qui n’en permet pas d’autre.
En cette désolation au fond d’un pli de terrain s’étend
Argamosilla de Alba, où Michel Cervantès écrivit les premiers
chapitres de son œuvre immortelle. C’est là qu’il fait naître et mourir
son héros. Le cadre sied bien au chevalier de la Triste Figure. La
maison est encore debout avec sa vieille façade roussie, son portail
écussonné. Il y a une dizaine d’années, un éditeur de Madrid,
Ribadeneiro, eut l’idée originale de l’acheter et d’y installer une
imprimerie d’où sortit, pour les amateurs, une superbe édition de
Don Quichotte.
Nous nous rafraîchîmes d’un large broc de vin du Val de Peñas,
dont les plants de vigne ont été, dit-on, apportés de Bourgogne, à la
venta de Quesada où se fit la fameuse veillée des armes, servie par
une maritorne mal peignée, qui devait descendre en droite ligne de
celle du Toboso. Il ne faudrait pas, d’ailleurs, s’aventurer à vouloir
démontrer aux gens d’Argamosilla que Don Quichotte est sorti tout