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1. Introduction
According to the ASAE Standards (2005), subsurface drip irrigation SDI is “the application
of water below the soil surface though emitters* with discharge rates generally in the same
range as drip irrigation.” Thus, aside from the specific details pointed out in this chapter, an
SDI unit is simply a drip irrigation network buried at a certain depth.
There is a wide variety of plants irrigated with SDI all over the world such as herbaceous crops
(lettuce, celery, asparagus and garlic), woody crops (citrus, apple trees and olive trees) and
others such as alfalfa, corn, cotton, grass, pepper, broccoli, melon, onion, potato, tomato, etc.
Over a quarter of a billion hectares of the planet are irrigated and entire countries depend on
irrigation for their survival and existence. Growing pressure on the world's available water
resources has led to an increase in the efficiency and productivity of water-use of irrigation
systems as well as the efficiency in their management and operation. The efficiency of
subsurface drip irrigation SDI could be similar to drip irrigation but it uses less water. It
could save up to 25% - 50% of water regarding to surface irrigation. Throughout this
chapter, the specific characteristics of SDI will be presented and some criteria for its design
and management will be highlighted.
*Note: In SDI, the word emitter is used instead of dripper since the last has a lack of meaning as water
does not drip as it does in drip irrigation.
172 Water Quality, Soil and Managing Irrigation of Crops
Shmueli, 1970). Further, the quality of commercial emitters and laterals improved and SDI
gained respect over other irrigation methods mainly due to the decrease of clogging.
At the beginning of the 80s, factors such as: the reduction of the costs in pipes and emitters,
the improvement of fertilizers application and the maintenance of field units for several
years promoted the interest in SDI. This has been extended since then.
Advantages:
The efficiency of water use is high since soil evaporation, surface runoff, and deep
percolation are greatly reduced or eliminated. In addition, the risk of aquifer
contamination is decreased since the movement of fertilizers and other chemical
compounds by deep percolation is reduced.
The use of degraded water. Subsurface wastewater application can reduce pathogen
drift and reduce human and animal contact with such waters.
The efficiency in water application is improved since fertilizers and pesticides can be
applied with accuracy. In widely spaced crops, a smaller fraction of the soil volume can
be wetted, thus further reducing unnecessary irrigation water losses. Reductions in
weed germination and weed growth often occur in drier regions.
Hand laborers benefit from drier soils by having reduced manual exertion and injuries.
Likewise, double cropping opportunities are improved. Crop timing may be enhanced
since the system need not be removed at harvesting nor reinstalled prior to planting the
second crop. On the other hand, laterals and submains can experience less damage and
the potential for vandalism is also reduced.
Operating pressures are often less than in drip irrigation. Thus, reducing energy costs.
Drawbacks:
Water applications may be largely unseen, and it is more difficult to evaluate system
operation and water application uniformity. System mismanagement can lead to under
irrigation, less crop yield quality reductions, and over irrigation. The last may result in
poor soil aeration and deep percolation problems.
If emitter discharge exceeds soil infiltration, a soil overpressure develops around
emitter outlet, enhancing surfacing and causing undesirable wet spots in the field.
Timely and consistent maintenance and repairs are a requirement. Leaks caused by
rodents can be more difficult to locate and repair, particularly for deeper SDI systems.
The drip lines must be monitored for root intrusion, and system operational and design
procedures must employ safeguards to limit or prevent further intrusion. Roots from
some perennial crops may pinch drip lines, eliminating or reducing flows. Periodically,
the drip lines need to be flushed to remove accumulations of silt and other precipitates
that may occur in the laterals. Likewise, operation and management requires more
consistent oversight than some alternative irrigation systems. There is the possibility of
soil ingestion at system shutdown if a vacuum occurs, so air relief/vacuum breaker
devices must be present and operating correctly. Compression of laterals by soil
overburden can occur in some soils and at some depths, causing adverse effects on
the flow.
particles are not introduced into the laterals. Alternatively, some flushing valves for the
lateral end are also developed for that purpose (Fig. 3).
A manometer and a flow meter are placed at the unit head to measure the inlet unit pressure
and the total unit discharge, respectively. Filters are also installed at the unit head and
additional containers with fertilizers and other chemical products are located there, as well.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Elements of SDI units: (a) emitter models and (b) flushing bulb. (Courtesy of
NaaDanJain Irrigation).
A Review of Subsurface Drip Irrigation and Its Management 175
pressure hs develops at the emitter outlet. Consequently the hydraulic gradient across the
emitter decreases reducing emitter flow rate according to the following equation.
x
q k (h - hs ) (1)
where q is the emitter flow rate, h is the working pressure head, and k and x are the emitter
coefficient and exponent, respectively.
In fine-pore soils, the overpressure hs increases rapidly at the beginning of irrigation until it
stabilizes after, approximately, 10 to 15 minutes. Values of hs from 3 m up to 8 m have been
recorded on single emitters in the field within a wide range of emitter discharges ( Shani et.
al. 1996, Lazarovitch et al. 2005). However for similar flow rates and soils, these values were
smaller, within an interval from 1 to 2 m, in laboratory tests since the soil structure increases
the soil mechanical resistance to water pressure under field conditions (Gil et al. 2008).
Emitter flow reaches a permanent value coinciding with the stabilization of hs.
Sometimes, the overpressure produces what it is called a chimney effect or surfacing (Fig.2).
Overpressures develop locally in the soil displacing the soil components and creating
preferential paths. Soil surface is wetted and big puddles are also observed.
(a) b)
Fig. 5. Surfacing in SDI units: (a) wetted soil surface above the laterals and (b) detail of the
wetted area.
Pressure-compensating and non-compensating emitters exhibit different performance. For
non-compensating emitters, discharge reductions from 7 up to 50% have been measured in
controlled conditions on single emitters in fine-coarse soils. However, the decrease is less
than 4% in sandy soils. For pressure-compensating emitters, flow variation is negligible if hs
stays below the lower limit of the emitter compensation range.
Water movement in SDI can be considered as a buried point source (Fig. 6a). Philip (1992)
developed an analytical expression to determine the pressure at the discharge point in a
steady-state conditions that was applied by Shani and Or (1995) to relate hs with the soil
hydrophysical properties and the emitter permanent flow rate q as
2 · r0 1
hs q (2)
8· K · r
s 0
where r0 is the spherical cavity radius around emitter outlet, Ks is the hydraulic conductivity
of the saturated soil and is the fitting parameter of Gardner’s (1958) of the non-saturated
hydraulic conductivity expression.
A Review of Subsurface Drip Irrigation and Its Management 177
In moderate flows, hs is linear and q follows a straight line whose slope depends on r0, Ks
and . For a given discharge q and radius r0, the pressure hs is more sensitive to Ks and less
sensitive to .
(a) b)
Fig. 6. Water movement of SDI emitters in loamy soils: (a) wetting bulb and (b) detail of
horizontal cracks in the cavity. (Note: 0= initial soil water content and s= saturated soil).
Experiments carried out in uniform soil samples in pots show that the cavity shape tended
to be spherical at small emitter discharges (Gil et al. 2010). At higher emitter discharges,
horizontal cracks initially appear in the cavity, but slowly they fill with soil and, ultimately
resulting in a spherical cavity (Fig.6b). The radius of the cavity linearly increases with small
emitter discharges and stabilizes at higher discharges (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Variation of the radius spherical cavity with emitter discharge in uniform soils.
(Source: Gil et al. 2011).
distribution in drip irrigation units follows a normal distribution. The emitter discharge
variability CVq will depend on the hydraulic variation and the manufacturing variation
CVm. This hypothesis is better suited when the emitter manufacturing variation is the main
cause of the final variation. Normal flow distribution in the unit is characterized by two
parameters: the mean and the standard deviation of flow (or its coefficient of variation).
Adding these two variations to Eq. [1], results in (Bralts et al. 1981):
q k h hs ·(1 u·CVm )
x
(4)
The goal of irrigation systems is to apply water with high uniformity. The system design is
frequently based in a given target uniformity that is defined by uniformity indexes. One of
the common indexes is the coefficient of variation of emitter flow CVq (Keller and Karmelli
1975)
q
CVq (5)
q
q
Cu 100 1 (6)
q
the soil were above the lower limit of the emitter compensation range. Thus, the variability
of soil overpressure would be offset by the elastomer regulation.
Fig. 8. Coefficient of variation of flow CVq in laterals with 100 non regulated emitters of 2
L/h laid on a uniform loamy soil, considering hydraulic variation negligible (Note: r0 ,h0
and hs are expressed in m). (Source: Gil et al. 2008).
Fig. 9. Variation of lateral inlet flow of a SDI unit laid on a loamy soil during irrigation
(Note: Ri= lateral).
Evaluations performed on a seven years old SDI unit of regulated emitters showed that the
hydraulic variability was the major factor affecting emitter discharge, but the effect of the
emitter’s manufacturing and wear variation was smaller (Rodríguez-Sinobas et al. 2009b).
The uniformity of water application Cu varied between 82 and 92 and the degree of
clogging between 25 to 38%. The first improved when reducing pressure variability, thus the
A Review of Subsurface Drip Irrigation and Its Management 181
(a) (b)
Fig. 10. Field evaluation of SDI units: (a) sample with unearthed emitters and (b) manometer
and flow-meter for recording head pressure and inlet flow in laterals.
Field evaluations can highlight emitter clogging such as the root intrusion observed
in Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. Root intrusion in different emitters . (Source: Ronaldo Souza 2003)
182 Water Quality, Soil and Managing Irrigation of Crops
hi hi 1 hf i i 1 I 0 s (7)
where hfi-i+1 is the head loss between two consecutive emitters i-i+1; I0 is the lateral slope
and s is the emitter spacing.
Flow regime in laterals is considered smooth turbulent with Reynolds numbers within the
range 3000 < R < 100 000 since most subsurface drip irrigation laterals are made of smooth
polyethylene pipe. Thus Blasius’ head loss equation provides an accurate estimation of the
frictional losses inside uniform pipes. Likewise, local head losses at emitter insertions are
included as an equivalent length le. Then head loss hfi-i+1 between two successive emitters i-
i+1 can be calculated as
Qi i 11.75 l
hf i i 1 0.0246 0.25 · s· 1 e (8)
D4.75 s
where Qi-i+1 is the flow conveying in the uniform pipe between emitters i-i+1; D is the lateral
internal diameter and the kinematic water viscosity.
A Review of Subsurface Drip Irrigation and Its Management 183
In most commercial models, local head losses at the emitter insertion are within the interval
of 0.2 and 0.5 m (Juana et al. 2002). Lateral head losses hf can be calculated as
Q0 1.75 l
hf F 0.0246 0.25 · L· 1 e (9)
D4.75 s
where Q0 is the lateral inlet flow; L is the lateral length and F the reduction factor.
The reduction factor F (Christiansen 1942) takes the form
1 1 m1
F (10)
m 1 2 N 6 N2
where N is the number of emitters and m is the flow exponent of the head loss equation.
This formula applied to laterals with the first emitter located at a distant L/N from the inlet.
In general, number of emitters in laterals is large, and water distribution is assumed to be
continuous and uniform. Hence, F= 1/(1+m).
As said, emitter discharge in SDI can be affected by soil properties. It can be influenced by
Ks and , each of them varying throughout the field. Furthermore, the discharge can be also
affected by variation in cavity radius r0. Soil hydraulic properties from close points are
expected to be more alike than those far apart, they can be correlated using variograms.
Furthermore, these can aim at the estimation of soil properties distribution.
Examples
For the porpoise of illustration, the performance of a lateral in different uniform soils is
represented in Fig. 12a, and the effect of soil heterogeneity is shown in Fig.12b. The
comparison of the performance between SDI and surface laterals is addressed in all the
examples.
The uniformity index CVq is higher in SDI than in the surface drip irrigation in all uniform
soils except for the sandy one, where uniformities are alike. For a given r0 and h0, the
possible self-regulation due to the interaction between the emitter discharge and soil
pressure is observed in low saturated hydraulic conductivity soils (loamy and clay). The
larger the cavity radio the smaller the soil effect, and thus, the SDI lateral behaves as a
surface lateral. The irrigation uniformity index in non-uniform soils is less than in uniform
soils. It slightly reduces as r0 and h0 decrease.
For sandy soils the uniformity is very similar in both laterals; even the uniformity in the SDI
lateral is higher for certain values of r0 and h0.
In loamy soils, for higher r0 values, the uniformity reduces as emitter flow increases.
However, with small r0 this trend is not shown, and similar uniformities are observed
between the smaller emitter flows. The larger the cavity the smaller the soil effect, and thus
the SDI lateral would behave as a surface lateral. No difference in water application
uniformity is observed between surface and buried laterals in loamy soils for values of r0 >
0.01 m. On the contrary, for small r0 the self-regulating effect is predominant. Therefore, this
is enhanced by higher emitter flows since they develop higher soil overpressures.
For heterogeneous loamy soils the tendency is similar to the homogeneous soil: irrigation
uniformity decreases as emitter discharge increases (Fig. 12b). However in some scenarios,
the values of CVq are higher. The uniformity is similar in all the three discharges for r0 >
0.01; below this value, uniformity rapidly decreases.
184 Water Quality, Soil and Managing Irrigation of Crops
h0 i h0 i 1 hf Si i 1 I 0 S sL (11)
A Review of Subsurface Drip Irrigation and Its Management 185
where i and i+1 are sub-indices for two successive laterals; hfSi-i+1 are the head loss in the
uniform pipe between laterals i-i+1; I0S is the submain slope and sL is the lateral spacing.
hfSi-i+1 may be determined with Eq. [8] considering the flow conveying between the
laterals i and i+1.
Each lateral inflow can be calculated by adding the flow from all of its emitters. Local head
losses at the connection of the lateral with the submain are smaller than those in laterals
(Rodriguez-Sinobas et al. 2004), and could be left out in Eq. [8].
Two conditions are met for calculation of looped network. First, the sum of flows conveying
along the submain equates the sum of the emitter’s flow throughout the unit. Second, the
pressure at every location within the network is the same when calculated from head
towards the downstream end of the lateral than reversed. The direction of flow in a loop
network is not known. A minimum energy line with minimum pressures divides the flow
coming from the lateral head and the one coming from its downstream end. Thus from this
line, the network calculation is accomplished as two branched networks: one whose length
corresponded to the distance from the lateral inlet up to energy line; and the other whose
length corresponded to the distance from the downstream end of the lateral to that line
This program predicts discharges and pressures from both directions. The iterative process
stops when minimum pressures are met. If the value for minimum pressure from one way is
larger than from the other, the energy line moves towards the least pressure. Likewise, the
sum of the flows coming and exiting from the flushing pipe is zero.
The program ouputs are: the flows and pressures at the inlet and downstream end of the
laterals; the minimum energy line; the distribution of emitter discharges and emitter pressures;
and the irrigation uniformity coefficient CVq. Simulations can be performed for irrigation units
both laid on the surface and buried in the soil. In the last, emitter discharge is calculated with
Eq. [4] and soil water pressure at the emitter outlet is calculated with Eq. (2).
Soil variability may be determined as detailed for laterals but in this case, the variable will
be two-dimensional.
Example
A looped unit operating at several pressures in a loamy soil is selected for illustration of the
performance of a typical SDI unit in Fig.13. For all cases, irrigation uniformity improves
with small emitter discharges.
In non-uniform soils, the irrigation uniformity indexes are higher than in uniform soils, but
their differences were small. Only the clay soil with the highest discharge displayed a
significant difference.
In summary, irrigation uniformity is very good for most of the typical selected scenarios.
Nevertheless, for clay soils emitter discharge reduced 14 % and this should be taken into
account in the management of the irrigation system. On the other hand, if higher emitter
flows would have been selected, the unit would have performed worse.
2000; Schmitz et al. 2002; Cote et al. 2003; Li et al. 2005) or for system design purposes (Ben-
Gal et al. 2004; Provenzano 2007; Gil et al 2011).
Fig. 13. Irrigation uniformity coefficient CVq as a function of r0 and h0 in a SDI lateral with
non-compensating emitters of different discharges: (a) loamy uniform soil; (b) loamy non-
uniform soil.
To simulate water movement in SDI emitters, a two-dimensional axis-symmetric water flow
around a spherical surface may be simulated reproducing the hydraulic conditions.
Simulations can considered a one-half cross section the soil profile. A sphere with a radius r0
can be placed at a given depth below the soil surface, simulating the emitter and the cavity
formed around a subsurface source.
A triangular mesh is automatically generated by the program. Dimensions of the finite-
elements grid (triangles) may be refined around the emitter and other key points. Boundary
conditions can be selected as follows: absence of flux across central axis and the opposite
side; the atmospheric condition on the soil surface and free drainage along the bottom of soil
profile. For compensating emitters, a constant flux boundary may be assumed around the
A Review of Subsurface Drip Irrigation and Its Management 187
cavity—it corresponded to the emitter discharge. For non compensating emitters, a variable
flux boundary condition, function of the soil-water pressure, could be assumed calculated
from the x and k coefficients of the emitter discharge equation.
Examples
Fig. 15. Example of water distribution in a sandy soil after 4 h of irrigation (q = 10 L/h).
q * k ( h *)x (12)
with q*= q/h0x and h*=(h0 -hs)/h0; where h0 is the emitter pressure.
Values of pressure-discharge from several emitter compensating and non-compensating
models, arranged according eq. [12], show the same trend. Each category follows,
approximately, a single line that shows a linear relationship in flow rate variation below 50
%( see Fig.16).
Fig. 16. Variation of q* (q/h0x ) versus h* [(h0 -hs)/h0] for different emitter models. (Source:
Gil el al. 2011).
From the above graph, a target uniformity for SDI design is selected and then, h*
calculated. Considering a typical variation of q*= 10%, h*= 0.79 and 0.05 for non-
compensating and compensating emitters, respectively. Then, the overpressure generated in
the soilhs can be calculated from Eq. [12] for different h0 values. These would correspond to
emitter pressures within the lateral to limit the reduction of emitter discharge to 10 %.
However, the performance of pressure compensating emitters differs from the non-
compensating. In theory, their flow rate keeps constant within their compensating interval
but for other values, these would be affected by soil pressure. Thus, considering an emitter
head h0= 10 m and h* = 0.05, h0 -hs = 0.5 m. For anti-drain emitters, this value would not
be reached since once the pressure gradient is less than 2 m, the emitter would close its
discharging orifice.
A Review of Subsurface Drip Irrigation and Its Management 189
Once the valuehs is known, emitter flow rate could be calculated from its relation with q as
the one depicted in Fig. 17. This relation depends upon soil hydraulic properties and it
could be determined by numerical models simulating soil water movement. The maximum
discharge qmax will be obtained by adding to the assigned value the discharge emitter
variation desired (10% in the given example).
Fig. 17. Relation betweenhs andq for different soils considering a constant spherical radius
r0. (Source: Gil el al. 2011).
lateral depths are compared considering an emitter pressure of 16 m and a uniform initial
water content of 0.1 m3/m3.
Fig. 18 shows that for this scenario, emitter depths deeper than 10 cm are recommended to
prevent soil surface wetting for irrigation times higher than 30 min. Differences observed for
0.2 and 0.3 m depths were negligible.
Fig. 18. Wetting bulbs of drip and a SDI in uniform loamy soil for an emitter pressure of 16
m and initial soil water content 0= 0.1 .
Wetting bulbs could be simulated for different scenarios by numerical methods such as
Hydrus-2D. For each soil, selection of proper design variables (emitter spacing or lateral
depth) and/or operation variables (inlet head and irrigation time) could be guided by
figures, as those shown above, or by graphs showing wetting bulb dimensions for different
conditions.
On the other hand, many areas in the world, as their economy develops, the urban activities
expand increasing water demands and develop competing uses of limited water resources.
Thus, it raises uncertainty whether the volume of water used in irrigated agriculture can be
sustained. Within this framework, water conservation policies are developed by
policymakers reinforcing the use of new technologies and more efficient irrigation methods.
Farmers are encouraged to use irrigation methods that reduce water use and increase yield
in order to allow water to flow to other economic sectors.
In consequence, subsurface drip irrigation perspectives are promising. It shows higher
capability for minimizing the loss of water by evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation in
comparison to other methods. Thus, the irrigation water saved may become available for
other uses. It may also lead to increase crop yields since it reduces fluctuations in soil water
content and well aerated plan root zone. In addition, treated wastewaters could be used
with risk reduction in human and animal health in arid areas with water scarcity. Moreover,
it may reduce agrochemical application since agrochemicals are precisely distributed within
the active roots zone.
Finally, SDI efficiency, in some scenarios, is better than surface trickle irrigation, and it
requires smaller inlet heads. Thus energy savings are also enhanced. Furthermore, SDI may
eliminate anaerobic decomposition of plant materials and thus substantially reduce methane
gas production.
7. Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology (CICYT) for its
support provided through project No. AGL2008-00153/AGR.
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