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GenPhys2_12_Q4_M6_Atomic-and-Nuclear-Phenomena_Ver4
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General Physics 2
Quarter 4 - Module 6
Atomic and Nuclear Phenomena
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General Physics
Quarter 4 - Module 6
Atomic and Nuclear Phenomena
FAIR USE AND CONTENT DISCLAIMER: This SLM (Self Learning Module) is for
educational purposes only. Borrowed materials (i.e. songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos,
brand names, trademarks, etc.) included in these modules are owned by their respective
copyright holders. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership over
them.
What I Know.....................................................................................................................................iii
Summary........................................................................................................................... 17
Assessment: (Post-Test)................................................................................................... 18
Key to Answers................................................................................................................. 20
References........................................................................................................................ 21
i
Module 6
Atomic and Nuclear Phenomena
What This Module is About
1. Explain the photoelectric effect using the idea of light quanta or photons
STEM_GP12MPIVh-45
2. Explain qualitatively the properties of atomic emission and absorption spectra using
the concept of energy levels STEM_GP12MPIVh-46
3. Calculating radioisotope activity using the concept of half-life STEM_GP12MPIVh-i-
47
ii
How to Learn from this Module
To achieve the objectives cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.
iii
What I Know
Multiple Choice. Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from the
given choices.
iv
Lesson
1
The Photoelectric Effect
What’s In
This lesson will help us understand how Photoelectric Effect was explained
using the idea of light quanta or photons STEM_GP12MPIVh-45
v
What’s New
Unscramble the word/s inside the box to complete the concept map of Photoelectric
Effect. Write your answer in a separate paper
What Is It
vi
The figure shows the set-
up of the Photoelectric Effect
Experiment.
The Photoelectric Effect was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887 during his
experiment on Electromagnetic Waves. He noticed that a spark would jump readily between
two electrically charged spheres when their surfaces were illuminated by the light from
another spark.
In the year 1886 – 1900, two German Physicists Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp
Lenard investigated in detail the Photoelectric Effect.
However, the results of their experiments are hard to understand on the basis of
classical Physics.
In 1905, Albert Einstein developed the correct analysis of the Photoelectric Effect on
the basis of Max Planck’s experiment on blackbody radiation which suggested the particle-
like nature of light.
Einstein postulated that a beam of light consists of small packages of energy called
photons. And was able to formulate the energy of the photon in the equation:
hc
E=hf =
λ
where
−34 −14
h=6.626 x 10 J . s=4.14 x 10 eV . s (Planck’s Constant)
f =c / λ is the frequency of the light
c=¿ is the speed of light (in a vacuum)
λ = is the wavelength of the light
vii
Einstein also applied the Conservation of Energy to calculate the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons and formulated the equation:
KE max =E− ∅
In terms of the stopping potential, V o , the above formula can be written as
eV o=E−∅ where KE max =eV o
The stopping potential, V o , is the voltage difference required to stop electrons from
moving between plates.
From the Conservation of Energy equation, the following predictions can be made:
Sample Problem:
viii
e. Is this wavelength in the visible spectrum? If not, in what part of the spectrum is
this light found?
Solution:
a.
8
3.00 x 10 m
c −15 s −15 15
E=hf =h =(4.136 x 10 eV . s) −7
=( 4.136 x 10 eV . s)(1.25 x 10 /s)=5.17 eV
λ 2.40 x 10 m
b. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is related to the minimum voltage
across the two plates needed to stop the electrons from reaching the second plate
(known as the stopping potential). In this case, the stopping potential is 1.40eV, so the
maximum kinetic energy of the electrons is 1.40eV
c. KE max =E− ∅ → ∅ =E−KE max =5.17 eV −1.40 eV =3.77 eV
d. The maximum wavelength that would cause electrons to be emitted corresponds to the
threshold frequency for this situation. Let’s first determine the threshold frequency, f o.
∅ 3.77 eV 14 14
∅ =h f o → f o = = =9.12 x 10 /second =9.12 x 10 Hz
h −15
4.136 x 10 eV . s
Assuming that the light is traveling in a vacuum, gives:
8
c 3.00 x 10 m/s −7
λ max= = =3.29 x 10 m
f o 9.12 x 1014 Hz
e. This wavelength is 329nm, less than 400nm (violet) wavelength that marks the lower
bound of the visible spectrum. This light is beyond violet, and found in the ultraviolet
region.
What’s More
Solve the following problems on the Photoelectric Effect. Show your solutions clearly.
1. A cook uses a microwave oven to heat a meal. The wavelength of the radiation is
1.20cm. What is the energy of one photon of this microwave radiation?
Solution:
2. What is the maximum kinetic energy of an emitted electron if light with a frequency of
2 x 10 Hz shines on Aluminum with a Work Function ∅ =4.08 eV ?
15
ix
3. Given the Work Function for selenium is 5.11 eV.
a. What is the threshold frequency that is required to emit photoelectrons from
Selenium?
b. A light with frequency of 3.56 x 10 15 Hz is utilized to illuminate the Selenium piece.
What would be the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons?
What I Can Do
The Photoelectric effect has numerous applications. Explore one application of this
Phenomenon utilized in your locality. Write your answer in a separate paper following the
given format below.
Lesson
2
The Atomic Spectra
What’s In
In this lesson, you are going to study another phenomenon that was explained
using the particle-like behavior of light - the Atomic Spectra, specifically the
absorption and emission spectra. These phenomena are difficult to explain with
classical physics and were part of the body of evidence that pointed the way toward
quantum mechanics.
x
As you go along this lesson, you will be able to explain qualitatively the
properties of atomic emission and absorption spectra using the concept of energy
levels STEM_GP12MPIVh-46
What’s New
Atomic Spectra was explained using the concept of the Bohr Model of an
atom suggesting the quantization of energy.
From the word-box, Complete the diagram to review Bohr’s Model of an atom and have an
initial understanding on the
Emission and Absorption spectra.
Write your answer in a separate
sheet.
What Is It
When an object, whether solid, liquid or gas, is heated, they emit light. The emitted
light can be observed as a series of colored lines with dark spaces in between; this series of
colored lines is called a line or atomic spectra.
xi
2. Emission A hot, rarified (low-
Spectrum pressured) gas
3. Absorption A cool rarified (low-
Spectrum pressured) gas
xii
in the spectrum, whereas an absorption spectrum has dark-coloured lines in or gaps in the
spectrum.
Emission spectra were long been observed already for many other elements in the
late 19th century. This observation presented a major challenge which cannot be explained in
classical physics. Thus the energy levels of a hydrogen atom had to be quantized.
Bohr’s Model of the atom is the 1st model that suggest that the energy of the electron
is quantized. The electrons exist in fixed orbits; that is the location and its energy are
quantized. His theory provides an adequate model in explaining the spectra.
The energies of the photons are quantized, and their energy is explained as being
equal to the change in energy of the electron when it moves from one orbit to another. In
equation form, this is
−Rhc
∆ E=hf and En = 2
n
In 1885, a Swiss mathematics teacher, Johann Balmer (1825–1898), showed that the
frequencies of the lines observed in the visible region of the spectrum of hydrogen fit a
simple equation that can be expressed as follows:
1
λ [
1 1
=R 2 − 2
2 n ]
where n takes on values 3, 4, 5, and 6 for the four lines
and R = 1.09737 × 107 m−1 is the Rydberg constant named after Johannes Robert
Rydberg, a Swedish physicist
The Balmer series extends into the UV region and ends at 365nm.
Later experiments found other series of lines in the UV and IR with patterns like the
Balmer series but at different wavelengths. The other spectral line series are named after
their discoverers, Theodore Lyman, A.H. Pfund, and F.S. Brackett of the United States and
Friedrich Paschen of Germany.
The Lyman series lies in the ultraviolet range containing lines with wavelength from
91nm to 122nm and its formula
xiii
1
λ [
1 1
]
=R 2 − 2 where n = 2,3,…
1 n
A schematic of the hydrogen spectrum shows several series named for those who
contributed most to their determination. Part of the Balmer series is in the visible spectrum,
while the Lyman series is entirely in the UV, and the Paschen series and others are in the IR.
What’s More
Using the wavelength data of the elements given in the table, identify the
elements below by looking at their atomic spectra.
xiv
https://www.tamdistrict.org/cms/lib/CA01000875/Centricity/Domain/1483/Interpreting%20the%20EM%20Spectrum.pdf
What I Can Do
“How do astronomers use light to study stars and planets?”
Atomic Spectroscopy poses various applications in the vast field of Science. One of which is
in the field of Astronomy. Astronomers use light to study stars and planets. To understand
further the applications of Atomic Spectroscopy in this field, conduct a research on the latest
discovery of Astronomers and explain how the concept of atomic spectroscopy helped them
in their discovery. Write your answer in a separate paper following the template given.
Discovery Atomic
(include a cut-out of Discoverer Date Spectroscopy Reflection
the photo if available) Concept
Lesson
3
Radioactive Decay
What’s In
You have learned that an atom has electrons orbiting outside the nucleus.
And that the nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.
However, some atoms have unstable nucleus. Elements with large number of
protons, or protons and neutrons combined, naturally have unstable nuclei. This
causes imbalance between the attractive nuclear forces and the repulsive electrical
forces and so it emits particles or waves to form a more stable atom. This process is
called radioactive decay.
This lesson will help you understand more how radioactivity occurs focusing
on the radioactive activity and half-life.
xv
What’s New
Answer the following as directed to review your knowledge about radioactivity. Write
your answer in a separate paper.
1. Radioactive Materials
2. Radioactivity
3. Half-Life
4. Radioactive Activity
5. The half-life period of a radioactive element is 100 days. After 400 days, one gm of the
element will be reduced to __________ gm.
a. 1/2 b. ¼ c. 1/8 d. 1/16
6. The half-life period of a radioactive substance is best determined by counting the number
of alpha particles emitted per second in a Geiger Muller counter from its known quantity. If
the half-life period of a radioactive substance is one month, then?
a. it will completely disintegrate in two months
b. l/8th of it will remain intact at the end of four months
c. 3/4th of it will disintegrate in two months
d. it will completely disintegrate in four months
7. An element with atomic mass number of 14 and atomic number 6 has how many
neutrons?
a. 6 b. 8 c. 14 d. 20
8. Isotopes of an element have nuclei with
a. the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
b. the same number of protons, and the same number of neutrons.
c. a different number of protons, and a different number of neutrons.
d. a different number of protons, and the same number of neutrons.
9. If an atom's atomic number is given by Z, its atomic mass by A, and its neutron number
by N, which of the following is correct?
a. N = A + Z b. N = Z – A c. N = A - Z
10. What happens to the half-life of a radioactive substance as it decays?
a. It remains constant. b. It increases. c.It decreases.
What Is It
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactivity is the
phenomenon exhibited by the
xvi
nuclei of an atom as a result of nuclear instability. It is the spontaneous breakdown of an
atomic nucleus resulting in the release of energy and matter from the nucleus.
Some materials contain unstable isotopes. This means the nucleus is either too big
to hold itself together or has too many protons or neutrons. In order to become more stable,
they can decay by emitting some forms of radiation by an alpha particle, a beta particle or
gamma rays. These materials are called Radioactive . Unstable atoms continue to be
radioactive and undergo decay until they lose enough mass/particles that they become
stable.
Radioactive decay happens randomly and one could not exactly tell when it would
occur. However, if there is enough sample of radioactive isotopes, we can determine the
activity rate of the sample and its half-life.
1. Radioactive Activity, R - the number of decays taking place every second. In equation
form,
−∆ N
R= =λN ; ∆ N =N−N 0
∆t
where
N = number of nuclei present at time t
N 0= number of nuclei present at t = 0
λ = the decay constant
The basic unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq) named after Henri Becquerel, the first
man to discover radioactive radiation.
Another unit used in describing the Activity is the Curie (Ci) defined to be the activity
of 1 g of 226Ra, in honor of Marie Curie’s work with radium.
10
1 Ci=3.7 x 10 Bq
2. Half-Life, T 1/ 2 – the time required for the number of radioactive nuclei to decrease to ½
the original number N 0 of all the isotopes in the sample. The Half-life and
the decay constant are related by the equation:
0.693
T 1=
2
λ
Another equation relating the half-life, T 1 and Activity, R can be expressed as:
2
0.693 N
R=
T1
2
xvii
If a radioactive sample contains N radioactive nuclei in some instant, we can solve for the
number of nuclei, ∆ N , that decays in time ∆ t , is proportional to N . This is given by the
equation:
∆ N =−λ N ∆ t
The number of nuclei present varies with time according to the equation:
−λt
N=N 0 e where e=2.718
Sample Problem:
Solution:
The half-life of the sample is 30minutes. In 2 hours, the number of half-life would be:
2hours 2 hours
= =4 half-life periods
30 min 0.5 hours
( )( )( )( ) ()
4
1 1 1 1 ( 1 (
x 3 x 10 nuclei )= 3 x 10 nuclei )=1.875 x 10 nuclei
18 18 17
2 2 2 2 2
2. The activity of a radioactive sample is 1.6 Ci and its half-life is 2.5 days. Then
activity after 10 days will be:
Solution:
The half-life of the sample is 2.5 days. To determine the number of half-life the sample
10 days
undergone: =4 half-life periods.
2.5 days
The initial activity of the sample is 1.6 Ci. The activity after 10 days will be
( )( )( )( ) ( ) x ( 1.6 Ci )=0.1 Ci
4
1 1 1 1 ( 1
x 1.6 Ci )=
2 2 2 2 2
3. It is estimated that the Chernobyl disaster released 6.0 MCi of 137Cs into the
environment. Calculate the mass of 137Cs released. (The half-life of 137Cs is 30.2 years)
Solution:
xviii
A
One mole of a nuclide X has a mass of A grams, so that one mole of 137
Cs has a mass of
137g. Using Avogadro’s number, 1 mole has 6.02×1023 nuclei. Thus,
137 grams
m= xN
6.02 ×10 23 nuclei
0.693 N
R=
Since the half-life T 1 and Activity R are given, we use the eq’n T 1 to solve for N :
2
2
N=
(R) T 1
( ) = (60 M Ci) ( 30.2 years )
2
0.693 0.693
10
6 3.7 x 10 Bq ( 365 days 24 hrs 3600 sec
(60 x 10 Ci)( ) 30.2 yrs ) ( )( )( )
Ci 1 yr 1 day 1hr 26
N= =3.1 x 10 nuclei
0.693
137 grams
x ( 3.1 x 10 nuclei ) =70 x 10 grams=70 kg
26 3
m= 23
6.02 x 10 nuclei
4. The initial mass of an Iodine isotope was 200g. Determine the Iodine mass after 30 days
if the half-life of the isotope is 8 days.
−λt
Solution: N=N 0 e
0.693
λ= T 1 =8 days
The decay constant is equal to T1 where
2
2
−0.693
( 30 )
−λt 8 −2.6
N=N 0 e =( 200 ) e =200 e =200 x 0.074=14.9 grams
What’s More
Solve the following problems on Radioactive Activity and Half-Life. Show your
solutions clearly.
1. Find the mass of a radioactive isotope if 3 half-lives occurred. The initial mass of the
material was 80g
2. Rex the dog died in 1750. What percentage of his original carbon-14 remained in
1975 when he was found by scientists? The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.
xix
3. You measure the beta decay activity of an unknown substance to be 5306Bq. 48
hours later, the activity is 510Bq. What is the half-life in hours?
4. A certain container has 0.56grams of 90Sr. Calculate the activity of this material in
units of Curies. The half-life of 90Sr is 28.8 years.
5. A sample of protactinium-234 of mass 100 g has a half-life of of 6.7 hours.
A. What fraction of the sample has not decayed after 20.1 hours?
B. What is the mass of undecayed protactinium-234 after this period of time?
What I Can Do
List down at least 5 uses of radioactivity that is being utilized in our country.
Summary
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of a metal
when light is incident on it.
Photoelectric Effect was explained by Albert Einstein on the basis of Max Planck’s experiment on
blackbody radiation which suggested the particle-like nature of light.
The minimum energy needed for the electrons to escape is called the Work Function given by the
equation: ∅ =KE max−E where KE max =eV o.
V o , the stopping potential, is the voltage difference required to stop electrons from moving between
plates.
When an electron moves between different energy levels in an atom, an electromagnetic (EM)
radiation is emitted or absorbed. This spectrum of EM radiation is called the Atomic or Line Spectra.
Line spectra emitted or absorbed is unique to each element and is described as the ‘fingerprint’ for
that element. By looking at its line spectra, an unknown element can be determined.
The line spectrum of atomic hydrogen includes the Balmer series, the Lyman series and the Paschen
series. Scientists were able to describe the Atomic Spectra by using Bohr’s suggestion on the
quantization of the energy levels of electrons in an atom.
Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity is the phenomenon exhibited by the nuclei of an atom as a result of nuclear instability.
xx
Radioactive decay happens randomly and one could not exactly tell when it would occur. However, if
there is enough sample of radioactive isotopes, we can determine the activity rate of the sample and
its half-life.
Radioactive Activity, R, refers to the number of decays taking place every second. In equation form,
−∆ N
R= =λN
∆t
Radioactive Activity can be expressed in units of Becquerel (Bq) or Curie (Ci) where
1 Bq=1 decay /sec and 1 Ci=3.7 x 1010 Bq
Half-Life, T 1/ 2 refers to the time required for the number of radioactive nuclei to decrease to ½ the
original number N 0 y of all the isotopes in the sample. The Half-life and the decay constant are related
0.693 0.693 N
T 1= R=
by the equation: and in terms of the Radioactive Activity T1
2
λ
2
Assessment: (Post-Test)
Multiple Choice. Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from the given
choices.
1. During Einstein’s Photoelectric Experiment, what changes are observed when the
frequency of the incident radiation is increased?
a. The value of saturation current increases c. The value of stopping potential increases
b. The value of stopping potential decreases d. No effect
2. How does the intensity affect the photoelectric current?
a. As intensity increases, the photoelectric effect increases
b. As the intensity increases, the photoelectric effect decreases
c. As the intensity decreases, the photoelectric effect becomes twice
d. No effect
3. On which part of the photoelectric cell does the radiation strikes?
a. Cathode b. Anode c. Ammeter
d. Radiation does not strike on the photoelectric cell
4. The photoelectric emission could be explained by the ____________
xxi
a. Wave nature of light c. Particle nature of light
b. Dual nature of light d. Quantum nature
5. A radioactive source has a half-life of 80 s. How long will it take for 7/8 of the source to
decay? a. 10 s b. 70 s c. 240 s d. 640 s
6. What is the percentage of a 200g sample of Nitrogen-16 that decays to 12.5g in 21.6sec?
a. 12.5% b. 6.25% c. 25% d. 100%
7. Thallium-208 has a half-life of 3.053min. How long does it take for 120g to decay to 7.50?
a. 21.12min b. 6.106min c. 48.84min d. 12.21min
8. The graph shows how the radioactivity of a particular
isotope varies with time. What is the half-life of this
isotope?
a. 5 days b. 10 days c. 12.5 days d. 2.5 days
9. Who is responsible for the model of the atom where
electrons travel in specific paths or orbits around the
nucleus?
a. Einstein b. Bohr c. Planck d. Dalton
10. Atomic emission spectroscopy is
a. The measurement of intensity of emitted light at a particular wave length from the atoms that
are exited thermally.
b. The measurement of absorbance of emitted light at a particular wave length from the atoms
that are exited thermally.
c. The measurement of intensity of emitted light at a particular wave length from the atoms that
are exited by monochromatic light.
d. The measurement of intensity of absorbed light at a particular wave length from the atoms that
are exited thermally.
11. What causes the emission of radiant energy that produces characteristic spectral lines?
a. gamma ray emission from the nucleus
b. return of electrons to lower energy levels
c. neutron absorption by the nucleus
d. movement of electrons to higher energy levels
xxii
14. A composition of a crushed rock sample was
investigated using atomic spectroscopy.
After dissolving in acid, the rock sample
solution was heated to produce an emission
spectrum. Shown below is this emission
spectrum, along with those of five metals.
Based on this spectral analysis, it can be
concluded that the rock sample contains
a. strontium and beryllium, but none of other three metals
b. all five of the metals
c. strontium, but none of the other four metals
d. none of the five metals
References
xxiii
Padua, Alicia, and Ricardo Crisostomo. 2005. Practical And Explorational Physics - Modular
Approach. 1st ed. Quezon City: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
"PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT". 2021. Powershow.
https://www.powershow.com/viewfl/78b0a7-ODE2N/PHOTOELECTRIC_EFFECT_pow
erpoint_ppt_presentation.
"Photoelectric Effect - Principles Of Structural Chemistry". 2021. Sites.Google.Com.
https://sites.google.com/a/coe.edu/principles-of-structural-chemistry/relationship-
between-light-and-matter/photoelectric-effect.
"Photoelectric Effect | Chemistry For Non-Majors". 2021. Courses.Lumenlearning.Com.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cheminter/chapter/photoelectric-effect/.
"Photoelectric Effect | Definition, Examples, & Applications". 2021. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/photoelectric-effect.
xxv