Textbook Large Scale Land Investments in Least Developed Countries Legal Conflicts Between Investment and Human Rights Protection 1St Edition Luis Tomas Montilla Fernandez Auth Ebook All Chapter PDF

Large Scale Land Investments in Least
Developed Countries Legal Conflicts

Between Investment and Human Rights
Protection 1st Edition Luis Tomás
Montilla Fernández (Auth.)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/large-scale-land-investments-in-least-developed-coun
tries-legal-conflicts-between-investment-and-human-rights-protection-1st-edition-luis-t
omas-montilla-fernandez-auth/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Shifting Centres of Gravity in Human Rights Protection

Rethinking Relations Between the Echr Eu and National
Legal Orders Oddny Mjoll Arnardottir
https://textbookfull.com/product/shifting-centres-of-gravity-in-
human-rights-protection-rethinking-relations-between-the-echr-eu-
and-national-legal-orders-oddny-mjoll-arnardottir/
Aviation Security Privacy Data Protection and Other

Human Rights Technologies and Legal Principles 1st
Edition Olga Mironenko Enerstvedt (Auth.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/aviation-security-privacy-data-
protection-and-other-human-rights-technologies-and-legal-
principles-1st-edition-olga-mironenko-enerstvedt-auth/
Chinese Acquisitions in Developed Countries Operational

Challenges and Opportunities Alessandra Vecchi
https://textbookfull.com/product/chinese-acquisitions-in-
developed-countries-operational-challenges-and-opportunities-
alessandra-vecchi/
Reporting Human Rights, Conflicts, and Peacebuilding:

Critical and Global Perspectives Ibrahim Seaga Shaw
https://textbookfull.com/product/reporting-human-rights-
conflicts-and-peacebuilding-critical-and-global-perspectives-
ibrahim-seaga-shaw/
New Technologies For Human Rights Law And Practice 1st
Edition Molly K. Land
https://textbookfull.com/product/new-technologies-for-human-
rights-law-and-practice-1st-edition-molly-k-land/
Human Rights in Child Protection: Implications for

Professional Practice and Policy Asgeir Falch-Eriksen
https://textbookfull.com/product/human-rights-in-child-
protection-implications-for-professional-practice-and-policy-
asgeir-falch-eriksen/
Large Scale Data Handling in Biology Karol Kozak
https://textbookfull.com/product/large-scale-data-handling-in-
biology-karol-kozak/
Human Rights of Older People Universal and Regional

Legal Perspectives 1st Edition Claudia Martin
https://textbookfull.com/product/human-rights-of-older-people-
universal-and-regional-legal-perspectives-1st-edition-claudia-
martin/
The Growth of Firms in Less Developed Countries Lessons

from Kosovo Fadil Sahiti
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-growth-of-firms-in-less-
developed-countries-lessons-from-kosovo-fadil-sahiti/
International Law and Economics
Luis Tomás Montilla Fernández
Large-Scale Land
Investments in
Least Developed
Countries
Legal Conflicts Between Investment and
Human Rights Protection
Series editors
Stefan Voigt, Germany
Anne van Aaken, Switzerland
Andrew T. Guzman, USA
Stefan Oeter, Germany
Joel P. Trachtman, USA
Naigen Zhang, China
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13428
Luis Tomás Montilla Fernández
Large-Scale Land
Investments in Least
Developed Countries
Legal Conflicts Between Investment
and Human Rights Protection
Luis Tomás Montilla Fernández
Institute of Law and Economics
University of Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany
ISSN 2364-1851 ISSN 2364-186X (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-65279-5 ISBN 978-3-319-65280-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65280-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951454
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my Parents,
for their Support
Acknowledgments
I doubt I would have been able to finalise this book without the support of the
following persons and institutions:
Professor Anne van Aaken was more than a supervisor in the mere sense of the
word. Her dedication and enthusiasm supported me throughout each step of the
investigation. My co-supervisor Professor Hans-Bernd Schäffer always had the
time to discuss the smallest details and to inspire me with new ideas.
Dr. Christian Häberli and Professor Christian Kirchner also provided invaluable
comments and constructive criticism during the early stage of this project.
The unconditional support provided by my parents, family, and friends is the
greatest gift anyone has ever given me. I would also like to thank my colleagues
from the Institute of Law and Economics in Hamburg for our numerous interesting
discussions, their scholarly input and willingness to correct my English, and their
reassuring support in times of self-doubt.
The financial contributions of the German Research Foundation (Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft), the Institute of Development Studies at the University
of Sussex, and the Dispute Settlement in Trade: Training in Law and Economics
(DISSETTLE) enabled me to conduct field research in Ghana and to pursue further
research at the University of Accra, UC Berkeley, Columbia University, and the
University of St. Gallen. I am grateful to all these institutions for their support.
October 2015 Luis Tomás Montilla Fernández

Munich, Germany
vii
Contents
1 Introductory Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Relevance of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Problems Approached in This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 International Legal Conflicts Related to LSLIs: State
of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Research Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 Research Tools for Theorizing LSLIs from a Law
and Economic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Overview and Structure of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 What Is ‘Land Grabbing’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Framing ‘Land Grabbing’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.1 General Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.2 Relevant Actors: States and Foreign Investors . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.3 Legal Instruments: Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3 Intermediate Result: LSLI Impact on Local Populations’
Property Rights and the Right to Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3 International Law Conundrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2 International Law: A Unified Whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3 Emergence of Legal Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.4 Influence of Soft Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4.1 General Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4.2 Soft Law Instruments Relevant in the Context of LSLIs . . . 89
ix
x Contents
3.5 International Human Rights Protection for Local Populations

in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.5.1 The Right to Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5.2 The Right to Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.5.3 Relationship Between the Violation of the Right
to Property and the Right to Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.5.4 Standards of Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.5.5 Legal Capacity in Proceedings Before International
Courts of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.5.6 Enforcement Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.6 International Investment Law and the Protection of Investors
in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.6.1 Mechanisms of Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.6.3 Who Can Violate the Investors’ Property Rights? . . . . . . 163
3.6.4 Legal Capacity in Proceedings Before International
Investment Tribunals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.6.5 Enforcing the Right to Property in Investment Law . . . . . 164
3.7 Human Rights Protection Vis-a-Vis International Investment
Law Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.7.1 Common Aspects of the Two Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.7.3 Standi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.7.4 Enforcement Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.7.5 Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.8 Intermediate Result: International Legal Context Leads
to Opportunistic Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4 Opportunism in LSLI Contracts: An Economic View . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.2 New Institutional Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.2.1 Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.2.2 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.2.3 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.3 Opportunism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.3.1 General Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.3.2 Opportunism in LSLIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.3.3 Expressions of Opportunism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.4 Opportunism in Principal-Agent Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.4.2 PAT and Agricultural Law & Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.4.3 PAT Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.4.4 Identifying Sources of Opportunism: Principal-Agent
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Contents xi
4.4.5 Property Rights Approach: Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

4.4.6 Tackling Opportunism Through PAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.5 Opportunism in Synallagmatic Contractual Relationships:
A Contract Theory Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.5.2 Contract Theory in LSLIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.5.3 Applying Contract Theory in LSLIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.6 Intermediate Result: Control Mechanisms to Tackle Opportunism
Are Needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5 Tackling Opportunism in LSLIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.2 Unilateral Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.2.1 By States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.2.2 By Investors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.3 Contract-based Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.3.2 Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.3.3 Types of Contractual-based Control Mechanisms . . . . . . 280
5.4 Arbitrators as Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.4.2 The Need to Limit Arbitrators’ Discretional Power . . . . . 298
5.4.3 Limiting Arbitrators’ Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.5 External International Actors as Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . 306
5.5.1 Judicial Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.5.2 Extra-Judicial Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
5.6 Intermediate Result: Market Mechanisms as a Potential
Starting Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
5.7 Important Case: State Emergency Under the Presence
of LSLIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.7.2 Applicable Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.7.3 Intermediate Result: Potential Judicial Outcomes
if Famines are Hardly Foreseeable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Acronyms
ACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights

ADB African Development Bank
ARSIWA Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful
Acts
Banjul African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
Charter
BIT Bilateral Investment Treaty
CAT Committee Against Torture
CEDAW Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women
CERD Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination
CESCR Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
CIL Customary International Law
CMW Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers
and Members of Their Families
CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child
CRPD Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
CT Contract Theory
CWFS Committee on World Food Security
EACJ East African Court of Justice
EC European Commission
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
ECtHR European Court of Human Rights
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FET Fair and Equitable Treatment
FIAS Foreign Investment Advisory Service
xiii
xiv Acronyms
GDP Gross Domestic Product

HR Human Rights Committee
Committee
HRC Human Rights Council
HRL Human Rights Law
HRs Human Rights
ICARRD International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural
Development
ICC International Criminal Court
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
IACHR Inter-American Court of Human Rights
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICSID International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
IFC International Finance Corporation
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IGO Inter-governmental Organisation
IIA International Investment Agreement
IIL International Investment Law
IL International Law
ILC International Law Commission
ILO International Labour Organisation
IMF International Monetary Fund
IO International Organisation
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LCIA London Court of International Arbitration
L&E Law and Economics
LDCs Least Developed Countries
LSLI Large-scale Land Investment
MAI Multilateral Agreement on Investment
MIA Multilateral Investment Agreement
MFN Most Favoured Nation
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NCP National Contact Points
NGO Non-governmental Organisation
NHRI National Human Rights Institutions
NIE New Institutional Economics
NPM Non-precluded Measures
NT National Treatment
OHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
PAT Principal-agent Theory
PCA Permanent Court of Arbitration
PPT Positive Political Theory
RC Rational Choice
Acronyms xv
SADC Southern African Development Community

TTIP Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership
UDHR The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UN United Nations
UNCAC United Nations Convention Against Corruption
UNCAT Convention Against Torture
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on International Trade Law
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties
WFP World Food Programme
WTO World Trade Organisation
List of Figure
Fig. 4.1 Bundles of property rights. Source: Prepared by the author . . . . . . . 228
xvii
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Access to justice in HRL and IIL in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Table 3.2 Allocation of HRL and IIL enforcement mechanisms
in Africa .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 185
Table 3.3 Remedies in HRL and IIL enforcement mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Table 4.1 Types of opportunism at different negotiation levels
in LSLI contracts . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . 215
Table 5.1 Findings of previous chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
xix
Chapter 1
Introductory Part
1.1 Relevance of This Book
The rationale for this book is based on the increasing relevance of agricultural
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) as a political priority for the global investment
agenda since 2008. FDI has been promoted by the international community as a tool
to improve food security and the production of biofuels. It is also expected that
agricultural FDI will have positive effects on poverty reduction and development.
Repercussions of expanded agricultural FDI include conflicts in the area of inter-
national law (IL).
This study is also motivated by the existing problems of land governance in
some least developed countries (LDCs) created by the lack of proper protection of
property rights. The study offers an in-depth Law and Economics (L&E) analysis
that elucidates to what extent IL can incentivise relevant stakeholders to mitigate
associated negative effects.1 Agricultural FDIs often involve a changeover in the
ownership of land. This is a sensitive economic and social issue in some African
countries as more than 60% of the population are small-scale farmers who depend
on the land for their livelihoods. Land tenure is linked to access to food, and also
represents social privilege.2 Aside from the highly polarised discussions surround-
ing large-scale land investments (LSLIs) by foreign investors in LDCs, there is a
persistent concern in academia about the lack of knowledge and expertise in the
area of agricultural FDI. One explanation may be that the scarcity of land invest-
ment in the previous decades made it a less pertinent issue.3 While other disciplines
1
On the weak situation of property rights in Africa see: Heltberg (2002), p. 189; Framework and
Guidelines on Land Policy in Africa and also Amanor (2012).
2
Source: The World Bank (2016).
3
Moran (2011) broadly analyses diverse types of FDI, however specific agricultural FDI are not
considered. See: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Contract Farming
(FAO 2001), p. 1. See additionally: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, World
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

L.T. Montilla Fernández, Large-Scale Land Investments in Least Developed
Countries, International Law and Economics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65280-1_1
2 1 Introductory Part
have seen more in-depth LSLI research, legal scholars have paid less attention to
these questions and their implications for land governance, IL, and legal
fragmentation.4
To ensure good governance, it is extremely important to guarantee patterns of
broad-based development. Hence, participation and consensus, effectiveness and
efficiency, transparency and accountability, lack of corruption, rule of law, equal-
ity, stability, and freedom are considered fundamental to this process.5 Social
scientists have concluded that the lack of a minimum level of governance and
legitimacy produces discontent within the population affected by agricultural FDI.6
Such a situation frequently leads to civil unrest in which the affected population
may seek government intervention to address the problems of food security,
undernourishment, unemployment, or other negative consequences of the invest-
ments that interfere with their fundamental rights, such as the right to education,
work, and housing.7 Some opinions highlight the risks associated with LSLIs
mainly because of how they operate.8 In some cases LSLIs entail a prohibitive
social cost when the particularities of the projects are not addressed in the national
investment framework. Studies on other kinds of FDI have shown that foreign
investments can be positive, but in addition to FDI, the domestic institutional
framework may need to be reconsidered in order to achieve the proposed develop-
mental goals of host countries.9
The international dimension of LSLIs also motivates this research project. There
is a transnational element to investments involving public and private economic
actors that are frequently protected by international investment law (IIL) through
international investment agreements (IIAs). Thus in some cases, violations of the
right to property and food are related to the performance of LSLIs. This occurs, for
instance, in contexts where traditional rights systems have been affected by de facto
expropriations without appropriate, or any, compensation. Some NGOs have
become specialists in the area of LSLIs and have illustrated this phenomenon by
reporting, for example, that 22,000 people were displaced in Uganda after their land
Investment Report 2009. Transnational Corporations, Agricultural Production and Development

(World Investment Report 2009, 2009); Vermeulen and Cotula (2010), p. 13.
4
Probably the only legal scholar that has developed a research agenda on LSLIs is Lorenzo Cotula.
Here are some of his contributions: Cotula et al. (2009); Cotula (2010a); Vermeulen and Cotula
(2010). Cotula has also analysed the instruments used to perform the investments: Cotula (2011).
5
Deininger et al. (2011), p. 95. Governance is seen as one of important requirements to achieve the
expected social and development goals of NGOs. See i.e.: Pinstrup-Andersen and Watson
(2011), p. 246.
6
Seminally, see the following publication: Williamson (1996). For more concrete literature
focussing on LSLIs investment we refer to: Deininger et al. (2011), p. xxvii.
7
See i.e. some of the media reports: The Economist; The Guardian; Bach (2010). See also this
article that refers to the opinion of Nigerian Parliament.
8
von Braun and Meinzen-Dick (2009); De Schutter (2011), p. 249; Borras et al. (2011), p. 209.
9
For a study on the effects of NGOs on different economic sectors see the seminal contributions
by: Moran (2006, 2011).
1.2 The Problems Approached in This Book 3
was sold to a British company for timber production.10 Locals have also been
displaced in the Gambella region of Ethiopia.11 Similar cases have also been
reported in other African countries such as Tanzania,12 Sierra Leone,13 and
Zambia.14
Agricultural FDI has been promoted at the domestic and international level as a
panacea for poverty-related problems, which is the most prominent cause of hunger
in LDCs. It has taken centre stage in political discourse in recent years.15 This line
of argument has contributed to the international community’s tolerance for wrong-
ful acts, including human rights (HRs) violations justified under the pretext of
development and global food security. In this sense this topic is relevant since it
appears that neither national law nor IL have been able to provide appropriate
remedies when such rights infringements occur.
1.2 The Problems Approached in This Book
1.2.1 Overview
This study analyses LSLIs made by foreign investors for agricultural purposes in
Africa’s LDCs from a L&E perspective.16 It examines the protective mechanisms
that IL provides to hold investors accountable when HRs of third parties are
violated. More specifically it is about an explicit kind of FDI (large-scale acquisi-
tions of land with agricultural purposes) and their relationship with Human Rights
Law (HRL), which is functionally analysed through the lens of L&E methodology.
The very reason that this study focuses on this topic is because IL is fragmented and
is frequently unable to hold investors accountable.
10
Al Jazeera.
11
The Oakland Institute (2011a).
12
The Oakland Institute (2011b).
13
The Oakland Institute (2011a).
14
The Oakland Institute (2011c).
15
See, for example, the Ethiopian government’s invitation to investors from India to invest in
Ethiopia: Varadarajan (2011).
16
We rely on the UN’s definition of LDCs, low-income countries suffering from the most severe
structural impediments to sustainable development. These handicaps are manifested in a low level
of human resource development and a high level of structural economic vulnerability. The criteria
for defining a country as a LDCs can be found at: United Nations (2016).
1.2.2 International Legal Conflicts Related to LSLIs: State

of the Art
A rapid increase of LSLI began to be reported by NGOs and International Organi-

sations (IOs) in 2008.17 The reports considered this increase to be a reaction to the
food and financial crises dominating global markets during 2008 and 2009.18 Land
markets were stimulated by national policies bringing about a process whereby host
states, most of them LDCs, transmitted property rights by selling or leasing land for
long periods (up to 99 years) to private and public investors.19 These policies aimed
at increasing the production of food commodities for global markets and obtaining
raw materials for the production of biofuels. In economic terms these policies
entail, in some cases, the creation, stimulation, or reactivation of land markets in
LDCs in order to offer attractive development opportunities. Development oppor-
tunities predominantly arose in four areas: infrastructure, jobs, technology, and
knowledge. All factors led to higher agricultural efficiency and thus increased
overall food security.20 Ideally investors would reclaim fallow or underused land
at low prices. The local population would benefit through both direct and indirect
effects, such as new jobs, food security, and better infrastructure. Such a win–win
situation would improve the condition of all affected parties.
The stimulation of land markets that entails the transmission of property rights is,
from an economic point of view, highly welcome. Under free market conditions it
makes possible the efficient allocation of resources and therefore an increase in
productivity. From a narrow contractual point of view, it supposes a relationship
between the sovereign state and the investor with expected positive effects for third
parties. This approach assumes that the local population might benefit from a redef-
inition of property rights, the improvement of domestic food security, and the increase
in the supply of global food and energy markets. This means that governments, as
representatives or social delegates, sign contracts with foreign investors that might
directly benefit the local population and, indirectly, also the population abroad. In
many LDCs where agricultural activities are the most important economic sector, such
investment contracts are considered to be the most important instruments to promote
development at the household level. Local governments consider these investments to
be a unique opportunity to achieve high levels of economic development since the
land that is being used for this purpose was underused by previous tenants or was
non-productive state property. IOs like the World Bank and the Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FAO) see these types of investment as a way to incentivise local
economies and promote development.21
17
The first relevant report written on this issue was: GRAIN (2008).
18
De Schutter (2011), p. 249; von Braun (2010), p. 299; OECD (2008).
19
A more detailed description of the deals at Sect. 2.3.
20
Häberli (2012).
21
FAO (2008) at para 2; Deininger et al. (2011), 34 ff.
IIAs22 play a predominant role as a mechanism designed to balance risks that are
virtually omnipresent in negotiations involving LDCs. IIAs are inter-state treaties
especially designed to mitigate political risks. They provide investors coming from
both signatory states with a higher level of legal security because23 they have great
variance, but they typically guarantee the principle of non-discrimination, Fair and
Equitable Treatment (FET), protection against expropriation, and a neutral forum
for adjudication in the event of such matters arising. Domestic courts are excluded
in the vast majority of cases. IIAs can be considered a means of activating IL
without exhausting domestic remedies.
In well-functioning states the transmission of property rights, for instance as a
result of LSLI, is protected by legal institutions. These institutions create incentives
for contracting parties to reduce the negative effects for third parties while simul-
taneously incentivising third parties to enforce their rights when they are infringed
upon.24 Nevertheless in some jurisdictions the institutional environment is not able
to create such incentives for third parties to enforce their rights against the unex-
pected or unwilled effects of investments. If effective institutions are perhaps
missing in national law, IL is expected to provide institutions that allow states to
prevent investments from affecting the rights of third parties, or to provide remedies
where the existence of damages can be shown.
This is all happening in the context of a worldwide process of economic
integration in which legal and economic actors are interacting with asymmetric
information and, therefore, asymmetric bargaining power. In some exceptional
cases, it seems to be problematic that neither national law nor IL are able to create
appropriate incentives for LSLIs to generate the expected results. Even though the
differences between the actors involved in the global market are well known, the
fact that they are carrying out transactions demanding land, which is an essential
good for the subsistence of populations in LDCs, has produced a wave of strong
reactions. This issue can be illustrated by two examples. The first example is drawn
from a jurisdiction in which private property rights are protected, the second where
there is no protection of property rights.
In 1990 the Ugandan government began a series of land reforms to increase
productivity and reduce national poverty. This project was monitored by FoodFirst
22
In the framework of this book the term IIAs follows the approach of the UNCTAD that denotes
that: ‘Professional Trade and Investment Agreements (PTIAs) refer to a variety of different
international arrangements, including free trade agreements, regional trade agreements, economic
framework agreements, economic partnership agreements, new-age partnership agreements, eco-
nomic complementation agreements, agreements for establishing a free trade area and closer
economic partnership arrangements. PTIAs, however, do not include BITs. The term ‘Interna-
tional Investment Arrangements’ (IIAs) includes both PTIAs and BIT.’ FAO (2012).
23
This statement is made under the premise that IIAs were signed between developed and
developing countries. IIAs offer better legal security to investors investing in developing
countries.
24
On the role on institutions in creating incentives in order to achieve proposed goals see the
seminal work by: North (1990).
Information and Action Network (FIAN), which released its first report in 2009.25
The restructuring project included legal reforms such as the Investment Code of
1991, which was adopted by the Investment Authority and designed to comply with
the demands set by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.26
In 2000 the government initiated a ‘Poverty Eradication Plan’, which was the
foundation for a new state agricultural policy. The government chose specific
regions to initiate the plan and entered into negotiations with foreign investors.
Even though national law imposed a ban on selling land to foreign investors, the
expropriation of property from nationals was sometimes followed by the granting of
long-term rent contracts to foreign companies on the same properties. The most
recent report on this project was made in 2009.27 It informs us that most of those
evicted are still living on the periphery of the plantations, and it remains uncertain
whether they will be allowed to stay there. No compensation has been made to the
locals for their loss of livelihood, and no political will demonstrated to give them
back their land. The government has not recognised the protection of their tradi-
tional land despite existing legal provisions and regulations in the Land Act 1998
that recognises traditional ownership and the duty of the government to properly
compensate in expropriations.28 The Act also regulates cases in which illegal
occupations take place. In these cases the statute of limitations is set at 12 years
for initiating any legal action. The prescription of the term of 12 years gives the
occupants the right not to be unwillingly displaced because occupants are bona fide
occupants in such cases. Cases have been reported where 2% of displaced locals
received compensation. Nevertheless it has often been the case that they were
allocated less land than they held in the past.
A second scenario given for consideration is set in Ethiopia, where the state is the
owner of the land. This was reaffirmed by the constitutional reform carried out in
1994.29 It included the right of farmers to obtain free land, gave protection from
eviction, gave rights to pastoralists, and provided for compensation in the case of
expropriation. The Federal Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation
89/1997 grants power to local governments to manage their lands.30 Even though the
25
Graham et al. (2008).
26
This in the framework of the so-called ‘Washington Consensus’ that as explained by John
Williamson describe a set of policy prescriptions that constituted the ‘standard’ reform package
promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington D.C.-based institutions such as
the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and the US Treasury Department. Source:
Williamson.
27
Graham et al. (2008), p. 34.
28
Uganda Land Act (No. 16 of 1998) An Act to provide for the tenure, ownership and management
of land; to amend and consolidate the law relating to tenure, ownership and management of land;
and to provide for other related or incidental matters. Uganda Gazette No. 41, 2 July, 1998, Acts
Supplement No. 11, pp. 1–83.
29
Constitution of Ethiopia LEX-FAOC129684 [1994] art 40.3.
30
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclama-
tion (No. 456/2005) art 5.
land is owned by the state, the terms expropriation and compensation are used and
applied where tenants had acquired rights through their possession of the land.31 The
history of resettlement and villagisation in Ethiopia gains new relevance with the
introduction of new investments. This is not the first time Ethiopia has dealt with these
issues. It seems, however, that the dimensions of these new investments are much
broader than in the past. To take just one example of a widespread occurrence,
indigenous landowners in the region of Gambella were evicted and now face the
problem of a lack of food. In almost every case, the occupancy of land is not supported
by any kind of documentation or cadastre, making it difficult to prove or demonstrate
any rights locals may have acquired during the period of time they occupied or made
use of the land. Compensation—one relevant issue that has been reported in Ethio-
pia—may be provided in cases of forced displacement. According to information
provided by the Ethiopian government, however, this has never taken place.32 More-
over, rules on compensation are based on the condition that affected farmers should be
able to prove, by way of legal title, their rights to the land. Even though at a
constitutional level the right to land is ensured even if land titles do not exist, the
procedures of expropriation and compensation apply only if a legal title exists. Thus in
most cases in which indigenous peoples are affected, the expectation to be compen-
sated is, in fact, very low. Since land registration is almost non-existent in Ethiopia, the
state has enormous discretionary power to distribute and redistribute land.
A common denominator in these examples is the fact that affected people are
unable to enforce their rights. Only two examples were given in order to draw a
general picture and make the issue more comprehensible in terms of what the
specialised literature means when it refers to the phenomenon of ‘land grabbing’.
The aim of this research project will not be to provide a proper definition of land
grabbing. The literature uses this term in a rather opaque and unclear way that could
bias a well-intentioned academic approach. Beyond this opacity the broad, complex,
and far-reaching scope of the issue would probably lead us to fail. It is sufficient for
us to mention some of the most common occurrences of the phenomenon. This will
facilitate the construction of a solid starting point for this research project.
In a first category of cases, conflicts arise due to uncompensated expropriations,
development-induced displacements, as well as the impossibility of demonstrating
the ownership of land due to the lack of a cadastre. In a second category of cases,
governments sell land that, even though it formally belongs to the state, has been in
the possession of individuals and communities for many years (in this case land
possessors are not considered owners). In a third category of cases, conflicts arise
when investments lead to a change in the use of land. In most cases land that was
used to produce food is converted to land used for the production of biofuels.33
31
Ibid.
32
Tekle; The Oakland Institute (2011b); Fisseha (2012).
33
See for example the selection of following articles that make reference on these issues:
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung, Entwicklungspolitische
Positionierung zum Thema: Großlchige Landk€ aufe und - pachten in Entwicklungsl€
andern - “Land
Aside from the costs associated with the transmission of property rights, the main
problem seems to be that affected individuals are unable to enforce their rights.
Prima facie the growth of LSLIs by foreign investors may not be a bad idea.
After all, the process of privatisation is not an uncommon state policy and has been
successful in other places. In many sectors privatisation is implemented in order to
remedy efficiency problems that arise when services are run by the state. There are
states in which public services such as water, gas, electricity, public transportation,
road tolls, and infrastructure projects are allocated to private actors with the
expectation of better services and increased access to these services. Privatisation,
however, can increase the complexity of certain situations. When private actors are
bound to provide services that are essential for a well-functioning state and for the
fulfilment of the state’s pre-established obligations at the international level, the
relationship between the state and private actors is blurred. As an example, although
privatisation agendas are not necessarily introduced as a means to fulfil interna-
tional HRs obligations, in many cases this role cannot be avoided.34 The private
sector contributes to the fulfilment of HRs obligations. This means that states tacitly
delegate the fulfilment of their HRs responsibilities to private hands.35 From a legal
point of view this creates a stronger relationship between the different legal
jurisdictions and legal regimes at the domestic and international levels as they
become increasingly interdependent. This interdependence occurs because the
fulfilment of HRs obligations that are initially given to states in the framework of
HRL in fact now depend on private actors. Even though private actors are required
to fulfil HRs obligations traditionally given to states, there is no extra-contractual
mechanism to enforce HRs that were infringed by investors since they are governed
by a different legal regime, namely that of IIL. It can be expected, therefore, that in
well-functioning states governments need to create coordination mechanisms to
garner the economic benefits from investment while also fulfilling their HRs
obligations. If investments produce unexpected externalities, questions regarding
the applicability of appropriate national law or IL might arise since investors are not
accountable under the international HRL framework.36
At the international level, this can lead to a conflict between the norms of these
two jurisdictions. The analysis of the conflict between these norms and the
Grabbing” (2009), p. 8; von Braun and Meinzen-Dick (2009); von Braun (2010), p. 299; GRAIN;
Graham et al. (2011); Deng (2011).
34
This statement is an implication of the obligations states have regarding the protection and
promotion of human rights. With regard to states’ obligations and the role of transnational
corporations see: Stiglitz (2007), p. 451; as well as Human Rights Council (2011a). For the
same line of argumentation see Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Representative of
the Secretary-General on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other
business enterprises (A/HRC/8/5/Add2, 2011).
35
For a similar view see: Principles for Responsible Agricultural Investment that Respects Rights,
Livelihoods and Resources [2010] available <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/
214574-1111138388661/22453321/Principles_Extended.pdf> accessed 25 December 2013.
36
On the responsibility of multinational enterprises see at footnote: 34.
potentially detrimental effects is not novel in IL.37 Conflict between the positive
norms of different legal jurisdictions has been identified and analysed in the legal
literature under the theoretical framework of legal fragmentation.38 In light of this,
legal scholars have been analysing the relationship and potential conflicts between
IIL and other legal areas in order to find a way to offer balanced legal security
between the protections offered by IIL and other legal jurisdictions, such as HRs or
environmental law.39
In well-functioning states investment contracts have specific norms that, in
addition to guaranteeing investors’ rights, ensure that certain HRs-related goals
are also fulfilled. However, there is increased complexity in investor-LDC relation-
ships due to the weak institutional environment that affects contractual design,
which in turn produces high enforcement costs in the case of non-performance. A
weak institutional framework makes possible the misallocation of contractual
incentives to achieve pre-established goals and ensures that promises and extra-
contractual obligations remain unfulfilled.40 Even though it is not expected, nor
even conceivable, that contractual parties foresee all future events affecting the
contractual relationship, ignored negative effects that were either foreseeable or
strategically planned by the contractual parties are highly problematic. They
become even more problematic due to the regulatory restrictions of states from
IIAs. If investment contracts do not create proper incentives to achieve
pre-established HRs-related goals, a host of legal conflicts may arise if investors
infringe a third party’s rights that are protected by a different legal jurisdiction, and
enforcement for affected legal subjects is prohibitively costly.41 Investment con-
tracts may produce negative side effects for third parties. When negative side
effects occur, governments frequently do not have the incentive to take the neces-
sary steps to protect third parties under their jurisdiction. This leads to the question
of whether the affected third parties can or should intervene in the contractual
relationship so that damages can be avoided or repaired. In order to clarify this
introductory question and lay a more detailed foundation for the introduction of our
37
As we will show in this book, this issue has been broadly covered by the ILC in its study about
the fragmentation of International Law. Simma and Kill (2009). For a study approaching the norm
conflicts and its effects on governance: ILC (2006).
38
The most relevant contribution regarding fragmentation of international law was made by the
ILC. The Commission proposed ways to avoid the further fragmentation and to deal with cases
where fragmentation is relevant. See: ILC (2006); Pauwelyn (2003).
39
Some of the most relevant contributions dealing with fragmentation in the law and economic
literature are: ILC (2006); van Aaken (2006); Benvenisti and Downs (2007), p. 595; Trachtman
(2008); Pauwelyn (2003); van Aaken (2009), p. 483; Pauwelyn.
40
For a contribution reviewing the economic literature on the relationship between corruption,
agrarian policies and development see: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,
Intellectual Property Provisions in International Investment Arrangements (UNCTAD/WEB/ITE/
IIA/2007/1 2007). For a theorisation of the role of institutions for development see: Bardhan
(1997), p. 1320; Raeschke-Kessler and Gottwald (2008), p. 588.
41
The report of the ILC offers an explanation about the source of legal conflicts arising due to the
existence of legal fragmentation. See footnote: 37.
research topic, we offer a brief analysis of how third-party enforcement works at the
national and international level.
1.2.2.1 Framing a Legal Mechanism for Third-Party Enforcement
The first issue that needs to be examined in order to elucidate to what extent
affected individuals can enforce presumably infringed rights is the legal link
between the affected third party and the contractual parties. This is necessary in
order to establish a legal interest and activate legal mechanisms that make it
possible to build a legal claim. The legal link is given by the fact that the contractual
relationship between the state and the investor facilitates the infringement of the
protected rights of third parties. This problem is by no means exclusive to IIL. It
also happens frequently in everyday contractual relationships.42 Samuel Williston
affirmed this in his study published in the Harvard Law Review (1902) with such
conclusiveness that one of the most discussed issues in contract law in national
jurisdictions is whether a third party has any rights in a contract that is signed by
others but benefits them.43 One cannot always consider LSLI contracts to be
beneficial to third parties because specific promises of effects for third parties are
missing. It is this point that causes problems, at least from the point of view of the
adjudication of property rights.44 The conflict of interest arises from the simulta-
neous transmission of rights and duties while the property rights in question belong
to a person who is not a party to the original contract.
The consequences of the contract for the third party could be positive or
negative. Where they are positive, the effects of the contract benefit the third
party. In economics literature negative consequences are known as negative exter-
nalities, and the human behaviour or activity that allows such effects to arise is
known as opportunism. Ergo, there might be a relationship between opportunism
and negative externalities.45 When the third party is harmed, it is expected that legal
institutions provide protection to ensure that the third party can enforce their
infringed property rights. The legal protection of these rights does not emanate
from contract law (because the third party is not part of the contract) but stems from
the fact that property rights are protected by special national law. Therefore, the
legal actions available to a third party to uphold their property rights and the
contractual effects of such legal action are marginal. Third parties have standi
because property rights have been infringed, not because a contract has been signed.
42
Concerning the problematic of third-party enforcement and the potential inclusion of counter-
claim clauses in international treaties see: ILC (2006).
43
Williston (1902), p. 101.
44
Even though Williston exemplified the problems by using the transmission of property rights, it
does not exclude its applicability in other legal areas and the conflicts with other protected rights.
45
On opportunism see infra at: 4.3.
The discussion offered by Williston addresses the literature in two different

ways. First it focuses on the recognition of third parties as legitimate subjects who
can intervene in a contractual relationship. Second it sets out the necessary legal
policies that need to be implemented so that the gap between the dogmatic and the
legal policy aspects can be minimised. At the domestic level, the historical treat-
ment of these discussions has been different, varying from legal system to legal
system. Nevertheless, civil and common law systems have a unified criteria for the
legitimation of a third party to exercise legal actions when a contract has a negative
impact on their property rights.46 At the international level, the discussion about
prosecution structures allowing possible enforcement through third parties has
gained relevance. These models are seen as part of the construct to strengthen the
link between governance and enforcement. It has also produced competence
between adjudicating institutions and ‘traditional’ mechanisms existing beyond
arbitrators, as well as between the different arbitration institutions themselves.47
Third parties have standi when their legal personality and their right to property
are recognised.48 In a well-functioning legal system harmed third parties are
endowed with the ability to enforce their rights. Therefore, contracting parties
will have incentives to take these considerations into account during the negotiation
process so that they minimise the risk of producing damages, at least up to the point
where they cannot internalise them. This means that contractual parties will be
willing to internalise potential damages (i.e. through compensation) but only up to a
level where the difference between the gains and losses is zero.
At the international level enforceability for individuals is very costly because
access to judicial remedies is limited. Individuals are considered legal subjects only
in exceptional cases and therefore their right to initiate legal disputes is restricted.
Therefore, when such a situation arises it is difficult to fulfil the minimal require-
ments for legal adjudication. IIL does not recognise individuals to be legitimately
able to enforce their rights. Consequently, infringements are almost unenforceable.
One could argue that parties assume that national jurisdictions of the contracting
state will be accessible to those actors affected by the investment activity. This
point of view is not wrong, since national constitutions and laws protect such rights.
However, problems arise if national laws fail, as oftentimes happens in LDCs. In
46
Williamson (1985); Williston (1902), p. 101, 773.
47
See, i.e., the contribution of Dammann and Hansmann that makes an analysis on the institutional
competence between the two system and highlights the difficulties that courts in weak jurisdictions
have given the fact that they have the tendency to be corrupt, slow and inept. The possibility that
the parties can turn to a stronger jurisdiction contributes to the stimulation of markets that allow
actors to access the principled adjudication mechanism needed to support contractual relations.
Dammann and Hansmann (2006). See also: Bayer (1995).
48
The considerations made here concerning a contract for the benefit of a third person are offered
in a general way. It is not our intention offer an in-depth discussion about this institution. It is used
in a more descriptive way to explain the legal link between a contract and third parties. Our
intention is to show how legal institutions at the national level might work when the property rights
of a third person are affected through the signature of a contract.
spite of this, the law must resolve failures that arise when contractual parties cause
damage to third parties. Seemingly, however, there is no legal structure in place to
make contractual parties accountable in third-party HRs violations.49
Let us consider the following illustrative example. State S and investor I are
negotiating an investment contract.50 The object of the contract is the sale of land for
agricultural purposes. For reasons of liquidity, it is impossible for S to compensate
the actual landowners who will eventually be evicted. Therefore, S and I agree that
I will compensate the displaced people immediately after signing the investment
contract. S and I close the negotiation, sign the contract, the land is expropriated, and
the people are displaced; but I does not fulfil its obligation to compensate them.
Applying the described considerations, at the domestic level the harmed third
parties would be able to enforce their property rights and make the reparation of
damages enforceable. If one looks at the jurisdiction of IIL, even though it is
applicable to the regulation of the investment activity of I in S, third-party individ-
uals cannot enforce their property rights because they do not fulfil the requirements.
In this case they are not recognised as legal subjects. Therefore, IIL appears to
structurally fail as it allows a completely legal economic activity to produce de facto
damages, which can be proven but not enforced. This implies that IIL is not able to
create the proper incentives for the contractual parties to behave correctly or repair
the damages incurred when infringements arise. Those affected by the contract,
however, have the option of exercising legal remedies at the domestic level and, after
exhausting those remedies, would have access to international HRL. However, there
are many cost-based problems in exercising these legal mechanisms. Not only is it
difficult to gain access to HRL, its enforcement is costly. Both access and cost are
obstacles to enforcing rights that have been infringed upon at the national and
international level. Another issue is that the judicial system of the LDCs fails
regularly because of internal problems associated with weak institutions.51
Although this failure of IIL has been pointed out in academic research, a
practical solution is still lacking.52 This case has particular relevance because the
increase in investment activity in the agricultural sector (which is protected by IIL
through IIAs) is seen as the most effective way to realise the right to food in LDCs,
49
The consideration here is made with regard to the missing solid structure in IIL that would make
it possible for affected third individuals to intervene in arbitration procedures. However, this
absolutely neglected possibility is slowly changing, probably as a consequence of the increasing
competition between the arbitration courts, as well as the mechanisms existing beyond the existing
procedures. See the broad legal evolutionary approach dealing with the enforcement mechanisms,
although in commercial arbitration by: Dammann and Hansmann (2006). See also:
Cafaggi (2012).
50
The existence of an IIA between S and the State where I is domiciled is assumed.
51
Many researchers, NGOs and think tanks have been trying to find the way to make investors or
traders accountable for human rights violations. For a well-developed study see: Dammann and
Hansmann (2006). For a well-developed paper dealing with the Ruggie’s understanding of
complicity in general as well as complicity in particular see: Weschka (2006); Narula (2006),
p. 691; Sunga (1992).
52
Wettstein (2013), p. 243; Ellickson (1993).
as well as to promote economic development. In the next section we will introduce

IIAs and their relevance to the agricultural investment agenda.
1.2.2.2 Explaining Why IIAs Are Relevant in Liberalising Land

and Agricultural Markets
There are some aspects of IIAs that make them relevant the moment the agricultural
sector is liberalised. Currently more than 3000 IIAs regulating bilateral and regional
investment relationships are in force.53 Although the literature has not completely
demonstrated the effect of IIAs on agricultural FDI flows,54 we do know that IIAs
offer a high level of protection to investors. This protection limits the ability of the
state to exercise its sovereign powers, e.g. the introduction of measures to regulate
economic areas. Due to the expectation that IIAs will create an investor-friendly
environment, potential host countries use this legal instrument to signal their
willingness to attract agricultural investors. For instance, in 2013 the sub-Saharan
Africa region showed a high level of activity by creating new free trade areas and
regionalising investment and trade negotiations.55 IIAs are thought to stimulate FDI
by mitigating the political risks that are common in LDCs.56 They can be seen as
mechanisms that balance high levels of risks investors face vis-a-vis potential
hostilities in the host states due to the nature of the investment activity, their status
as foreigners, and the institutional environment governing host countries. The long-
term element of most FDI makes the investment activity risky per se; all in all there
is no FDI without risk. Risk encompasses, among other things, a long payback time,
high temptation for state opportunism, technological innovation that could make
the investment less profitable, changes in regulatory preferences over time due to
governmental ideology, subsidies, competition policies, and also how projects are
performed.57
53
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, World Investment Report 2013 (World
Investment Report 2013, 2014) 101.
54
The question whether IIAs attract FDI has been treated in previous empirical studies that have
not provided consistent results. We go into more details in Chap. 2 of this study.
55
Investment Report 2013, 2014) 101.
56
Regarding the definition of IIA, see footnote: 22. For a classical view in economics see:
MacDougall (1960), p. 13; Blomstr€ om and Kokko (1999); Moran (2006). And, now in the legal
literature see: Moran (2011). See also Dolzer and Stevens (1995).
57
Peter Muchlinski approaches policy issues and risks concerning NGOs in a nice way. Regarding
the change of governments’ preferences because ideological issues. Muchlinski (2008). Guzman
also refers to aspects regarding the risks in FDI. Guzman (1998), p. 639.
1.2.2.3 FDI and IIA: Relationship, Relevance, and the Changing Map
In 2006 in the sub-Saharan Africa region, investment flows accounted for approx-
imately USD 22 billion, rising to USD 30 billion in 2007, and then reaching USD
72 billion in 2008.58 Although FDI inflows to Africa decreased to an estimated USD
56.3 billion in 2013, if one compares the figures for 2006–2013, this decrease still
represents a considerable increase in FDI.59 One product of globalisation and the
proliferation of IIAs is an unavoidable increase in global economic integration and
interdependence between countries. In this environment the developing world has
gained significance. Studies point to the fact that more than one-third of FDI flows
to developing economies originate from other developing economies.60 This
changes the classical structure of FDI in which a developed country invests in a
developing country. According to the 2012 World Investment Report, inward flows
of FDI worldwide rose 16% in 2011; this increase surpassed the level achieved
before the economic crisis in 2008.61 In real numbers this means that FDI reached
USD 1.5 trillion. FDI flows to developed countries grew in 2013 and reached USD
566 billion, which represents only 60% of their average before the 2008 economic
crisis.62 Developing countries continued to account for more than half of global FDI
as they reached USD 777 billion. This was a new high for developing countries,
representing 54% of global inflows.63 In recent decades inward inflows have contin-
uously increased. The exception was 2008, when foreign investments were affected
by the global financial crisis, as was the case with other sectors.64 This upward trend
in FDI, described in the literature as an ‘explosion’, can be associated with an
increase in privatisation projects promoted by IOs in diverse countries. Increasing
FDI in developing countries was driven by a 10% rise in Asia and 16% in Latin
America.65 The poorest countries remained in a FDI recession, with flows to LDCs
contracting by 11% to USD 15 billion.66 FDI in agriculture began to rise as a result,
and according to the UNCTAD went from an average of USD 600 million annually in
the 1990s to an average of USD 3 billion in the period between 2005 and 2007.67
58
Investment Report 2013, 2014), p. 104.
59
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, World Investment Report. Investing in a
Low-Carbon Economy (20 edn, United Nations 2010), p. 33.
60
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Global FDI Rose By 11%; Developed
Economies are Trapped in a Historically Low Share (UNCTAD, N 15 January 2014, 2014), p. 7.
61
Investment Report 2014, 2015), p. xvii.
62
Ibid.
63
Ibid.
64
Investment Report 2012, 2013), p. xiii.
65
Ibid.
66
Ibid xiv.
67
Ibid.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Southey and his family did not occupy the whole of the Hall, but shared
it with Coleridge and his family, and with Mrs. Lovell and her son. There
was no absolute partition, but an amicable distribution of the rooms.
Coleridge had a study to himself, in which was a grand organ, about the
only piece of furniture it could boast of. To atone for this, the windows
looked out upon a magnificent sweep of country, and objects of sublimity
and beauty met the eye wherever it wandered. Southey’s library—already
described as the best room of the house—was open to all the ladies alike.
The books in it were chiefly English, Spanish, and Portuguese, well
selected, being the best cardinal classics of the three literatures; fine copies,
and decorated externally with a reasonable elegance, so as to make them in
harmony with the other embellishments of the room. This was aided by the
horizontal arrangement, upon brackets, of many rare manuscripts, Spanish
or Portuguese. The two families always met at dinner, in a common
drawing-room.
The scenery around Greta Hall was grand beyond all power of
description. “The lake of Derwent Water, in one direction, with its lovely
islands—a lake about ten miles in circuit, and shaped pretty much like a
boy’s kite; the lake of Bassinthwaite in another; the mountains of
Newlands, arranging themselves like pavilions; the gorgeous confusion of
Borrowdale, just revealing its sublime chaos through the narrow vista of its
gorge; whilst the sullen rear, not fully visible on this side of the house, was
closed for many a league by the vast and towering masses of Skiddaw and
Blencathara—mountains which are rather to be considered as frontier
barriers, and chains of hilly ground, cutting the county of Cumberland into
great chambers, and different climates, than as insulated eminences; so vast
is the area which they occupy; though there are, also, rich, separate, and
insulated heights, and nearly amongst the highest in the county.”
Such, then, is the description of Southey’s house and neighbourhood, as
given by De Quincy. The first visit of the Opium Eater to Wordsworth—
including these visits to Greta Hall, and wanderings through the lake
districts—extended over a week; and at the conclusion of that time, when it
was necessary for him to return to Oxford, to save his Michaelmas term, he
witnessed, and has described one of the most extraordinary scenes, at the
table of the woman with the “Saracen’s Head,” in company with
Wordsworth and his sister, that has, perhaps, ever been enacted at any
supper table in the kingdoms of this world. I can give no account of it here,
and refer the reader once more to the “Reminiscences:” all I will say, in
conclusion is, that in the following November (1808), De Quincy returned
to Grasmere, and took possession of the late cottage of the poet; who, with
his family, had removed to a house, called Allan Bank, about three-quarters
of a mile off, which had recently been built by a Liverpool merchant, at a
cost of £1,500; a damp, cold, and incurably smoky house, which defects the
poet set forth so eloquently to the proprietor, that he allowed him to live in
it for a merely nominal rent.
The reason for Wordsworth’s removal, was the increasing number of his
family. And here I may as well give a list of this family, adding to it the
only one who was born after the period to which I now allude. They are as
follow:—
John, born 18th June, 1803.
Dorothy, called, and generally known as, Dora, born 16th August, 1804.
Thomas, born 16th June, 1806.
Catharine, born 6th September, 1808.
William, born 12th May, 1810.
Thomas and Catharine, died in their childhood; John and William are
still living; and Dora, “My own Dora,” as the poet loved to call her, after a
wedded life, more or less happy (she married Edward Quillinan, Esq.), she
died in 1847, just three years before her venerable father.
Wordsworth was singularly fortunate in his family. There was no jars nor
discords in the sacred temple of his home; but beauty, love, and all the
virtues and the graces dwelt with him, and ministered to his happiness and
repose. He loved his children with an intense affection; and sweet Dora, his
best beloved, exercised an influence over him, more beautiful and
harmonising perhaps, even than that which his sister exercised in his early
life, and still continued to exercise, because it was deeper, and struck deeper
into the very being of the poet. This child threw a sacred halo round his
soul, and inspired one of the sweetest of his lyrics. Only a month after her
birth he wrote:—
“Hast thou then survived
Mild offspring of infirm humanity?
.... Hail to thee!
Frail, feeble monthling.... On thy face
Smiles are beginning, like the beams of dawn,
To shoot, and circulate. Smiles have there been seen;
Tranquil assurances that heaven supports
The feeble motions of thy life, and cheers
Thy loveliness; or shall those smiles be called
Feelers of love, put forth as if to explore
This untried world, and to prepare thy way
Through a strait passage intricate and dim?”
In the autumn of the same year we find him writing the lines “The Kitten
and the Falling Leaves,” suggested by the delight of his dear Dora at the
pretty frolics of a kitten on the wall, playing with the leaves of autumn.
“Such a light of gladness breaks

Pretty kitten! from thy freaks;
Spreads with such a living grace,
O’er my little Dora’s face.”
then the poet resolves that he will have his glee out of life:—
“I will have my careless season,
Spite of melancholy reason;
Will walk thro’ life in such a way,
That, when time brings on decay,
Now and then, I may possess
Hours of perfect gladsomeness;
Keep the sprightly soul awake,
And have faculties to take,
Even from things by sorrow wrought,
Matter for a jocund thought;
Spite of care and spite of grief,
To gambol with life’s falling leaf.”
He likewise addresses “The Longest Day” to her; and what a contrast to

the last poem! Instead of gambolling with the falling leaves, and making
life a grand holiday, he exhorts his child, now grown older, to think of
higher matters:—
“Summer ebbs; each day that follows
Is a reflex from on high,
Tending to the darksome hollows,
Where the frosts of winter lie.
Now, even now, e’er wrapped in slumber,
Fix thine eyes upon the sea,
That absorbs time, space, and number,—
Look thou to eternity!”
And a little later, when the possibility of blindness came like a gloomy
shadow to darken his more thoughtful moments; he anticipates the time
when his own Dora shall guide his lonely steps. Poor Dora! she died of
consumption, after trying, in vain, the warm south of Portugal. And yet she
is not dead, and cannot die. In Dr. Wordsworth’s Memoirs, second volume,
there is a fine portrait of her, and a sweet, mild, gentle, and spiritual girl she
is; the eye singularly beautiful, and full of deep mystic fire. The poet has
also drawn a portrait of her:—
“Open, ye thickets! let her fly,

Swift as a Thracian nymph, o’er field or height!
For she, to all but those who love her, shy,
Would gladly vanish from a stranger’s sight;
Tho’ where she is beloved, and loves
Light as the wheeling butterfly she moves;
Her happy spirit as a bird is free,
That rifles blossoms on a tree,
Turning them inside out, with rich audacity.”
And all this sweet surfeit of painting is true to the spirit of the beautiful girl;
the spirit which stirs her thoughts, and makes all her movements an
impulsive comminglement of music and poetry. A more airy, celestial form
could not be imagined than hers. It seems to float on the atmosphere. And
then she is so happy, and loving to those who love her.
“Alas! how little can a moment show

Of an eye where feeling plays
In ten thousand dewy rays;
A face o’er which a thousand shadows go!—
She stops—is fastened to that rivulet’s side;
And these (while, with sedater mien
O’ ti id t th t h l l ft
O’er timid waters that have scarcely left
Their birthplace in the rocky cleft,
She bends) at leisure may be seen
Features to old ideal grace allied,
Amid their smiles and dimples dignified—
Fit countenance for the soul of primal truth;
The bland composure of eternal youth!
What more changeful than the sea?

But over his great tides
Fidelity presides;
And this light-hearted maiden constant is as he.
High is her aim, as heaven above,
And wide as ether her good will;
And like the lowly reed, her love
Can drink its nurture from the scantiest rill;
Insight as keen as frosty star
Is to her charity no bar,
Nor interrupts her frolic graces
When she is far from those wild places,
Encircled by familiar faces.
O the charms that manners draw,

Nature, from thy genuine law!
If from what her hand would do
Her voice would utter, aught ensue
Untoward or unfit;
She in benign affections pure
In self-forgetfulness, secure,
Sheds round the transient harm, or vague mischance
A light unknown to tutored elegance:
Hers is not a cheek shame-stricken,
But her blushes, are joy-flushes;
And the fault, if fault it be,
Only ministers to quicken
Laughter-loving gaiety,
And kindly sportive wit,
Leaving this daughter of the mountains free
As if she knew that Oberon, king of faery
Had crossed her purpose with some quaint vagary,
And heard his viewless bands
Over their mirthful triumph clapping hands.”
A fairer drawn portrait—a more beautiful poem, as a whole—does not, I
think, exist. Alas! sweet Dora.
To return, however, to the narrative. When Wordsworth was living at
Allan Bank, and during the time that Coleridge sojourned with him, two
prose works appeared, by these two poets, which are memorable to all
scholars. The former wrote his famous “Essay on the Convention of
Cintra,” and the latter dictated (for he did not write it) his still more famous
work entitled “The Friend.” Notwithstanding Wordsworth’s devotion,
therefore, to poetry, it will be seen that he was not indifferent to the passing
events which were writing their history in the blood of nations. Speaking of
his “Convention of Cintra,” in a letter to Southey, he says, “My detestation,
I may say abhorrence, of that event, is not at all diminished by your account
of it. Bonaparte had committed a capital blunder in supposing that when he
had intimidated the Sovereigns of Europe, he had conquered the several
nations. Yet it was natural for a wiser than he was to have fallen into this
mistake; for the old despotisms had deprived the body of the people of all
practical knowledge in the management, and of necessity of all interest in
the course of affairs. The French themselves were astonished at the apathy
and ignorance of the people whom they had supposed they had utterly
subdued, when they had taken their fortresses, scattered their armies,
entered their capital cities, and struck their cabinets with dismay. There was
no hope for the deliverance of Europe till the nations had suffered enough
to be driven to a passionate recollection of all that was honourable in their
past history, and to make appeal to the principles of universal and
everlasting justice. These sentiments the authors of that Convention most
unfeelingly violated; and as to the principals, they seemed to be as little
aware even of the existence of such powers, for powers emphatically may
they be called, as the tyrant himself. As far, therefore, as these men could,
they put an extinguisher upon the star that was then rising! It is in vain to
say that after the first burst of indignation was over, the Portuguese
themselves were reconciled to the event, and rejoiced in their deliverance.
We may infer from that, the horror which they must have felt in the
presence of their oppressors; and we may see in it to what a state of
helplessness their bad government had reduced them. Our duty was to have
treated them with respect, as the representatives of suffering humanity,
beyond what they were likely to look for themselves, and as deserving
greatly, in common with their Spanish brethren, for having been the first to
rise against that tremendous oppression, and to show how, and how only, it
could be put an end to.” The poet apologises for the seeming inconsistency
of his conduct in opposing the war against France at its commencement,
and in urging the necessity of it in the later affairs of Spain and Portugal, by
showing that he, and those who thought with him, “proved that they kept
their eyes steadily fixed upon principles; for though there was a shifting or
transfer of hostility in their minds, as far as regarded persons, they only
combated the same enemy opposed to them under a different shape; and
that enemy was the spirit of selfish tyranny and lawless ambition.”
So far, then, the “Essay on the Convention of Cintra.” Coleridge’s prose
work, “The Friend,” was a serial, composed of papers upon various
subjects, written mostly by Coleridge himself, with occasional assistance
from Wordsworth, Professor Wilson, and others. In the seventeenth number
of “The Friend,” the latter writer, in a letter to the Editor, speaks of
Wordsworth as a “great teacher,” and a “mighty voice not poured out in
vain.” “There are hearts,” he says, “that have received into their inmost
depths all its varying tones; and even now there are many to whom the
name of Wordsworth calls up the recollection of their weakness and the
consciousness of their strength.” The letter was signed “Mathetes,” and
might be called a warning voice to the young upon the illusions and popular
fallacies of the age. It insisted likewise upon the dues belonging to
antiquity; combated the notion that human nature is gradually advancing to
perfection, and that the present time is wiser than the past. “Mathetes”
maintained that reliance on contemporary judgment had grown into
contempt for antiquity, and argued that the youth of his time could only be
rescued from this perilous condition by the warning voice of some
contemporary teacher; and that this teacher he imagined Wordsworth to be.
Wordsworth replied, in numbers seventeen and twenty, acknowledging
that we are too apt to value contemporary opinion, to the neglect of
antiquity; but denying that the doctrine of progress is injurious; and
exhorting the young to rely upon themselves, and their own independent
efforts; cherishing along with this, an abiding sense of personal
responsibility. I cannot, however, analyse the fine treatise which follows,
and must refer the reader to the treatise itself; merely adding, that a sounder
or more philosophical discourse—so practical withal—has rarely been
written. An “Essay on Epitaphs,” was subsequently written by Wordsworth
in “The Friend,” February 22nd, 1810, and was afterwards republished by
him, as a note to “The Excursion.” Wordsworth regarded epitaphs as holy
memorials, and censured the epigramatic efforts of Pope, and other writers
of this species of composition. A bad man, he says, should have no epitaph;
and that which the poet wrote over his own child, in the churchyard of
Grasmere, may be instanced as illustrating his own idea of what epitaphs
should be.
In the year 1810, Wordsworth wrote an introduction to, and edited the
text of, a folio volume entitled, “Select Views in Cumberland,
Westmoreland, and Lancashire;” by the Rev. Joseph Wilkinson, which were
afterwards printed in his volume of “Sonnets on the River Duddon,” and
still later, as a separate publication. This introduction and text consisted of a
description of the Lake Country, which is finer than anything of the kind
existing, if we except the delicate and beautiful picture-writing of Gray, the
poet, who visited this district in October 1767. And here end the chief
incidents in the personal and literary life of Wordsworth, up to the time of
his removal to Rydal Mount.
RYDAL MOUNT.
I must here borrow the only picture which I find in Dr. Wordsworth’s
“Memoirs,”—viz., that of the poet’s residence, which I transcribe from vol.
I., p. 19.
“The house stands on the sloping summit of a rocky hill, called Nab’s
Scar. It has a southern aspect. In front of it is a small semicircular area of
grey gravel, fringed with shrubs and flowers, the house forming the
diameter of the circle. From this area is a descent of a few stone steps
southward, and then a gentle ascent to a grassy mound. Here let us rest a
little.—At your back is the house; in front, a little to the left of the horizon,
is Wansfell, on which the light of the evening sun rests, and to which the
poet has paid a grateful tribute in two of his sonnets:—
‘Wansfell! this household has a favoured lot,

Living with liberty on thee to gaze.’
Beneath it the blue smoke shews the place of the town of Ambleside. In
front is the lake Windermere, shining in the sun; also in front, but more to
the right, are the fells of Loughrigg, on which the poet’s imagination
pleased to plant a solitary castle:
‘Ærial rock, whose solitary brow

From this low threshold daily meets the sight.’
Looking to the right, in the garden, is a beautiful glade, overhung with

rhododendrons, in beautiful leaf and bloom. Near them is a tall ash-tree, in
which a thrush has sung for hours together, during many years. Not far from
it is a laburnum, in which the osier cage of the doves was hung. Below, to
the west, is the vegetable garden, not planted off from the rest, but blended
with it by parterres of flowers and shrubs.
Returning to the platform of grey gravel before the house, we pass under
the shade of a fine sycamore, and ascend to the westward by fourteen steps
of stones, about nine feet long, in the interstices of which grow the yellow
flowering poppy, and the wild geranium, or Poor Robin,
‘Gay
With his red stalks, upon a sunny day,’
a favourite with the poet, as his verses show.—The steps above, northward,
lead to an upward sloping terrace, about two hundred and fifty feet long.
On the right side it is shaded by laburnums, Portugal laurels, mountain-ash,
and fine walnut-trees and cherries; on the left it is flanked by a low stone
wall, coped with rude slates, and covered with lichens, mosses, and wild-
flowers. The fern waves on the walls, and at its base grows the wild-
strawberry and foxglove. Beneath this wall, and parallel to it, on the left, is
a level terrace, constructed by the poet for a friend most dear to him and
his,—who, for the last twenty years of Mr. Wordsworth’s life, was often a
visitor at Rydal Mount. The terrace was a favourite resort of the poet, being
more easy for pacing to and fro, when old age began to make him feel the
acclivity of the other terrace to be toilsome. Both these terraces command
beautiful views of the vale of the Rothsay, and the banks of the lake of
Windermere.”
Then we have a description of Rydal Lake, and of the “long, wooded,
and rocky hill of Loughrigg beyond, and above it,” as seen from an orifice
on the ascending terrace; of the beautiful sycamore close to the arbour, the
fine firs in the foreground, and the dark woods of fir, ash, oak, hazel, holly,
and birch, on the right and left; of the “Far Ferrdel on the mountain’s
side,” a little to the right of the “ascending terrace”—which, after a
serpentine course of one hundred and fifty feet, terminates at a little gate,
close to the “Nab Well,” where the poet was wont to quaff his daily
libations. Another walk from the arbour leads to a field, sloping down to the
valley, called “Dora’s field,” and on the right is a rude stone, bearing this
inscription—
“In these fair vales hath many a tree
At Wordsworth’s suit been spared;
And from the builder’s hand this stone,
For some rude beauty of its own,
Was rescued by the bard.
So let it rest, and time will come,
When here, the tender-hearted,
May heave a gentle sigh for him,
As one of the departed.”
A pond containing gold fish, underneath a large oak, close to the gate which
leads to this “Dora’s field,” completes the inventory of the external features
of Rydal Mount.
It was in the spring of 1811 that Wordsworth left Allan Bank, and took
up his temporary residence at the Parsonage, Grasmere. But the death of his
children, Catharine and Thomas, which occurred in 1812, threw so
melancholy a gloom over the neighbourhood, that he resolved to quit it
altogether. It was not, however, without many painful feelings of regret that
he bade adieu to the beautiful scenery in the vale of Grasmere—scenery
which he had so long loved—every feature of which was as familiar to him
as the faces of the dear children whom he had committed for ever to its
quiet keeping. The step, however, was absolutely necessary, as he himself
says in a letter to the Earl of Lonsdale, for the recurrence of that tranquillity
of mind which it was his duty, and that of his surviving family, to strive for.
Accordingly he removed to Rydal Mount, in 1813, where he resided until
his death, in 1850. It was in that year—1813—that he received the
appointment of Distributor of Stamps in the County of Westmoreland,
which has already been alluded to, in the extracts made from the
“Reminiscences” of De Quincy.
This appointment, for which he was mainly indebted to Lord Lonsdale,
placed the poet in easy if not affluent circumstances, and enabled him to
follow his art without anxiety respecting worldly matters,—a condition
which the poet improved to his own honour, and to the public advantage.
Some time after this good fortune had befallen him, he was offered the
collectorship of the town of Whitehaven, an office far more lucrative than
the other; but the poet declined it. He had now sufficient for his necessities,
and no pecuniary inducement could avail with him to quit the sweet
retirement of the lakes. He was fortunate, also—and De Quincy was right in
saying that he was always fortunate, for Good Luck “threw her old shoe
after him” wherever he went—in securing about this time the services of
Mr. John Carter, as coadjutor in the stamp-office. Dr. Wordsworth speaks in
the highest terms of this gentleman, who, for thirty-seven years, served the
poet “faithfully and zealously, and who added to his business qualifications,
those of sound scholarship and judicious criticism.”
Thus happily circumstanced, Wordsworth continued to write poetry, and
to make more tours, as his fancy dictated. In 1814, he again visited
Scotland, in company with his wife, his wife’s sister, and Miss Mary
Hutchinson. The poems produced on this tour were “The Brownie’s Cell,”
“Cora Linn,” “Effusions on the Banks of the Bran, near Dunkeld,” and
“Sonnet to Mr. Gillies.” The following note, upon the poem “Yarrow
Visited,” is of great interest. It is Wordsworth who writes.
“As mentioned in my verses on the death of the Ettrick Shepherd, my
first visit to Yarrow was in his company. We had lodged the night before at
Traquhar, where Hogg had joined us, and also Dr. Anderson, the editor of
‘The British Poets,’ who was on a visit at the manse. Dr. Anderson walked
with us till we came in view of the Vale of Yarrow, and being advanced in
life he then turned back. The old man was passionately fond of poetry,
though with not much of a discriminating judgment, as the volumes he
edited sufficiently shows; but I was much pleased to meet with him, and to
acknowledge my obligation to his collection, which had been my brother
John’s companion in more than one voyage to India, and which he gave me
before his departure from Grasmere—never to return. Through these
volumes I became first familiar with Chaucer; and so little money had I
then to spare for books, that in all probability, but for this same work, I
should have known little of Drayton, Daniel, and other distinguished poets
of the Elizabethan age, and their immediate successors, till a much later
period of my life. I am glad to record this, not for any importance of its
own, but as a tribute of gratitude to this simple-hearted old man, whom I
never again had the pleasure of meeting. I seldom read or think of this poem
without regretting that my dear sister was not of the party, as she would
have been so much delighted in recalling the time when, travelling together
in Scotland, we declined going in search of this celebrated stream, not
altogether, I will frankly confess, for the reasons assigned in the poem on
the occasion.”
At last, in 1814, the great poem was published upon which
Wordsworth’s fame is built, viz., “The Excursion.” It was met, as usual,
with tremendous and most indiscriminate abuse, especially by Jeffrey, in his
“This won’t do” article. But despite all this, the poem grew deeply into the
public mind, and is still growing there; and ranks, at last, with our highest
poetry. All the characters and scenes in it are drawn from life, and there are
few more interesting papers than the memoranda which the poet has left
respecting these characters and their localities. “The Wanderer,” he
acknowledges, is chiefly an embodied idea of what he fancied his own
character might have become in the said Wanderer’s circumstances. His
sister, with her gentle love and sweet remonstrances,—although ready to
follow him to the ends of the earth—did in reality save him from this wild
nomadic life, by fixing his thoughts upon a home, and the genial influences
which domestic life would produce and exercise upon his poetic genius.
And then his wife, children, and the rich harvests of fortune, which were
reaped without any sowing of his, and dropped into his lap, finished the
work his sister had begun, and finally settled him as a citizen and a family
man. Otherwise, being strong in body, I should, he says, very probably,
have “taken to the way of life such as that in which my ‘Wanderer’ passed
the greater part of his days.” Much, however, of what the “Wanderer” says
and does, was the result, in verse, of the poet’s experience; was what he had
actually heard and seen, although refined, of course, as it passed through his
imagination. He was fond of talking to all kinds of strange characters;—
now treading on the outskirts of social life, or wandering with a wild,
vagabond independence amongst the highways of towns and cities.
Whatever of romance and adventure they had known, he wormed out of
them, or charmed out of them; and he partially instances, as an illustration
of this prying curiosity—this insatiable longing after experience, and the
history of men—an old Scotchman, who married finally a relation of his
wife’s, and settled down at Kendal, and a travelling packman, from whom
he learned much, and whose adventures and wisdom are embodied in the
character of the “Wanderer.” “The Solitary,” “The Pastor,” “Pedlar,”
“Margaret,” “Miser,” and all the dramatis personæ of the poem, are made
up of veritable human materials, and had their architypes in the great world
of humanity. The reader, however, must go to Dr. Wordsworth for a full
relation respecting these matters. All I can add here, respecting the
“Excursion,” is that only 500 copies were disposed of in six years; and
when, in 1827, another edition, of the same number of copies, was printed,
it took seven years more to exhaust it. The poet, however, was not daunted
by this culpable neglect of his immortal lines; but conscious of his own
greatness, he wrote, in a letter to Southey,—“Let the age continue to love its
own darkness; I shall continue to write, with, I trust, the light of heaven
upon me.” Jeffrey, in the pride and arrogance of his position, as Executioner
General of the Courts of Critical Assize, boasted that HE—poor devil!—had
crushed the “Excursion;” and the boast was repeated to Southey:—“Tell
him,” said he, Southey “that he could as soon crush Skiddaw!” Bernard
Barton,—a writer whose chief merit consists in a letter written to
Wordsworth, expressive of his homage and reverence for the Bard of Rydal
—alludes, in the said letter, to Jeffrey: “He has taken,” says Wordsworth, in
reply, “a perpetual retainer, from his own incapacity, to plead against my
claims to public approbation.” So, we see, that the good poet could hit hard
if he liked; although he rarely descended to this literary pugilism, thinking it
beneath the dignity of his art and character.
It was Wordsworth’s custom to compose in the open air; and as his
servant once said to a visitor, “This, sir, is my master’s library—his study is
out of doors.” He had a great and sickening dread of writing; and his sister,
or some other member of his family was always at hand to perform for him
the office of amanuensis. In the year 1807, when on a visit to his wife’s
brother at Stockton-on-Tees, the weather being very boisterous, and the
winds rough, he used to pace up and down under the lee of a row of corn-
stacks in a field near that town—and it was here that he composed the
earlier part of “White Doe of Ryletone,” chaunting his verses aloud to the
astonished stacks. The poem was not published until 1815, and has been
much misinterpreted, and consequently abused. The truth is, that
Wordsworth wrote always upon principle, and a carefully premeditated
plan; there was always a high purpose in his poems, both moral and
intellectual. His poetical canons were likewise his own, and his mode of
treating a subject was always in conformity with them, or illustrations of
them. Superficial readers, who had been accustomed to the objective poetry
of Scott, could not understand Wordsworth, therefore; for he was studiously
subjective, and the interest of his poems hangs nearly always upon the
development of mere spiritual forces, and their progress, if I may so speak,
outwards, in the subjugation of the external world or in the strengthening of
the soul to bear the ills and mishaps of life with a sublime fortitude. “The
White Doe” is a memorable example of this spiritual aim. “Every thing,”
says Wordsworth, ‘attempted by the principal personages in this poem fails,
so far as its object is external and substantial; so far as it is moral and
spiritual it succeeds. The heroine of the poem knows that her duty is not to
interfere with the current of events, either to forward or delay them; but
“To abide
The shock, and finally secure
O’er pain and grief a triumph pure.”
This she does in obedience to her brother’s injunction, as most suitable to a

mind and character that, under previous trials, had been proved to accord
with his. She achieves this, not without aid from the communication with
the inferior creature which often leads her thoughts to revolve upon the past
with a tender and humanising influence that exalts rather than depresses her.
Her anticipated beatification of the mind, and the apotheosis of the
companion of her solitude, are the points at which the poem aims, and
constitutes its legitimate catastrophe.” All this is widely different from the
usual mode of conducting dramatic action, and yet the action of the poem in
question is complete and satisfactory, and is artistically developed from its
own spiritual germ, or starting point.
Whilst walking, and composing “The White Doe,” Wordsworth received
a wound in his foot; and it is curious to remark that, even when he ceased
walking, the act of composition increased the irritation of the wound, whilst
a mental holiday produced a rapid cure. “Poetic excitement,” he says,
“when accompanied by protracted labour in composition, has throughout
my life brought on more or less of bodily derangement. Nevertheless I am,
at the close of my seventy-third year, in what may be called excellent
health. But I ought to add, that my intellectual labour has generally been
carried on out of doors.”
The next group of poems—and two of them certainly amongst the
grandest triumphs of poetic art, were composed respectively as follows:
—“Laodamia,” in 1814; “Dion,” in 1816; and the “Ode to Lycoris,” in
1817. The first and second of these poems were entirely Greek in their
character and form, and Keates’ “Hyperion” is the only modern poem (and
this a fragment) which is worthy to be placed in comparison with them. It is
singular how the idea of these poems originated in the mind of the poet. He
had been preparing his son for the University, and had to read up his old
classics for this purpose. Hence the Classic Spirit took up its abode with
him, and urged him to these beautiful and plastic productions. About this
time, and with the same object in view—viz., the education of his son—he
translated one of the earlier books of the “Æneid” into rhyme. Coleridge, in
writing to the author respecting this translation, says, he has attempted an
impossibility, and regrets he should have wasted his time on a work (viz., of
translation) so much below him. Wordsworth was always attached to the
classics; and before he read Virgil, he was so fond of Ovid, that he
invariably got into a passion when he found this author placed below Virgil.
He was never weary of travelling over the scenes through which Homer led
him. “Classical literature,” he says, “affected me by its own beauty.”
“Peter Bell” appeared in 1819. It was composed twenty years before, as
already related; and sold better than any of Wordsworth’s previous poems,
notwithstanding the abuse of the critics. Five hundred copies were
exhausted before one month, between April and May of this one year
(1819). “The Waggoner” was published at the same time, but was not so
successful, perhaps on account of its mere local interest. The “Sonnets on
the River Duddon” appeared about the same time, and were dedicated to the
Rev. Dr. Wordsworth, the poet’s brother, who was at that time Rector of
Lambeth. “The river Duddon has its main source[J] in the mountain range
near the “Three Shire Stones,” as they were called, where the three
counties, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Lancashire meet. It flows to the
south through Seathwaite, by Broughton, to the Duddon Sands, and into the
Irish Sea.”—Wordsworth’s first acquaintance with this stream commenced
in his boyhood, during the time that he was so passionately fond of angling:
upon one of his fishing excursions he joined an old weather-beaten man,
and went far away from home, seduced by the dear delight of his art. On
their return, the embryo poet was so wearied, that the old man had to carry
him on his back. He says that his earliest recollections of this stream were
full of distress and disappointment; but in later times he visited it with so
many beloved persons, that its waters flowed through him in streams of
music—in anthems of affectionate song.
In 1820 Wordsworth made another tour to the Continent, in company
with his wife and sister, Mr. and Mrs. Monkhonse, then just married, and
Miss Herricks. They left these two ladies at Berne, while Mr. Monkhouse
went with the poet and his retinue, on an excursion amongst the Alps, as far
as Milan. They were joined at Lucerne by Mr. H. C. Robinson; and the two
ladies, whom they had left at Berne, rejoined them at Geneva, when the
whole party went to Paris, where they remained five weeks.
In 1822 Wordsworth published a volume of Sonnets, and other Poems,
as the result of this tour, entitled, “Memorials of a Tour on the Continent.”
In two letters to Lord Lonsdale—one dated from Lucerne, August 19th,
1820, and the other from Paris, dated October 7, 1820,—the poet has given
a general outline of this tour and its incidents.[K] I ought to add that
Wordsworth visited Waterloo, amongst other places of interest, at this time.
The party returned by way of Boulogne, November 2nd, and had a narrow
escape of shipwreck,—the vessel striking upon a sand-bank, and being then
driven with violence on a rocky road in the harbour, where she was battered
about until the ebbing of the tide set her at liberty—at least from the
violence of the sea; “and, blessed be God,” says Wordsworth, in his Journal,
“for our preservation!”
They arrived at Dover on the 7th, and at London on the 9th, where they
met Rogers, Lamb, and Talfourd, amongst other noted persons and friends.
Wordsworth walked on to visit Coleridge, from Hampstead Heath, on the
18th, and then went down to Cambridge, to congratulate his brother, Dr.
Wordsworth, on his appointment to the Mastership of Trinity College.
They returned to Rydal Mount on Christmas Eve, visiting Sir George
and Lady Beaumont, at Coleorton, by the way. Sir George was then about to
build a church on his estate, and this fact led to conversation on Church
History, and eventually to the production of the “Ecclesiastical Sonnets.” In
the third part of the first of these Sonnets occurs the following line:—
“I saw the figure of a lovely maid.”
And the note attached to it, by the poet, is so interesting, that I must
transcribe it:—
“When I came to this part of the series, I had the dream described in this
sonnet. The figure was that of my daughter, and the whole passed exactly as
here represented. The sonnet was composed on the middle road leading
from Grasmere to Ambleside; it was began as I left the last house in the
vale, and finished, word for word, as it now stands, before I came in view of
Rydal. I wish I could say the same of the five or six hundred I have written;
most of them were frequently retouched, in the course of composition, and
not a few laboriously.”
Here is the sonnet in question:—
“I saw the figure of a lovely maid,

Seated, alone, beneath a darksome tree,
Whose fondly-overhanging canopy
Set off her brightness with a pleasing shade.
No spirit was she; that my heart betrayed,
For she was one I loved exceedingly;
But while I gazed in tender reverie
(Or was it sleep that with my fancy played?),
The bright corporeal presence—form and face—
Remaining still distinct, grew thin and rare,
Like sunny mists; at length the golden hair,
Shape, limbs, and heavenly features, keeping pace,
Each with the other, in a lingering race
Of dissolution, melted into air.”
In 1823, Wordsworth again visited the Continent, making a short tour,

with his wife, in Belgium and Holland. As usual, a journal of travel was
kept by the poet, and is printed, partly at least, in the “Memoirs.” At the
close of the summer, in the next year, he made a short excursion in North
Wales, the records of which are contained in a letter to Sir George
Beaumont, dated Hindwell, Radnor, September 20, 1824.[L] Again, in 1828,
the poet, accompanied by his daughter, Dora, made an excursion to see
Coleridge, through Belgium, and up the Rhine. And it was at this time that
the “Incident at Bruges” was written, concerning which the poet says:
—“Dora and I, while taking a walk along a retired part of the town, heard
the voice as here described, and were afterwards informed that it was a
Convent, in which were many English. We were both much touched, I may
say, affected, and Dora moved, as appears in the verses.” The “Lines on a
Jewish Family,” were likewise written on this tour. The poet, his daughter,
and Coleridge were at St. Goar, when they first saw this family. They had
provided themselves with a basket of provisions for the day, and offered the
poor people a share of them. The mother refused for the rest, because it was
a fast-day, adding, that whether such observances were right or wrong, it
was her duty to keep them. They were all poor, ragged, and hungry, but
exceedingly beautiful, and the self-command, self-respect, and self-sacrifice
of the woman is the moral of this little story, I think, although no allusion is
made to it in the poem.
In 1829, Wordsworth made a tour in Ireland, with J. Marshall, Esq., M.P.
of Leeds. All through his life Wordsworth had a horror of Popery; and this
journey, with his Continental tours, tended to confirm it with still greater
intensity. He hated Popery because it was the avowed enemy of freedom,
and he would not sanction the Catholic Emancipation Bill, because he
thought that by giving freedom to the Catholic religion, the Government
were but paving the way for a frightful domination over the souls and
bodies of men. Still he loved freedom—as his sonnets to “Liberty,” and his
enthusiastic sympathies with republican France, at the outbreak of the first
revolution sufficiently show. He was a Churchman, however, devotedly
attached to the traditions, forms, and doctrines of the Church, and there was
no moving him from these foundations. He attributed the distress and
misery of Ireland to the priests—Catholic, of course—and to the false
tenures of the land. The country, he said, had never been fully conquered,
and this was another and a chief cause of the degradation of Ireland. The
people were under the control—absolute control—of the priests, ready to do
their bidding, let that bidding be what it might. And he trembled—as well
he might—for the power of the Irish Church! God forgive us, we are all at
the best but short-sighted mortals, and few can see the truth, save through
the medium of prejudice. The Irish Church, if my vision be clear, is one of
the many stumbling blocks, and rubbish heaps in the way of Irish
civilization; and certainly the Roman Catholic Church is another.
This tour supplied Wordsworth with very few materials for poetry. The
lines, however, in the fine poem on the “Power of Sound,” one of the finest
poems which Wordsworth has written, commencing
“Thou too be heard, lone eagle!”
were, he says, suggested near the Giant’s Causeway, where he saw a pair of
eagles wheel over his head, and then dart off “as if to hide themselves in a
blaze of sky made by the setting sun.”
It was about this time also that the sweet poem, entitled “The Triad,”
was written, in which the daughters of Southey, Wordsworth, and
Coleridge, are bound together in the most musical and flowery forms, as the
three Graces. Wordsworth often promised these fair children to send them
down to immortality in his verses, but it was long before the mood seized
him, and the modus operandi was made plain to him. At last the ideas
embodied in “The Triad” struck him, and the result is something finer than
the most vivid sculpture. The poet commences—
“Shew me the noblest youth of present time,

Whose trembling fancy would to love give birth;
Some god or hero from the Olympian clime
Returned to seek a consort upon earth;
Or, in no doubtful prospect let me see,
The brightest star of ages yet to be,
And I will mate and match him blissfully.”
So confident is he of the beauty and virtue of the three fair girls hidden
amongst the recesses of the hills, that he boasts of their worthiness to match
even the noblest of gods or heroes. And then he invokes them to appear,
whilst a youth expectant at his side, and breathless as they,
“Looks to the earth and to the vacant air;

And with a wandering air that seems to chide,
Asks of the clouds what occupants they hide.”
And now the poet will fulfil his promise, and show the golden youth this
beautiful triad of Graces.

Textbook Large Scale Land Investments in Least Developed Countries Legal Conflicts Between Investment and Human Rights Protection 1St Edition Luis Tomas Montilla Fernandez Auth Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Textbook Large Scale Land Investments in Least Developed Countries Legal Conflicts Between Investment and Human Rights Protection 1St Edition Luis Tomas Montilla Fernandez Auth Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Large Scale Land Investments in Least

Developed Countries Legal Conflicts

Shifting Centres of Gravity in Human Rights Protection

Aviation Security Privacy Data Protection and Other

Chinese Acquisitions in Developed Countries Operational

Reporting Human Rights, Conflicts, and Peacebuilding:

Human Rights in Child Protection: Implications for

Large Scale Data Handling in Biology Karol Kozak

Human Rights of Older People Universal and Regional

The Growth of Firms in Less Developed Countries Lessons

Luis Tomás Montilla Fernández

ISSN 2364-1851 ISSN 2364-186X (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951454

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

October 2015 Luis Tomás Montilla Fernández

3.5 International Human Rights Protection for Local Populations

4.4.5 Property Rights Approach: Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

ACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights

GDP Gross Domestic Product

SADC Southern African Development Community

Table 3.1 Access to justice in HRL and IIL in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

1.1 Relevance of This Book

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

Investment Report 2009. Transnational Corporations, Agricultural Production and Development

1.2 The Problems Approached in This Book

1.2.2 International Legal Conflicts Related to LSLIs: State

A rapid increase of LSLI began to be reported by NGOs and International Organi-

1.2.2.1 Framing a Legal Mechanism for Third-Party Enforcement

The discussion offered by Williston addresses the literature in two different

as well as to promote economic development. In the next section we will introduce

1.2.2.2 Explaining Why IIAs Are Relevant in Liberalising Land

“Such a light of gladness breaks

He likewise addresses “The Longest Day” to her; and what a contrast to

“Open, ye thickets! let her fly,

“Alas! how little can a moment show

What more changeful than the sea?

O the charms that manners draw,

‘Wansfell! this household has a favoured lot,

‘Ærial rock, whose solitary brow

Looking to the right, in the garden, is a beautiful glade, overhung with

This she does in obedience to her brother’s injunction, as most suitable to a

“I saw the figure of a lovely maid.”

“I saw the figure of a lovely maid,

In 1823, Wordsworth again visited the Continent, making a short tour,

“Thou too be heard, lone eagle!”

“Shew me the noblest youth of present time,

“Looks to the earth and to the vacant air;

You might also like