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Lawrie’s Meat Science
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Related Titles

New Aspects of Meat Quality

(978-0-08-100593-4)
Poultry Quality Evaluation
(978-0-08-100763-1)
Advances in Animal Welfare
(978-0-08-101215-4)
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition

Lawrie’s Meat Science

Eighth Edition

Edited by
Fidel Toldrá
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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Contents

List of Contributors xiii

Preface xv

1. Introduction
Jeffrey W. Savell
1.1 Meat and Muscle 1
1.2 Meat From Other Animals 2
1.3 Domestication of Livestock 4
1.4 Trends and Developments 7
1.5 Conclusions and Future Trends 15
References 16

2. Factors Influencing the Growth of Meat Animals

Aidan P. Moloney, Mark McGee
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Measurement of Growth and Body/Carcass Composition 20
2.3 Animal Influences on Growth of Farm Animals 22
2.4 Nonanimal Influences on Growth of Farm Animals 29
2.5 Interactions Between Animal and Nonanimal Influences
on Growth of Farm Animals 36
2.6 Future Developments 41
References 42

3. The Structure and Growth of Muscle

Peter P. Purslow
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Muscle Tissue 50
3.3 Generalized Skeletal Muscle Structure 51
3.4 The General Structure of the Striated (Skeletal) Muscle Cell 52
3.5 Muscle Fiber Types 59
3.6 Structure of the Individual Intramuscular Connective
Tissues 61
3.7 Variations in Intramuscular Connective Tissue Content
Between Muscles 64
3.8 Composition of Intramuscular Connective Tissues 64

v
vi Contents

3.9 Collagens in Muscle 64

3.10 Collagen Cross-Linking 67
3.11 Microfilaments and Elastin 68
3.12 Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans 71
3.13 CelleMatrix Connectors: Laminin and Fibronectin,
Dystrophin, and the Integrins 72
3.14 The Structure of Adipose Tissues 76
3.15 Muscle Development and Growth 77
3.16 Muscle Development in Embryogenesis and Prenatal
Growth 77
3.17 Adipogenesis and Fibrillogenesis 79
3.18 Fetal Development 81
3.19 Postnatal Muscle Growth 81
3.20 Muscle Cells Grow by Incorporating Satellite Cells 85
3.21 Distribution and Percentage of Fat and Lean Muscle
in the Growing Animal 85
3.22 Muscle Cuts 88
3.23 Conclusions and Future Trends 90
References 91

4. Chemical and Biochemical Constitution of Muscle

Clemente López-Bote
4.1 General Chemical Aspects 99
4.2 Biochemical Aspects 116
4.3 Factors Affecting Meat Quality 132
4.4 Conclusions and Future Trends 149
References 150

5. The Conversion of Muscle to Meat

Sulaiman K. Matarneh, Eric M. England, Tracy L. Scheffler,
David E. Gerrard
5.1 Introduction 159
5.2 Postmortem Metabolism 160
5.3 The Factors Controlling the Rate of Postmortem
Metabolism 167
5.4 The Factors Controlling the Extent of Postmortem
Metabolism 168
5.5 Abnormal Postmortem Metabolism 170
5.6 Preslaughter Stress 173
5.7 Development of Meat Quality Attributes 175
5.8 Postmortem Handling and Meat QualitydTemperature 178
5.9 Aging and Proteolysis 179
5.10 Conclusions 182
References 182
 Contents vii

6. Meat Microbiology and Spoilage

Monique Zagorec, Marie-Christine Champomier-Vergès
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Origin and Dynamics of Meat Microbial Contamination
Involved in Spoilage 189
6.3 Mechanisms Involved in Meat Bacterial Spoilage 191
6.4 The Main Microbial Contaminants of Meat Involved in
Spoilage 193
6.5 The Main Spoilage Manifestations and Their Microbial
Causes 197
6.6 Future Trends 199
References 200

7. The Storage and Preservation of Meat: IdThermal

Technologies
Youling L. Xiong
7.1 Introduction 205
7.2 Chilling 206
7.3 Freezing 216
7.4 Heating 220
7.5 Novel Thermal Procedures 224
7.6 Future Trends 226
References 226

8. The Storage and Preservation of Meat:

IIdNonthermal Technologies
Dong U. Ahn, Aubrey F. Mendonça, Xi Feng
8.1 Introduction 231
8.2 Ionizing Radiation 232
8.3 High Pressure 247
8.4 Freeze Dehydration 255
References 259

9. The Storage and Preservation of Meat: IIIdMeat

Processing
Fidel Toldrá
9.1 Introduction 265
9.2 Curing 266
9.3 Fermentation 273
9.4 Dehydration 277
9.5 Smoking 280
viii Contents

9.6 Processing Technologies for Cured Meat Products 281

9.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 292
References 292

10. Storage and Preservation of Raw Meat

and Muscle-Based Food Products: IV Storage
and Packaging
Joe P. Kerry, Andrey A. Tyuftin
10.1 Introduction 297
10.2 Impact of Microbiology on Fresh Meat Quality
Attributes 298
10.3 Common Technologies Used to Preserve Fresh Meat
Products and Assist in a Combined Manner
to Extend Product Shelf Life 299
10.4 Packaging Materials Used for Fresh Meat and
Muscle-Based Products 309
10.5 Conclusions 320
References 324
Relevant Websites 327

11. The Eating Quality of Meat: IdColor

Cameron Faustman, Surendranath P. Suman
11.1 Introduction 329
11.2 Myoglobin Concentration 329
11.3 Myoglobin Structure 332
11.4 Color Phenomena in Fresh Meat 336
11.5 Color in Cooked Nitrite-Cured and Salted Uncooked
Meats 343
11.6 Cooked Meat Color 345
11.7 Anomalies in Meat Color 347
11.8 Measuring Meat Color 350
11.9 Summary Statement 351
References 351

12. The Eating Quality of Meat: IIdTenderness

David L. Hopkins
12.1 Introduction 357
12.2 Measuring Tenderness 374
12.3 Conclusions and Future Trends 375
References 376
 Contents ix

13. The Eating Quality of Meat: IIIdFlavor

Mónica Flores
13.1 Aroma and Taste Compounds 383
13.2 Volatile Compounds Generation Reactions 384
13.3 Methodology for Meat Aroma Volatile Identification 392
13.4 Pre- and Postslaughter Factors Affecting Aroma 398
13.5 Off-Flavors 403
13.6 Meat Product Flavor 407
13.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 412
References 412

14. The Eating Quality of MeatdIV Water-Holding

Capacity and Juiciness
Robyn D. Warner
14.1 Introduction 419
14.2 Definition of Water-Holding Capacity and
Juiciness 419
14.3 Structural Influences on the Water-Holding Capacity
of Uncooked (Raw) Meat 422
14.4 Factors Influencing Water-Holding Capacity in Raw
Muscle 424
14.5 Changes in Water-Holding Capacity During Cooking
of Raw Meat 430
14.6 JuicinessdInfluencing Factors and Interactions With
Water-Holding Capacity 437
14.7 Factors Influencing Water-Holding Capacity of Meat
Products 438
14.8 Methods to Measure Water-Holding Capacity and
Juiciness 446
14.9 Conclusions and Future Trends 452
References 453

15. The Eating Quality of Meat: VdSensory Evaluation

of Meat
Rhonda K. Miller
15.1 Introduction 461
15.2 Why Sensory Evaluation of Meat Is Unique 462
15.3 Overview of How Sensory Is Perceived and Defining
Sensory Attributes 463
15.4 Sensory Controls for Meat 472
15.5 Sensory Techniques 478
15.6 Emerging or Underutilized Sensory Techniques 496
15.7 Conclusions 498
References 498
x Contents

16. Phenotyping of Animals and Their Meat:

Applications of Low-Power Ultrasounds,
Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, Raman Spectroscopy,
and Hyperspectral Imaging
Donato Andueza, Benoıˆt-Pierre Mourot,
Jean-François Hocquette, Jacques Mourot
16.1 Introduction 501
16.2 Principles of the Main Methods 502
16.3 Applications in Meat Quality Assessment 506
16.4 Conclusions 513
Acknowledgment 514
References 514

17. Meat SafetydI Foodborne Pathogens and Other

Biological Issues
Alexandra Lianou, Efstathios Z. Panagou, George-John E. Nychas
17.1 Introduction 521
17.2 Foodborne Illnesses Associated With the Consumption
of Meat and Meat Products 522
17.3 Bacteria and Bacterial Toxins 523
17.4 Viruses 538
17.5 Parasites 541
17.6 Prions 543
17.7 Current and Emerging Challenges to Meat Safety
Management 544
17.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 546
References 546

18. Meat Safety: II Residues and Contaminants

Marilena E. Dasenaki, Nikolaos S. Thomaidis
18.1 Introduction 553
18.2 Chemical Contaminants and Residues 554
18.3 Risk Assessment 567
18.4 Analytical Methods 568
18.5 Future Trends and Perspectives 577
References 578

19. Meat Authenticity and Traceability

Luca Fontanesi
19.1 General Overview 585
19.2 Intrinsic Characteristics of the Meat 587
19.3 Extrinsic Characteristics of the Meat 618
19.4 Conclusions and Future Trends 622
References 623
 Contents xi

20. Meat Composition and Nutritional Value

Jeffrey D. Wood
20.1 Introduction 635
20.2 Meat Consumption Patterns 635
20.3 Composition of Meat 636
20.4 Effects of Cooking on Nutrients in Meat 653
20.5 Conclusions and Future Possibilities 654
References 655

21. Meat and Health

Kerri B. Gehring
21.1 Introduction: Nutrients Supplied From Meat 661
21.2 Meat in Healthy Nutrition and Diet 663
21.3 Recommended Meat Intakes 668
21.4 Functional Muscle Foods 670
21.5 Problematics With Toxins and Residues 671
21.6 Conclusions 674
References 674

22. Edible By-products

Herbert W. Ockerman, Lopa Basu, Fidel Toldrá
22.1 Introduction 679
22.2 Main Edible By-products 680
22.3 Nutritional Value of Edible By-products 684
22.4 Products Resulting From Edible By-products 691
22.5 Added Value Products Obtained From Edible
By-products 693
22.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 694
References 694

Index 697
This page intentionally left blank
List of Contributors

Dong U. Ahn, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States

Donato Andueza, INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France;
Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, Clermont-Ferrand,
France
Lopa Basu, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
Marie-Christine Champomier-Vergès, UMR1319, MICALIS, INRA, Université
Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
Marilena E. Dasenaki, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Eric M. England, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
Cameron Faustman, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
Xi Feng, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
Mónica Flores, Instituto de Agroquı́mica y Tecnologı́a de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia,
Spain
Luca Fontanesi, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Kerri B. Gehring, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States;
International HACCP Alliance, College Station, TX, United States
David E. Gerrard, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA, United States
Jean-François Hocquette, INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Saint-Genès-Champanelle,
France; Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, Clermont-
Ferrand, France
David L. Hopkins, Centre for Red Meat and Sheep Development, Cowra, NSW,
Australia
Joe P. Kerry, University College Cork, Cork City, Ireland
Alexandra Lianou, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Clemente López-Bote, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Sulaiman K. Matarneh, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, VA, United States
Mark McGee, Teagasc, Grange, Dunsany, Co. Meath, Ireland
Aubrey F. Mendonça, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
Rhonda K. Miller, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States

xiii
xiv List of Contributors

Aidan P. Moloney, Teagasc, Grange, Dunsany, Co. Meath, Ireland

Benoı̂t-Pierre Mourot, INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Saint-Genès-Champanelle,
France; Clermont Université, VetAgro Sup, UMR1213 Herbivores, Clermont-
Ferrand, France; Valorex, Combourtillé, France
Jacques Mourot, INRA, UMR 1348 PEGASE, St-Gilles, France; Agrocampus Ouest,
UMR1348 PEGASE, Rennes, France
George-John E. Nychas, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Herbert W. Ockerman, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
Efstathios Z. Panagou, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Peter P. Purslow, National University of Central Buenos Aires Province, Tandil,
Argentina
Jeffrey W. Savell, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
Tracy L. Scheffler, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Surendranath P. Suman, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
Nikolaos S. Thomaidis, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Fidel Toldrá, Instituto de Agroquı́mica y Tecnologı́a de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia,
Spain
Andrey A. Tyuftin, University College Cork, Cork City, Ireland
Robyn D. Warner, Melbourne University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Jeffrey D. Wood, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
Youling L. Xiong, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
Monique Zagorec, UMR1014 SECALIM, INRA, Oniris, Nantes, France
Preface

When I was contacted by the publisher to prepare the eighth edition, my first
thoughts were focused on the enormous responsibility that I was assuming. In fact,
and after talking with many colleagues, I think that most of the meat scientists
worldwide have learned about meat with any of the earlier editions of Lawrie’s
Meat Science book. This is the type of book that meat scientists must have on hand
in their personal library. I personally learned a lot about meat science from
the previous editions of this book. This is why I am so grateful to Professor
Ralston Lawrie for his initiative in writing this nice book and publishing its first
edition in 1966 and the following editions and also to Professor Dave Ledward for
the work done in updating and expanding the recent editions of the book.
The main goal of the book is to provide the reader with a comprehensive
resource, covering the wide field of meat science. This means from the production
of animals, the structure of the muscle, its conversion into meat, the different
technologies used for preservation and storage and the eating and nutritional
quality and safety of meat through the processing industry and distribution until
reaching the consumer.
The book includes leading-edge technologies (i.e., nanotechnology, novel
preservation technologies) and techniques (i.e., proteomics, genomics, metab-
olomics) in chapters not only related with meat quality, nutritional value, and
meat safety but also in other relevant issues such as traceability and authenticity,
which have a strong demand from all sectors involved in “farm to fork” and have
been the focus of some recent scandals not only in the European Union but also
in other areas of the world.
After 50 years since the book was first published, this eighth edition is facing
new times and has got considerable changes in relation to the previous editions.
The most relevant change that you will immediately notice is the format of the
book that is now an edited book with multiauthored chapters. This means that
each chapter is authored by well-known scientists having an excellent expertise
on the respective topic. These authors have contributed to get the chapters
completely rewritten and updated. Another relevant change is the breakdown
into more specific chapters. Some chapters remain with similar titles although
substantially revised and updated in content, such as the introduction, the factors
affecting the growth and development of meat animals, the structure and growth
of muscle, the chemical and biochemical constitution of muscle, the conversion
of muscle to meat, meat microbiology and spoilage, and meat composition and
nutritional value. Other chapters have been completely changed like the set of

xv
xvi Preface

chapters on storage and preservation of meat, which are now split into four
chapters: thermal and nonthermal technologies, processing and packaging, and
storage. The eating quality of meat is split into six chapters: color, tenderness,
flavor, water-holding capacity and juiciness, sensory evaluation, and latest
technologies for assessment of quality. There are two new chapters under meat
safety: foodborne pathogens and other biological issues, and residues and
contaminants. Finally, the book also includes new chapters on topics of current
relevant interests such as authenticity and traceability, edible by-products, and
meat and health.
I sincerely hope that readers will find this book of interest and providing
useful information. I wish to thank all the contributors for their hard work and
good job done with the delivered chapters and making this book possible.
I also wish to thank the production team at Woodhead Publishing, especially
Mrs. Karen Miller, the Editorial Production Manager, Lisa Jones, the Senior
Project Manager, and Mr. Robert Sykes, the Acquisitions Editor, for their
dedication during the preparation and elaboration of the chapters and during the
publication of this book.

Fidel Toldrá
Editor
Chapter 1

Introduction
Jeffrey W. Savell
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States

Meat science is a discipline that requires a complete understanding of the

complexities of antemortem and postmortem factors that impact the final
product for the consumer. Subsequent chapters in this book will delve into
these factors more deeply, but an overview of some of the background and
current issues related to meat production is an important starting point for this
journey.

1.1 MEAT AND MUSCLE

The basic definition of meat is the flesh of animals used for food. For the most
part and for most societies, meat comes from domesticated livestock with the
primary species being cattle, hogs, and sheep. Although skeletal muscle makes
up the greatest proportion of the products produced and consumed, various
organs and other offal items are important food components for many nations
and often contribute greatly to the export markets for those countries that
produce more than what can be consumed domestically.
One example of a technical definition of meat can be found at U.S.
Department of Agriculture (2016a):
Meat. (1) The part of the muscle of any cattle, sheep, swine, or goats which is
skeletal or which is found in the tongue, diaphragm, heart, or esophagus, with or
without the accompanying and overlying fat, and the portions of bone (in bone-in
product such as T-bone or porterhouse steak), skin, sinew, nerve, and blood
vessels which normally accompany the muscle tissue and that are not separated
from it in the process of dressing. As applied to products of equines, this term has
a comparable meaning.
1. Meat does not include the muscle found in the lips, snout, or ears.
2. Meat may not include significant portions of bone, including hard bone and
related components, such as bone marrow, or any amount of brain, trigeminal
ganglia, spinal cord, or dorsal root ganglia.

Lawrie’s Meat Science. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100694-8.00001-7

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1
2 Lawrie’s Meat Science

Regulatory authorities within governments must define what constitutes

“meat” for its citizens as a way to ensure proper labeling and prevention of
adulteration, and it is expected that this definition will vary from country to
country. This definition from the United States has been updated since the
occurrence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the mid-1980s as reflected
by the reference to the absence of items now considered as “specified risk
materials” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2016b).

1.2 MEAT FROM OTHER ANIMALS

Throughout the world, there are many other animals used for primary or
secondary sources of meat for consumption. The buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is
an important source of draft power, milk, meat, and hides in many Asian
countries, with the greatest numbers present in India, China, Pakistan, and
Nepal (Nanda and Nakao, 2003). Desert camels (Camelus dromedarius), in
addition to their historic use as a transporter, their drought tolerance, and their
ability to adapt to harsh arid and semiarid zones, provide food for parts of
Africa (Kurtu, 2004; Yousif and Babiker, 1989) and the Middle East (Elgasim
and Alkanhal, 1992; Kadim et al., 2006).
The goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a great contributor to the development
of rural zones and people (Dubeuf et al., 2004) and historically has been a
great source of meat, milk, fiber, and skin. Dubeuf et al. (2004) stated that
goats are found on all continents, with the greatest numbers being located in
Asia (especially China and India), Africa (especially Nigeria and Ethiopia),
Europe (especially Greece and Spain), and the Americas (especially Mexico
and Brazil). For species such as goats, sometimes meat production is sec-
ondary to that of milk or fiber, which often diminishes the value of meat in the
marketplace.
The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is used as a source of human food in
some cultures, with the majority of horse meat production/importation
occurring in Asia and Western Europe (Gill, 2005). Gill (2005) also stated that
the Western European countries with the greatest amounts of horse meat
produced, exported, and/or imported were Italy, Belgium, France, and the
Netherlands. Gade (1976) stated that the acceptance of horse meat in France as
a food item for humans would be one of the few documented cases of a change
in attitude from aversion to that of acceptance and was probably driven by
food-shortage crises of the past.
For many years, the United States slaughtered horses with the majority of
the more valued cuts destined for Western Europe and the less valued cuts
remaining for use in pet food manufacturing or use in zoos. In 2005, the first
successful attempt by the US Congress to find a way to stop horse slaughter
was through an act that prevented federal monies from being used to pay the
salaries or expenses of inspectors. Even though this bill expired several years
later, the US budget passed in early 2014 reinstated the ban on the use of
 Introduction Chapter j 1 3

federal monies for inspection of horse meat. Nonetheless, there are EU-
approved horse slaughter facilities in Canada and Mexico that handle much
of the volume of North American horses that are destined for slaughter.
Horse meat production and consumption were brought to international
headlines when in 2013, in parts of Ireland and the United Kingdom, processed
beef products were found to have been contaminated/adulterated with horse
meat (Abbots and Coles, 2013). Regan et al. (2015), in a survey of the
aftermath of this incident, found three factors that were related to how
consumers assigned responsibility and blame for the adulteration: (1) the
deliberately deceitful practices of the food industry, (2) the complexity of the
food supply chain, and (3) the demand from (other) consumers for cheap food.
Mislabeling/misbranding products, especially related to substituting lower
priced for higher priced meats, can and do have serious regulatory conse-
quences, but may most importantly, erode consumer confidence and trust for
the meat industry.
The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) meat consumption is centered
in the Mediterranean countries and is impacted by historical, economical, and
social evolution (Dalle Zotte, 2002). Rabbit carcasses may be some of the
smallest (from 1.0 to 1.8 kg) used for meat production, but because of their
leanness (approximately 3%e6% dissectible fat) and overall quality, they are
very desirable for the marketplace (Dalle Zotte, 2002). Dalle Zotte and
Szendro (2011) observed that rabbit meat could be used as a functional food
(providing multiple health benefits including nutrition, well-being, and
reduction of disease) because of how diet could be used to influence the fatty
acid composition and vitamin content of the meat.
Exotic or game meat is one for which there are certain countries that have
abundant wildlife where animals can be hunted in the traditional form or
where animals can be farmed using the latest reproductive technologies,
advanced nutrition schemes, and sanitary slaughter and cutting operations to
provide meat through commerce. Hoffman and Cawthorn (2013) compared
several species of wildlife to show the proximate composition of meat (prin-
cipally from the M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum). As one would expect
based on the overall leanness of these animals, Hoffman and Cawthorn (2013)
found that meat from the ungulates, African species, including the springbok
(Antidorcas marsupialis), blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), kudu
(Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and impala (Aepyceros melampus), and ungulates,
cervidae, including red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), roe
deer (Capreolus capreolus), and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) had protein
contents from 19.3% to 23.6% and fat contents from 1.7% to 4.6% based on a
raw weight basis. Hoffman and Wiklund (2006) stated that game meat and
venison from southern Africa are increasingly being exported into Europe and
the United States, and that how they are produced (wild, free range, or
intensive production), harvested, the nutritional quality, and traceability are all
factors that play a role into the consumer acceptance of this meat.
4 Lawrie’s Meat Science

1.3 DOMESTICATION OF LIVESTOCK

There are exciting technologies, such as mitochondrial and nuclear DNA,
available to better understand how, when, and where livestock domestication
occurred (Bruford et al., 2003). Bruford et al. (2003) stated that there are three
principal areas of livestock domestication: (1) southwest Asia also known as
the Fertile Crescent and toward the Indus Valley, (2) East Asia (China and
countries south of China), and (3) the Andean chain of South America. Species
such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and buffalo were domesticated in the two
Asian regions, whereas the South American region is where llamas and al-
pacas were domesticated (Bruford et al., 2003). Most studies point to
domestication of livestock to have occurred around 10,000 years ago.
Evidence to point to when domestication occurred most often focused on
when a reduction in size of the animal was observed. Zeder (2008) stated that
this reduction in size most likely was the difference in the strategies between
hunters, who would have targeted large animals to maximize their hunt, and
herders, who would have slaughtered the females (smaller than their male
counterparts) at the end of the reproductive life and the younger males not
needed for herd propagation. Zeder (2008) also revealed that archeological
evidence related to the sequence and timing of long bone growth and the
determination of sex-specific subpopulations can be used to generate harvest
profiles for male and female animals that are capable of distinguishing
between the prey strategies of hunters from the harvest strategies of herders.

1.3.1 Cattle
The wild aurochsen (Bos primigenius) were the ancestors of modern-day cattle
with two possible domestication events occurring in southwest Asia, which
gave rise to the taurine (Bos taurus) and zebuine (Bos indicus) cattle (Loftus
et al., 1994). Ajmone-Marsan et al. (2010) stated that the maternal lineages of
taurine cattle originated in the Fertile Crescent with a possible contribution of
South European wild-cattle populations, and that the zebu cattle originated
from the Indus Valley. Domestication of these two different types of cattle has
allowed them to be used in a wide variety of environments throughout the
world, providing meat, milk, hides, and labor to promote the development of
the human population over the millennia (Ajmone-Marsan et al., 2010).
Initial migration of cattle from their domestication sites to Africa and
Europe allowed for more development over time and is the subject of many
studies following mitochondria DNA haplotype distributions as a way to
evaluate where the subsequent development occurred (Achilli et al., 2008;
Ajmone-Marsan et al., 2010; Beja-Pereira et al., 2006). Achilli et al. (2008)
showed that the aurochsen in Northern or Central Europe may have contrib-
uted to additional gene flow to the T haplogroups (B. taurus), and that the
haplogroup Q may have been acquired from a different population of
aurochsen that ranged only south of the Alps (Achilli et al., 2009).
 Introduction Chapter j 1 5

The development of cattle throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia occurred

for thousands of years, but with the discovery and conquest of the Americas,
cattle accompanied the humans to the New World (Ajmone-Marsan et al.,
2010) and set in place the development of the cattle industries in North and
South America that have grown into major beef-producing regions over the
past 500 years. B. taurus cattle from Europe and B. indicus cattle from
Southwest Asia made their way to these lands at different times and for
different reasons and even new breeds of cattle (e.g., Santa Gertrudis, Brangus,
Beefmaster) were developed based on planned breeding programs between
these two species. Hundreds of breeds of cattle are found around the world,
each known for some growth, quality, and/or composition feature with some
used in purebreeding or as part of planned crossbreeding operations to produce
beef for a varied marketplace.

1.3.2 Swine
Larson et al. (2010) have shown, using both genetic and archaeological
pieces of evidence, that pigs were domesticated in East Asia. That said, the
authors also believe that the most common modern domestic haplotypes
found in Central China also are the most common Asian haplotypes found
across East Asia, in Australian feral pigs, and in modern European and
American breeds, which occurred most likely during the 18th century when
Asian pigs were used to improve the European breeds. Larson et al. (2010)
further stated that pigs were disseminated throughout these regions through
human migration as well as the natural migration across land bridges into
various countries.
Of great interest in the domestication of swine (Sus scrofa) is the role
played by the wild boar where at least two European wild boar lineages have
been found and that the possibility that other wild boar lineages also may have
been domesticated (Larson et al., 2005). Larson et al. (2005) stated that even
though some of the wild progenitors of many of the Eurasian domesticates are
either extinct or have little or no phylogeographic structure, the distribution of
the surviving wild boar gives researchers the opportunity to determine the
origins of the current domestic lineages.
Another important issue related to how swine entered Europe from Asia
was that it appeared that at least two paths were followed, one a northern
routedthe Danubian Corridordwhich followed the Danube and Rhine River
valleys, and the other more along with northern Mediterranean region (Larson
et al., 2005). Larson et al. (2007) evaluated ancient DNA related to the
Neolithic expansion in island Southeast Asia and found that there were two
separate, human-mediated dispersals of Sus from Asia into the Pacific and a
third within Wallacea (islands between Borneo, New Guinea, and Australia).
These pigs likely originated in East Asia and were introduced to these areas as
humans migrated to them.
6 Lawrie’s Meat Science

Pork production today features many different breeds or genetic lines

designed for specific markets. Large commercial farms, many of which are
farrow-to-finish operations, ensure that sufficient numbers of market-ready
hogs are available for processing into finished goods. From a minor
contribution standpoint, there are some heritage breeds (e.g., Mangalitsa, Red
Wattle, Gloucestershire Old Spot) that have gained in popularity from those
who wish to preserve and promote these animals.

1.3.3 Sheep
It may be that the domestication of sheep (Ovis aries) was the easier of the
three major species because of their relative small size and ease of herding.
Chessa et al. (2009) citing others that sheep were the first species to be
domesticated also stated that although sheep were reared primarily for meat,
during the fifth millennium before present (B.P.) in Southwest Asia and the
fourth millennium B.P. in Europe, specialization for products such as wool
may have caused a replacement of primitive domestic populations with those
more suited for wool production.
Hiendleder et al. (1998) evaluated the mitochondrial DNA from several
sources of sheep from European, African, and Asian breeds along with
mouflon (Ovis musimon). The authors identified two major domestic sheep
mitochondrial DNA lineages, which they termed European and Asian lineages,
and within branches that contained European mouflon (O. musimon). It is of
interest that there were two different lineages in cattle (B. taurus and
B. indicus) and swine (Sus vittatus and S. scrofa) that go along with the theory
of two different lineages in sheep (Hiendleder et al., 1998). Finally, the authors
hypothesized that some modern domestic sheep and European mouflon derive
from a common ancestor that is not from the urial and argali groups and has
not yet been identified.
Chessa et al. (2009) used retrovirus integrations to study the history
of sheep domestication. The authors found that there was a secondary popu-
lation expansion of improved domestic sheep, which were most likely out of
Southwest Asia. This finding provided valuable insights into the history of
pastoralist societies that involved sheep husbandry.
Not all are in agreement about the number of domestication events for
sheep. Pedrosa et al. (2005) found evidence of an additional maternal lineage
in sheep, which would then mean that there were at least three domestication
events for sheep rather than the previous theory of just two (Hiendleder et al.,
1998, 2002).
Once sheep were exported throughout the world, they played an important
role in the economic development of so many countries as important sources
of meat, fiber, and milk. Some sheep are raised primarily for their meat and
some primarily for their wool with different breeds developed to fit different
niches. Development of synthetic fibers and the unique flavor aspects of lamb
 Introduction Chapter j 1 7

meat have somewhat dampened the demand for sheep over the past half
century, but the sheep industry continues to be an important component for
much of the world.

1.4 TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS

Four specific areas are included so that a quick overview can be provided
related to trends and developments in meat production, animal welfare,
sustainability, and kosher and halal.

1.4.1 Meat Production

Meat production varies around the world with respect to countries that produce
the most meat. For beef and veal (Table 1.1), the top five producing countries
are the United States, Brazil, European Union, China, and India. For pork
(Table 1.2), the top three producing countries are China, European Union, and

TABLE 1.1 Beef and Veal Production, Selected Countries

Summary for the Year 2015

1000 Metric Tons (Carcass

Country Weight Equivalent)
United States 10,861
Brazil 9425
European Union 7540
China 6750
India 4200

Argentina 2740
Australia 2550
Mexico 1845
Pakistan 1725
Russia 1355
Canada 1025

Others 8427
Total 58,443

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, 2015.

Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade. Available from: http://apps.fas.
usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf.
8 Lawrie’s Meat Science

TABLE 1.2 Pork Production, Selected Countries Summary

for the Year 2015

1000 Metric Tons (Carcass

Country Weight Equivalent)
China 56,375
European Union 23,000
United States 11,158
Brazil 3451
Russia 2630

Vietnam 2450
Canada 1840
Philippines 1370
Mexico 1335
Japan 1270
South Korea 1210

Others 5369
Total 111,458

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, 2015. Live-

stock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade. Available from: http://apps.fas.usda.
gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf.

the United States. What is remarkable about these figures is that China pro-
duces almost half of the world’s supply of pork.
Imports and exports play a major role in the economic viability of each
country. Imports may provide a way to be sure that there are sufficient
quantities of meat of a particular kind for a country, whereas exports may be a
way to improve the balance of trade and increase the revenue livestock producers
receive. For beef and veal (Table 1.3), the top four importing countries are the
United States, Japan, Russia, and China, whereas the top four exporting
countries are India, Brazil, Australia, and the United States. For pork (Ta-
ble 1.4), the top three importing countries are Japan, Mexico, and China,
whereas the top three exporting countries are the European Union, the United
States, and Canada.
For sheep meat, Colby (2015) published information related to the global
sheep meat production, consumption, and export based on the United Nations
Food and Agriculture Organization information. The top sheep meateproducing
countries in 2013 were China (24%), Australia (8%), New Zealand (5%),
 Introduction Chapter j 1 9

TABLE 1.3 Beef and Veal Imports and Exports, Selected

Countries Summary for the Year 2015

1000 Metric Tons (Carcass

Country Weight Equivalent)
Total Imports

United States 1559

Japan 740
Russia 700
China 600
Hong Kong 450
South Korea 400

European Union 370

Canada 290
Egypt 270
Malaysia 235
Chile 200
Others 1745

Total imports 7559

Total Exports
India 2000
Australia 1815
Brazil 1625
United States 1035

New Zealand 590

Paraguay 400
Canada 375
Uruguay 360
European Union 300
Mexico 245

Argentina 230
Others 626
Total exports 9601

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, 2015.

Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade. Available from: http://apps.fas.
usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf.
10 Lawrie’s Meat Science

TABLE 1.4 Pork Imports and Exports, Selected Countries

Summary for the Year 2015

1000 Metric Tons (Carcass

Country Weight Equivalent)
Total Imports

Japan 1270
Mexico 920
China 845
South Korea 600
United States 502
Hong Kong 380

Russia 300
Australia 230
Canada 220
Philippines 210
Singapore 130
Others 831

Total imports 6438

Total Exports
European Union 2350
United States 2268
Canada 1210
Brazil 565

China 250
Chile 185
Mexico 130
Serbia 40
Vietnam 40
Australia 38

South Africa 12
Others 57
Total exports 7145

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, 2015.

Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade. Available from: http://apps.fas.
usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf.
 Introduction Chapter j 1 11

Sudan (4%), Turkey (4%), and the United Kingdom (3%), whereas the top
sheep meateconsuming countries were China (27%), Sudan (4%), and the
United Kingdom, Turkey, Algeria, Australia, and India with 3% each. The top
sheep meateexporting countries in 2013 were Australia (34%), New Zealand
(34%), and the United Kingdom (9%).

1.4.2 Animal Welfare

Political and social attention to animal welfare has increased during the early
part of the 21st century. Much of this has originated from the increasing
numbers of livestock that are raised in confinement and the distances many
animals must be shipped to processing facilities. Many activist groups have
targeted livestock production, in general, and intensified operations, in
particular, as nothing more than cruel operations that exploit animals for profit
without regard for their welfare or the environment. Undercover videos
showing animal abuse, whether staged or not, have been used to place pressure
on foodservice operations and to seek publicity for the causes of the activist
groups. Social media has allowed for wide distribution of negative images and
stories of animal welfare to audiences throughout the world. Most of the major
retail and foodservice operations now require extensive animal welfare audits
on at least a yearly basis as a way to ensure that at least at the processing plant
level, appropriate handling and stunning programs are in place.
Farm animal welfare is a complex issue that addresses scientific, ethical,
and economic factors (Webster, 2001). One approach to developing an
adequate plan to ensure appropriate animal welfare was the creation of the
“Five Freedoms” (Farm Animal Welfare Council, 2009):
1. Freedom from hunger and thirstdby ready access to fresh water and a diet
designed to maintain full health and vigor;
2. Freedom from discomfortdby the provision of an appropriate environment
including shelter and a comfortable resting area;
3. Freedom from pain, injury, or diseasedby prevention or through rapid
diagnosis and treatment;
4. Freedom to express normal behaviordby the provision of sufficient space,
proper facilities, and company of the animal’s own kind; and
5. Freedom from fear and distressdby the assurance of conditions that avoid
mental suffering.
Research in the area of animal handling and welfare continues to increase
in importance for the livestock and meat industries. Understanding animal
behavior is key to designing effective vehicles and facilities to transport and
handle livestock. This is especially important in species such as swine, where
animals are often raised together before being marketed. Støier et al. (2016)
found that using a “group-based principle,” where pigs were kept in the same
groups during transport, lairage, and stunning, reduced aggression and fighting
12 Lawrie’s Meat Science

by keeping unfamiliar pigs away. They also found that moving pigs in groups
of 15, rather than groups of 45, were easier to move at unloading, to pens in
lairage, and to the stunner, and many quality factors were improved. Best
practices designed around animal handling benefit both animal welfare and
meat quality.
Botreau et al. (2007) reported a set of criteria and subcriteria used in
WelfareQuality to develop an overall welfare assessment based on the “Five
Freedoms” (Table 1.5). It is important to provide criteria that are as objective
as they can be, so that successful assessments of animal welfare can be made
by third-party auditors or others tasked with these evaluations.
In North America, the Professional Animal Auditor Certification Organi-
zation or PAACO (www.animalauditor.org) was developed to create auditor-
training programs for the livestock industry. This organization provides
uniform minimum standards for auditors and audits through education and
training, developing procedures based on best practices and providing animal
science and veterinary professionals an assessment of specific criteria for the
auditing process. It is common for employees who handle livestock at large
meat-processing facilities in the United States to have to be PAACO-certified
before they can perform their duties.
Adequate animal welfare is an important component of producing high-
quality meat, but the public pressure on livestock producers to ensure the
highest standards of production will be driven primarily by those outside of

TABLE 1.5 Criteria and Subcriteria Used in WelfareQuality to Develop an

Overall Animal Welfare Assessment Plan

Criteria Subcriteria
Good feeding 1. Absence of prolonged hunger
2. Absence of prolonged thirst
Good housing 3. Comfort around resting
4. Thermal comfort
5. Ease of movement

Good health 6. Absence of injuries

7. Absence of disease
8. Absence of pain induced by management procedures
Appropriate behavior 9. Expression of social behaviors
10. Expression of other behaviors
11. Good humaneanimal relationship
12. Absence of general fear

From Botreau, R., Veissier, I., Butterworth, A., Bracke, M.B.M., Keeling, L.J., 2007. Definition of
criteria for overall assessment of animal welfare. Animal Welfare, 16 (2), 225e228.
Another random document with
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 ZEVENDE HOOFDSTUK.

In ’t hart van ’t haventje, en op Baanwijk-boulevard,

was plots, tusschen zonnelaat licht en gewoel van
groentekarren, onder kastanjelaan en boomlommer,
vreemd gedruisch van kermiswagens komen
òplawaaien; brokken van tenten, ingangen, poortig-
cirkusachtig beschilderde deuren; warrel van paarden,
tusschen schonkige kerels en meiden,
zigeunerstoeten, overwaaid van vreemden gloed, en
kleur-fel bont gekeer.—Langs de Haven en Baanwijk
ratel-wielden en bonkerhotsten de gloeierige
kermiskarren áán, met de schooierige kerels vóórop,
paardje of ezel vast aan den toom, zwenkend en
kronkelend door havenrumoer en sjacher-gedrang van
venters.

Op de kar-balustrades waggelden morsige vrouwen in

rotplunje, met onooglijke kinders, borst-lurkend.—En
achter, en òm de karren hortte gore nasleep van
beluisde wezentjes, meestrompelend over kei en grint.
—

Onder ’t jongezellen-landvolk van Wiereland furiede

de kerels-uitgelatenheid los, lichtelijk flirtend met
woelig wellustige meiden, brutaal en fel van passie.
Troepjes werkers sprongen in klepperenden
klompendans en boeren-kankan, met beenen-
guitigheid en komieke handgebaren op de meiden
áán, midden op straat, onder erotisch bombardement
van zoenen. Volkje van Wiereland, ’t zuipende
 verhitte, uitbarstende, hoorde van àf de akkers de
meiden gillen en heet schateren, hoorde ’t gewoel van
kermisgangers en daverend belalden ze elkaar, in ’t
voorbijgaan. Ze hoorden geklop, getimmer op de
Haven, door de straten heenhamerend in verwaaid
gerucht, uit tenten en kramen die in ’n paar uurtjes,
geraamte-ribbig en naakt opgegroeid [272]stonden. Ze
hooren ’t lawaai van de kermisrazernij, de vreemde
stemmen en spraken.—’t Zien aandrijven van
schuiten, met ’t kleurig spul van brokken schiettenten,
draaimolens, bont gestraal van zwaar beverfde
schommelbakken, goot scheuten gierende pret over
de popelende kijkers.—

Vreemd getrappel van hitjes uit ’t paardenspel

hoefklakkerde over de Haven, en de kinder-kijkertjes
omkringden, wild en verbluft in verbijstering, de
beesten. Gemompel en gekonkel tusschen de
Wierelanders klonk overal door, al maar over de
kermisjool; wat er zijn zou, wat er wàs, wat ’r komen
ging.

Schetterende voorklank en rauwe jubel van lol,

brachten de straatorgels, twee dagen vóór ’t openen
van kermis,—dertig levende klank-orkanende wezens,
elken ochtend vóór ’t stadhuis bijeenwaggelend in rij,
om van die gewijd-officiëele plek uit, heel Wiereland
van alle kanten vol te roffelen, te betrompetten, te
bepauken in schellen schater en daver, te omgolven
met heet getjink, geraas en gedreun van dooreen
rammelende klanken.—Midden in tragen zwoeg der
landwerkers omdaverden ze de straatjes in hellen joel
en roffel. Soms rammelden drie orgels naast elkaar in
 de deftige Bikkerstraat, in heeten donder van
trombones, de stedekestilte met klankrazernij
verpletterend. Aan de huisjes tingelde ’t den
ganschendag; gingen schuwe armoekinders, in
doorvreten plunje, naakt-beenig en stank-
verwasemend met ’t bakje rond, liepen moeders
achter de draaiorgels áán, in gore ellende van
stoelenmatters-scharrelaars. De wreed-snuitige
kerels, ’t straatorgel verrollend van deur naar deur,
bleven door-draaien onder ’t voortwielen, en in woeste
gluiperigheid knorden hun harige dier-woeste tronies,
snauwen naar wijf en bedelkinders. Als verstrooide
optocht van melaatschen schooierden ze achter
elkaar aan, de klankengekke orgellui. En ’r òm, de
angstig-verschuwde vrouwenhoofden, mottig-wreede
en blondharig, verwilderd-romantische, op zwaren
borsthang kinders sjokkend; en de rossige en zwart-
besnorde boeventronies, van mannen, jukkig gekaakt,
doodelijk uitgeput met schuwen oogenkijk van
gluipende overrompelaars en hongerende dieven; of
zwaar krachtpatserig d’r lijven, in landloopers-
gezondheid, [273]tusschen de wijven, dralend en
bedelend, versmald in den knel hunner rood-vale en
groene misère-jassen.—

Daartusschen in forschten òp, donker bronze kerels,

met koperig ringwerk in d’ooren gedraaid, zwart-
glanzend haar, kleurige doeken om den hals,
melodramatiekerig-romantisch in hun zuidelijk
armoekoloriet, hun tambourijn in knuisgedruisch van
rinkel en bellenzang, met tenoor-beverig
weemoedslied begeleidend.
 En telkens de romantiekerige Mignon-schooiers,
snauwden scherp-radde woordjes neer op de
bedelkindertjes, als kleurige deurtjes van cynische
Bikkerstraters gesloten bleven en bakjes niet meer
kletterden van rondgestrooide centen.

Zoo ging er al twee dagen, voor opening van kermis,

sjofele woel en rondgang in alle Wierelandsche wijkjes
en achterafjes; bleef jubelende klinkklank schetteren
in kleurige deunen; klompklepperden om de orgels al
meer kerels en meiden hun boerenkankan. ’s Avond’s
vooral, als op de drukke, breede Baanwijk, tusschen
duisterende geraamten van tenten en kramen,
vlammig fel licht uitschoot van de winkels, de
stoeiende paren overbeefde in rood-gelen walm, en
kleurige vóórjubel van kermis demonisch tegen de
half-aangegloeide boomstammen oplaaide, schroeide
rond in avondbrio, de duivelsche zeng van
karnavalgloed.

Op de Haven was de voorwoel ’t hevigst. Daar zeilden

en dobberden de schuiten áán, voor den wal.—
Woeste hunkerende jochies, doortrild van
kermisrazernij, smakten zich als wroet-miertjes op de
spul-brokken, van schuitdekken afgevoerd naar
standplaats. En al luider, door den nog drukken sjouw
en markthandel der groenboeren, dwars door vruchten
en voerkarren, ging de gistende kermiswoel.
Werkelooze sjouwjochies en schoolkinders hijgden
onder de vrachten die ze te verdragen kregen,
planken en fundamenten van draaimolens,
vuilkoperen stangen, paarden en ringwerken, staven,
wilde dieren en kleurige lompen. Ze hijgden, met
kramperige pret van aandoening, en dolle lol-stralende
oogen. Ze gierden dat ze zoo vlak bij, in hand-
tastende aanraking leefden met de heilige kermis-
brokken. [274]Ze verbluften elkaar met ’t tillen van al
zwaarder vrachten, en dwars door den
groenboerzwoeg en kroegsjacher, hielpen ze de
vreemde, norsche kermiskerels, die gretig de ventjes
lieten sloven en sjouwen, zich vertillen en half-
verrekken. Want diè merkten den pret-duizel in hun
helle oogen, den groei van hun genot bij elk grooter
stuk dat uit de schuiten opgedragen werd.—En
angstvoller van ontroerende pret, verbreedde de
echtheid van hun kermisvizie, als ze uitzinnig, plots te
dragen kregen, groote brokken dekoratie, bont
schilderwerk, verf-riekende doeken waarop
moordtafreelen bloedden, waarop bulderzeeën
schuimden met lijk-paarse schipbreukelingen,
uitgeteerde weggezonken juffers en meneeren in
nood; waarop kruitdampten, veldslagen van
Transvaal, Boeren in bont rumoer, onder angstige
hemelen, stinkend naar bakolie en gemeene
uitgedroogde verf.—

Met bevend ontzag, staarden ze op de halve lijven van

moordenaars, op den zeebruis en ’t rottende
zwalpende vlot neer, op hakkende Boeren en
doorgevlijmde Engelschen.—

Een groepje droeg ’n griezelig moordtafreel op den

kop, en gestreden werd er hevig, met heerlijken
griezel-angst voor de werkelijkheid der beelden, dat
Jan de beenen had van de moordenaars, en Gijs de
bovendeelen van de schipbreukelingen, Piet de
 geweren van de Boeren, en Toon den grond. En vlak
voor hun oogen gebeurde ’t, al die gruweldingen. In
rillender suggestie liepen de jochies vlak achter elkaar,
staarde de een naar den ander, niet wetend wat ’t
worden ging, als de brokstukken op elkaar ingevoegd
gebouwd stonden. En al meer kermisdingen sjokten
ze áán. Komieke harelekijnen, met streepkleurige
broeken voor schiettent, wapenschilden, kachelpijpen
en hoededoozen. Dan schoot schater los, ontspande
hun angst voor de front-dramatiek der groote kijk-tent.
Al komischer mengeling van grappige en angstige
voorwerpen droegen ze uit, en zóó voelden de jochies
de kermis in hùn gretige pootjes, nu zij hielpen
opzetten en bijeengroepen. De kermisklanten beukten
en vervloekten de kinders, als ze in hun verbijstering
en lol, verkeerd den rommel uitdroegen. Dan joegen
ze de kereltjes plots wèg met ’n woest lippengebrul
om angst te wekken. In bangheidsstuip holden [275]ze
heen naar huizenkant van Haven, tusschen karren en
geboomte doorzwenkend, uit schrik brutaal scheldend
en hoonzwaar uitfluitend de kermisgasten. Zoo van
ver, keken ze dan met stil genot, naar groei en
vleeschwording van al de tenten, draaimolens en
spellen.

Eén breed en hoog lattengeraamte stond er al boven

alles uit, ’n schouwburg waar kerels tot in den nok
hurkend hamerden en klopten, in davering van
scheepstimmerwerf. Schouwburg-geraamte was zoo
vlug verrezen dat de tuinders ’t bijna niet hadden zien
bouwen.—
 Aan stillen kant van ’t haventje, ònder polderdijk,
schooierden bijéén, op ’t hel-groene grasveldje, de
bonte kermiswagens. Als melaatsch menschgroepje
hurkten daar saâm, de verluisde kinders, meisjes en
vrouwen met hangende haren en vervuilde ragebollen.
Hun morsige bloote voeten ploeterden in ’t warm-
zonnige gras.

De wijven daar, met rottende lompen aan ’t slobberig

lijf, zwijnden rond hun kermiskar, en boevige kerels,
rossige en donkere, luierden op de balustraden-
trapjes, pijpen den mondhoek ingebeten, rookten
vadsig in zonnebroei. Rond hen zwirrelde maar ’n
trage warrel van ’t beestig-morsige kinderkriel,
krijschend, joelend, bevuilend ’t grasveld, dat helgroen
vlamde ònder kleurig-melaatschen menschenkluit.

Eén dag vóór de kermis was Augustus-zon weer

doorgevlamd achter wolkgrauw, zette ’t plots
bewoonde, anders doodstille grasveldje, met z’n
stinkende luier-ellende, in groenen lichtdaver, en
kleurenbrand. De fel-bonte kermiskarren, eerst dof en
druilig onder grijs-stugge hemelstolping, blakerden en
vlamden nu òp in ’t gras, de plankige kasten, hard
geel, wreed-fel geel en rauw Zaandamsch
hutjesgroen, féros en wrang in den zeng-gloei van
smoor-dampende Augustuszon.

Rood-bruin de hekjes en balustrades, menierood-helle

pilastertjes en wielspul, kanarie-gele en meloengoûd-
vlammige zijwanden, scharlaken assen-spul en
spaken, zoo gloeiden ze tegen elkaar òp, de kist-lage
kermiskarren, als één brandende kleur-rij, [276]één
braking van rauwen gloed, van ònder zengend ’t gras,
van bòven zengend de lucht, ’t eindeloos-aangroeiend
polderblauw.

Als ’n drom harig begroeide apen kropen de trage

wezens, loom dooréén in den zonneblaker;
kammende wijven, hekserig en brutaal, naakte kinders
en verlompte meisjes. Tusschen blauwig-triest gerook
van kleine straat-kacheltjes, midden op ’t veldje,
hurkten smoezelige tooverkollen met sproetige
zuigelingen. Daar naast rengelden, wijdbeensch-
achterover en lig-zittend ’n paar jonge meiden in
oostersche sfeer van siësta-traagheid, schreeuwend
om beurten tegen ’n stoetje kerels, zwart als
kolenbranders. Tusschen de kacheltjes aan eindhoek,
stonden traag konkelend, donkere kermisgangers in ’t
trillende walm-zwart van den rook, elkaar te
beschelden, en jonge meiden, in verkaalde
fluweelmisere-jakjes,—paarsig en donker
smartenrood, gore restjes van pronk’rige
akrobatenplunje,—scholden méé, woelden zich in de
loshangende ragebollen, omzengd van karren-gloed
en kleurenvlam van knetterend-heeten zonnedag. Al
meer belompte vrouwen waggelden áán uit
miniatuurdeurtjes van karren. ’n Walg-stank van zurige
ellende walmde òp uit de kleur-heete kermisplek. En
vreemd, in Spaansche cier, ging tusschen den
zigeunerigen kleurgloei van hun wagens en rommel ’t
brio van hun versleten opschik en rauwe behaagzucht;
Spaansche cier daar wreed neergeluierd in de
schroei-felle zon, overgolfd van licht, naakt-gezengd in
den dag, versmart en rampzalig in den verbijsterenden
vloek van hun helsch-bonte vurigheid; rampzalig in het
 verzweetende blanketsel van hun cirkuspronk en
passie, overlaaid in zonnigen smoor met de
bloedroode en geel-férose verf van hun huiverig-
opgesmukt, moordend ellende-bestaan.

Vrouwen met bloote borsten sleurden kinderen mee bij

de haren, in de krot-nauwe karren. Andere, spiernaakt,
werden weer de holletjes uitgestooten, schreeuwden
en grienden, vluchtend naar versten hoek van
grasveld. Telkens monsterden nieuwe harige koppen
òp uit de lage wagen-deurtjes, plots wègduikend in ’t
vuil-diepe kamertjes-binnen van kar; verschenen dan
weer, kiekeboeënd in gesprek-schreeuw met
[277]buitenhurkenden.—Ontkleed boenden anderen
zich op ’t gras, tusschen en vóór de wagens, dierlijk
naast elkaar krijscherig doorscheldend.

Van woelige Haven af, klonterden de karren en

menschen in wriemel van kruipende kleuren, onder de
drijvende stilte van polderlucht en land, eindloos wijd-
om. Dìchterbij ronkte de hurrie uiteen, verwalmde
kachelstank en rook, rond stoetjes en rommelige
wagenboedels. Onder de karwielen kropen al meer
klierige kinders uit, met moddertronietjes, zwart-
verbakken, als vervuilde duiveltjes zich opgravend uit
aard-ingewanden. Tusschen de paardjes en
trekhonden vochten ze, en één morsig groepje
ranselde ’n vuil-zinlijk aapje, dat grijnsde en wild
flikkerde met oogenwit, bij elken mep en ruk aan z’n
staart z’n hekserig rimpelkopje nijdig plooide,
doorjeukend met z’n harige handen z’n luizige lijfje,
bedacht tòch op iederen kinder-aanval.
Wild gekonkel ver-ratelde onder de kakelwijven, rauwe
stemmen in alsoortig dialekt, Vlaamsch, Fransch,
Duitsch en Amsterdamsch woordgewarrel; spraak van
wezens die in heete drift van samenbroei maand aan
maand, elkaar al verstonden door stem-intonatie.
Vloeken en dreigementen bulderden rond in plotsen
overgang van zacht-vleierig gesprek, verdoffend in
klankloos geteem.

Achter bassenden en jankenden hondenstoet lagen

jonge meiden in luierkring op d’r buik, op ’t heet-
zonnige gras, de handen ingehaakt onder kin, met
onderbeenen de lucht inzwabberend, zich naakt
schoppend tot den rug. Ze begierden elkaar, groeven
zich vuilnisbelten van zinlijke lol, stootten de handen
onder de kaken wèg, dat hun tronies ’t zengende gras
insmakten. Ze beranselden elkaar in woesten stoei,
dat hun flodderige lompen scheur-risten en kraakten
van de half-naakte lijven. Los de haren over
schouders en ontbloote borsten, droogden ze zich de
zweettronies met d’r onderrokken of gore
hemdfladders.—Een brandende woestijnige hette,
schroeide over den meidenstoet in ’t gloei-gras, dat
schitter-vonkte en hel-groende. Een luiïge loomheid
sufdutte dan plots weer in de snikheete Augustus-
zonning.[278]—En rookige walmbenauwing van de
straatkacheltjes, verwoei wolkerig over hun verstoofde
bloote armen en beenen, en morsige lijven.

Akrobaatkerels en draai-orgelaars schuimden daar

samen met uitgestooten schooiers en landloopers van
den omtrek, bedelaars en manke mirakels, zich veilig
voelend in de boevige broederschap der
 kermisklanten, hinkend en lollend onder de
goochelaars en kijvende waarzegsters.

In Oosterschen gloei zwirrelde tegenover den

meidenstoet ’n vrouwenkeet, afgebeulde kijfkoppen,
waaronder zeerig-beklierde, bevrat en bepokt, met
bloed’rige vlekken onder d’oogen als moordmaskers in
melodrama. Afgezonderd op kachelrand zat één jonge
vrouw, mooi-Carmenachtig gloeiend ’t zwart-blauwe
prachthaar, met ’r droef-verliefde hondenoogen te
staren in de lucht, verwiegelend ’n versnotterden
slapenden zuigeling op d’r knie. Als ’n paar
orgeldraaiers van hun rondgang door ’t stedeke, ’t
grasveld opreden, wuifde en kruifde plots ’n
waaierspel van hel-rooie, blauwe, gele en wit-gore
rokken òp achter de wagens van den meidenstoet,
bradend op den buik in zonnevuur. Dan kwam er
danspassie onder de heksen en jonge meiden,
kiekeboeden wat tronies en halve bovenlijven uit
kardiep, ontblootten zich brokken van kammende en
kleedende armen. En achter de orgeldraaiers liepen
mee, centenophaalsters, donker-harige meiden, slank
en kanaljeus in hun groen en paarse afgesleten
fluweelen lijfjes, vurig met hun kleur-gloeiende
hoofddoeken als zigeunersche kappenbrand van
Spaansche cier op de pracht-donkere haren. En langs
de slanke heupen, tenger en wulpsch-elastisch,
krioelde ’t van kleurige doeken, en om de
meidenschouders vonkte ’t van goudspatjes, vurig
gevlam van roode en groene sjaal-franjes, bonte en
warme cier van zuidelijke passie-beesten. Er ging
geschuifel tusschen de karren bij hun ommetocht, er
verklonk gevloek en gelach op de kar-trapjes, in ’t
 wagendiep, en uit den meidenstoet, met d’r kinnen
ingehaakt op handen, rolden al meer paren wèg, ’t
grasveld òver in brandenden zonnezwijmel.

Geen sterveling van fatsoenlijk Wiereland durfde over

de [279]spoorbrug ’t grasveld op, te gaan kijken naar
den luizentroep, die van verre, stil in eigen sfeer, z’n
brandend brio en traag-geschooier bleef verzwijmelen,
—

Van woeligen havenwal àf, tegenover ’t polderstille

wèggeschuwde zonnige grasveld, stroomde ’t
zonnelicht in kleurigen klots néér op ’t bruin-groene
watertje. In troeb’lige golfjes kabbelden daar in
zonnewiegel, de kleur-zengende kermiskarren,
onderste boven. Ze gloeiden en plasten daar in ’t hel-
bezonde havenwalletje, als met vurig zwam
bestreken; de wijven òmgekeerd met hun roode,
paarse en groen fluweelen rokken, hun vleesch-gore
malots, de blonde en roode kinderragebollen; de
omgekeerde naakte morsige lijfjes; de wagens met
hun rauwen gloed en uitgespuwd verf-bloed, schel
vernist in de Augustus-zeng, strakke trillende
polderhitte en warmtenevel, inzuigend ’t helle licht in
den alkleurigen zongloei, verscherpend de vlam-felle
ommetrekken van karren en wezens, tegen den
blauwenden polderhemel in.

Zoo dreef de melaatsche hellestoet, in vulkaan-

kleurige hevigheid neergezwamd op ’t nat van den
walstroom, zwabberend en verkruivend in de
waterrimpels en ’t golf geklots, omkabbelend pramen,
tjalken en schuit-vervoer. Zoo leefde daar twéé keer,
 brok bestaan van zomersche kermismisere, in de
trage zonnige slaperigheid en den loomen zwijmel van
niets-doen; één keer op ’t doodstille grasveld,
aangeschuimd in de kokende kleur-klater van licht, de
hel-kleurige karrenrij in den smorenden zeng van
zonnedag; àndere keer, in ’t walletje, ’t overgloeide
water, karren en wezens omdraaiend in de spiegeling
van ’t brandende licht, dooreenvloeiend in heeten
kleurenwarrel.

En rondomme van de Haven roffelden de orgels,

snerpten de fluitenaars, trompetten en basten de
registers hun demonischen klankenorkaan, tusschen
rauwen menschenzang en schetter van
kermisinstrumenten. [280]

[Inhoud]

II.

Zwellend gerucht van kermislawaai ging door ’t

stedeke. De orgels bleven doorrazen in valdreun van
joelklanken. Zon bleef gloeien, haalde de Kermis in,
met helle lichtflonkering. In den roes van ’t
orgelgeschetter verkookten de meiden en kerels hun
passie voor nachtpret. Ze beefden verbijsterd onder
dreun, deun en zangschetter, en in bloedbruising
gistten ze ten dans, in wilde extaze, vastgrijpend wat
er voorkwam, de brandende wellustmonden open, om
 telkens op nieuw weg te duizelen in ’t rond, al in ’t
rond, tot ze neerstortten tegen de keien en karren.

Van ’t land en uit de werkerswijkjes kwam sterker

druisch en jubel, op den dag telkens gesmoord. Maar
’s avonds in de stille straatjes, aangehitst door ’t van
verre aanklankende orgelgerucht, barstte de jool òpen
als ’n vuurlong van krater. Hoog spoog de kleurhitte
van hun passie boven huisjes, tenten en boomen, en
gierende zang en zuip van een en anderen kant,
botsten al op elkaar in.

De kanaljeuze meiden van de groentenfabriek, de

groenboerenknapen, de wijven en vrijers, jochies en
kinders, alles trok op, in den nabroeienden
zomeravond, hurkten, hortten en joolden naar de
kermis, de heilige kermis.

Pastoors en dominees waarschuwden plechtiglijk en

star, maar ’n heete hoon-schater van de knapen
raasde hun tegemoet, dat ze zwegen en stom
aftrokken.

Eindelijk dan stond de heele lange Baanwijk-

boulevard vol kramen, tenten en spullen. Ze leek ’n
diepe allée van flonkerende kleuren, schijnsels en
lichtvegen; flonker van poffertjeskraamruiten en
gebrand glas, met kobalt, brons-gouden en rood-
groene sterreling van deuren; flik-flak-zoetige toetsjes
van [281]rose en goud-randige ornamentiek, vèr-
echoënd in kleurigen warrel tusschen vuilig
vergroende spiegels. Overal glom gloei van koperen
bakken en meelpotten, ’n schemer en flonker van
goud en hel licht, tusschen de hooge, lage, dwarse en
hoekige tenten en spullen, aan weerszij, dol van
schitterig bonte fleurigheid.

’s Middags opende de kermis met klein gejoel pas van

kinders, jochies en meisjes, feestelijk opgesmukt in
Zondagsplunje.—

Op havenkant was schorriemorriënder spullenlawaai

saamgedromd; de schelle klingeling en ’t heete
galmend belgeraas van draaimolens, ’t gebons van
karren tusschen ’t eerste gemoker en gedreun van
vaste stàndplaatsorgels, vóór of in de spellen.—
Dienstmeisjes koekeloerden, jongens schaterden en
kinders gilden en sprongen als razende konijntjes,
overal rond.

Tegen den middag was de zon weggebleekt, na de

kermis met fonkel en gouden glans te hebben
ingehaald. Maar zwoel en broeierig bleef
Augustushitte zwangeren uit druilgrauwe lucht, boven
’t woelende stedeke, grauw-paars boven orgelenden
havenwoel en Baanwijk-boulevard.

Dirk, Piet en Rink van den polder, hadden zich voor de

kermis samengevrindschapt, loerend op de meiden
van Grint. Jan Grint, uit eigenbelang, om Guurt meer
te ontmoeten, school bij hèn; Geert en Trijn, Corrie en
Annie weer bij Jàn, om vrijer overal in te draaien en
mee te lollen.—Klaas Koome, de Hazewind, was bij
de nèven Hassel getrokken, half gelokt met ruim geld,
als spotkracht en durfkerel, en om sterker dan zij
durfden, de meiden van Grint naar hèn toe te tronen.
 De meisjes voelden den aandrang van twee kanten,
hurkten bangelijk in den knel. Maar Trijn wou niet dat
Geert d’r hoofd zou breken, om die narigheidjes. Wat
kon hun ’t schelen hoe ’t gaan zou met die vijandelijke
kerels, nou ze zelf overborrelden van heerlijken
kermiswellust. Zou wèl losloopen.

’s Avonds stapten Dirk, Piet en Rink op ’t pad, gingen

ze Jan Grint halen.—’t Speet de meiden dat Jàn niet
bij de nèven hoste, de neven met den loodpot! Maar
Jan was zèker bij [282]Dirk minstens ’n paar keer Guurt
te treffen. Nou moesten de meisjes mee met hèm. Ze
stonden klaar aan de deur, liepen naar voor, naar
achter, popelend zenuwdruk, gejaagd.—

Toen ze de mannen hoorden aanstappen, en de

vooruit schallende schreeuw van hun zangkelen ’t pad
òpklaroende, stapten ze hun huisje uit, zoenden
moeder Grint, vader en kleuters, en volgden vlug de
lustige bazuin-juichende knapen.

Dwars door hobbeligen duinweg, op polderkant aan,

ging ’t los.

Piet, Rink en Dirk joedelden in dolle dwarse sprongen,

Piet nog op z’n klompen, om lekkerder straks te
klakkeren en klos-meppen op de tentplanken.

In slinger-rij, de drie meisjes omarmd-ingehaakt,

zongen ze den duisteren avondweg àf, die zomerstil
lag te suizelen in heimvol geruisch, onder donker
bleek-sterrenglanzend azuur.
Rauw krijschten de kerelsstemmen door den gil’rigen
vrouwenzang, in opgewonden passie ’t kermislied uit.

Arreme frouw en kin.. d’re

Stuurt men noàr de moordenoarskampe haine..
Aooaauuw! waa’t ’n skande
Loage wroak van En-gè-land!

En telkens met iets bloeddorstigs hysterisch in den

nationalen zangkrijsch scheurden door ’t avondstille,
week-golvende duinpad, in zwenk van alle stemmen
plots, de rauwe geluiden bijéén, een sleurige zeil van
gloeiende passie naar ’t refrein:

Aooaauw! waa’t ’n ska-ande!

heel ’n leven van wraak-bloedige dierlijkheid en woede

er in uitbrallend.

Midden op den dwarsweg trad plots ’n donker stoetje,

ook brullend en zangbruisend bijeengehaakt in
slingerrij, woest tegen de Hassels en Grintjes
insliertend. [283]

Ikke sel d’r bai stoan op wè-el en wai!

Deesie.. Deesie!

verkalden daar krollige mannestemmen. En vlak voor

de meisjes hielden stand de zangers, donker-groot in
’t avondduister van duinpad.

—Saa’k stikke! da hai je de maide van Grint, spoog

Willem Hassel er uit, met ’n spatstraal van z’n pruim
tusschen z’n tanden.—
—Kaik! klonk ’t verrast van andere zij, da binne dur
Willem.… Jaa’n.… Henk! en Klaas Koome! telde Piet
vagelijk in ’t duister.

—Kaike?.. Hoasewind! f’rek.… en.… enne.. waa’s dá’

veur ’n snaiboon.… wâ? Bolk, Platneus jai? jài! gierde
Dirk, die eerst nijdig had willen worden maar in
verglijing van bui, in ’n woesten schater schoot.

—Is je waif dur t’met protekollig Ouë, spotte Piet, kèn

d’r dâ ouë bier nog werreke?

De neven Hassel hadden met Klaas Grint afgesproken

dat zij de meiden zouden halen, en nou had de vent
ze toch met die vervloekte klus meegegeven.—

—Saa’k f’rbrande! brulde Willem, daa’s ’n

judaàsstreek, t’met hep ie vaif moal d’r aige sait da
wài.. wài de maide hebbe daa’s kapsies soeke.…

—Die vint hep dur puur gain koorakter.…

—Nou, hoonde Dirk terug, de meisjes naar zich

toesleurend met twee armen tegelijk, wâ motte de
kooters mit sukke koale jasse van doen?

Beefwoedend klonk z’n stem in ’t duister.

—Daa’s net, jai hep ’t op je ruiker, ironiseerde Rink, de

reuzige polderkerel, ’n kittelstreekje onder Geert’s kin
smerend, dat ze schrok.

—Hande thuis, snauwde Geert gemaakt, zich erg in

de knel voelend, nu de andere knapen op ’t donkere
pad daar dreigden.
 —De deftighaid komp! moak ruimte! hoonde Dirk
weer.

—Die heere binne d’r soo ellendig pienter, trampelde

Piet. [284]

Klaas Koome, nù vriend van den guldenszwaren

Hassel, hoonde stekelig en driftig terug, schold op
Kees den „dief”, den moordenaar en strooper,—
Willem gierde wat gemaakt mee bij elken gemeenen
uitflap van Hazewind; dikbullige Jan vloekte pruttelend
en Bolk dwergde onrustig achter de dreigkerels.
Willem drong weer òp.

—He maide.… wâ motte jullie mit ’n vint van wit hoar..

d’r uitfoere? bai sain in de luure? daa’s niks gedaan!
protekollig veur vaif en ’n broer die d’r vaif joar sete
hep!.. s’n aige waif half doodklopt, en s’n aiges
kooters loat f’r hongere!.. en s’n skoonfoar mit ’t mis
kittelt! daa’s de femillie!—Rink reuzigde vóór,
dreigend, valsche schaterlachen verproestend. Maar
de meisjes wouên geen ruzie, voelden zich veel te
lekker in de aanzwellende lol en ’t zanggerucht van de
kermis. Ze snakten er naar. De koppen bij elkaar
gedonkerd fluisterden ze ’n besluit.—

—Hoor rais manne.… zei plots kloek Geert, wai hebbe

d’r vast niks àn,.. aa’s jullie d’r aige skelde en kriefele..
Wai.. wille d’r vast mi de haire meegoan.. aa’t ’t in
frinskap lait! jullie mot d’r malkoar f’rstoan.—

—Daa’s net!

—Juistíg.…