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Lean Implementation
Applications and Hidden Costs
 Sustainable Improvements in
Environment Safety and Health
Series Editor
Frances Alston
ESH Director
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, CA

Lean Implementation: Applications and Hidden Costs, Frances Alston [2017]

The Legal Aspects of Industrial Hygiene and Safety, Kurt W. Dreger [2018]

Industrial Hygiene: Improving Worker Health through an Operational Risk

Approach, Willie Piispanen, Emily J. Millikin, and Frances Alston [2018]

Safety Culture and High-Risk Environments: A Leadership Perspective,

Cindy L. Caldwell [2018]
Lean Implementation
Applications and Hidden Costs

by
Frances Alston
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Title: Lean implementation : applications and hidden costs / Frances Alston.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2017. | Series: Sustainable
improvements in environment safety and health
Identifiers: LCCN 2016048562 | ISBN 9781498773379 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781498773386 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Organizational change--Management. | Organizational
effectiveness--Management. | Cost control. | Quality control.
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Contents

Preface ......................................................................................................................xi
About the Author ................................................................................................ xiii

1. Lean Thinking ................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................1
1.2 Attributes of a Lean Organization......................................................2
1.2.1 Know Your Customer ............................................................3
1.2.2 Respect for People ..................................................................4
1.2.3 Management Make Decisions Focusing on the
Long-Term Value as Opposed to the Now ......................... 5
1.2.4 Create a Culture That Will Allow Workers to Feel
Empowered and Free to Bring Problems to
Management’s Attention As Soon As They Arise ............ 5
1.2.5 A Continual Focus on Continuous Improvement .............5
1.2.6 Maintain a Focus on Quality Continuously ...................... 6
1.2.7 Avoid Overproduction (Use a Pull System) ....................... 6
1.2.8 Develop Leaders Who Are Inquisitive, Leaders
Who Walk the Talk on a Daily Basis, and
Are Worker Friendly.............................................................. 6
1.2.9 Develop a Process That Can Monitor Performance
As Well As Locate Improvement Areas..............................7
1.2.10 Develop a Culture That Embraces a Learning
Organization Philosophy......................................................7
1.3 Why Go Lean? ....................................................................................... 8
1.4 Delivering Customer Value .................................................................8
1.5 Defining the Waste Stream ..................................................................8
1.6 Actions That Create Flow................................................................... 10
1.7 Produce What Is Used by the Customer and Avoid
Overproduction ................................................................................... 10
1.8 Seek Perfection to Achieve Continuous Improvement .................. 11
1.9 Overview of Lean Tools ..................................................................... 11
1.9.1 Value Stream Mapping........................................................ 12
1.9.2 Six Sigma and Lean ............................................................. 12
1.10 Staying Lean ........................................................................................ 16
1.11 Summary ..............................................................................................17

2. Lean Thinking Leadership Team .............................................................. 19

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 19
2.2 Leadership Responsibilities in Organizations................................ 20
2.2.1 Vision Tenet .......................................................................... 20

v
vi Contents

2.2.2 People Tenet .......................................................................... 21

2.2.3 Strategy Tenet ....................................................................... 21
2.2.4 Decision Tenet....................................................................... 21
2.3 Followership and Leadership Roles .................................................22
2.4 Qualities of a Good Leader ................................................................ 23
2.4.1 A Good Leader Is Confident ............................................... 24
2.4.2 A Good Leader Acts with Purpose ................................... 24
2.4.3 A Good Leader Demonstrates Exemplary Character ..... 25
2.4.4 A Good Leader Is Enthusiastic........................................... 25
2.4.5 A Good Leader Is Focused ................................................. 25
2.4.6 A Good Leader Is Able to Build and Retain Good
Relationships......................................................................... 25
2.4.7 A Good Leader Is Committed to Continuous
Improvement and Excellence ............................................. 26
2.5 Lean Thinking Behaviors .................................................................. 26
2.6 Walking the Talk ................................................................................. 27
2.7 Leadership Styles ................................................................................ 27
2.8 The Influential Leader ........................................................................ 31
2.9 The Accountable Leader..................................................................... 31
2.10 The Lean Thinking Leadership Team .............................................. 32
2.11 Summary .............................................................................................. 33

3. Lean Culture .................................................................................................. 35

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 35
3.2 What Is a Lean Culture? ..................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Practices ................................................................................. 37
3.2.2 Behavior ................................................................................. 37
3.2.3 Values ..................................................................................... 38
3.2.4 Symbols and Languages ..................................................... 38
3.2.5 Assumptions and Perceptions ........................................... 38
3.2.6 Lean Thinking ...................................................................... 39
3.3 Subcultures .......................................................................................... 39
3.4 Establishing a Culture of Change ..................................................... 40
3.5 Change Management ......................................................................... 40
3.6 Supervisor’s Role in Change Management ..................................... 41
3.7 Assessing Culture ............................................................................... 41
3.8 Document Review...............................................................................43
3.9 Conducting the Survey ......................................................................43
3.10 Focus Group and Individual Interviews .........................................44
3.11 Shaping Culture .................................................................................. 46
3.11.1 Communication between Workers and Management .....47
3.11.2 Fostering Trust from Within............................................... 48
3.11.3 Consistency in Actions and Reactions .............................. 48
3.11.4 Human Resource Policies and Practices ........................... 48
3.11.5 Management Time in the Work Area ................................ 49
Contents vii

3.11.6 Delegate Lower Level Decisions ........................................ 49

3.11.7 Employee Involvement ........................................................ 49
3.11.8 Leadership Charting the Way ............................................ 49

4. Employee Engagement in a Lean Culture ............................................... 51

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 51
4.2 Defining Employee Engagement ...................................................... 52
4.3 Emotional Connection in the Workplace ......................................... 53
4.4 Employee Engagement Impacts and Benefits ................................. 53
4.5 Improved Morale................................................................................. 55
4.6 Employee Engagement and Increased Productivity ...................... 55
4.7 Team Cohesion .................................................................................... 56
4.8 Innovation and Engaged Employees................................................ 57
4.9 Higher Level of Trust Contributes to Engagement ........................ 57
4.10 The Actions of an Engaged Leader................................................... 58
4.11 Communication Strategy ................................................................... 59
4.12 Human Resource Policies and Practices .......................................... 59
4.13 Evaluating Employee Engagement ................................................... 60
4.13.1 Employee Engagement Surveys ......................................... 61
4.13.2 Focus Group Discussions: Employee Engagement ......... 61
4.14 Summary ..............................................................................................63

5. Succession Planning Strategy in a Lean Environment .........................65

5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................65
5.2 What Is Succession Planning? ........................................................... 66
5.3 Developing a Succession Planning Strategy ................................... 68
5.4 What Does a Good Succession Strategy Look Like? ...................... 69
5.4.1 Identify Key Positions.......................................................... 70
5.4.2 Identify Positions That Are Hard to Fill ........................... 71
5.4.3 Identify Key Competencies................................................. 72
5.4.4 Identify Candidates ............................................................. 73
5.4.5 Internal Candidate Communication ................................. 74
5.4.6 Conduct Skill Gap Analysis................................................ 74
5.4.7 Define and Implement Training Plan................................ 75
5.5 Promoting from Within ..................................................................... 76
5.6 Knowledge Gathering and Retention .............................................. 78
5.7 Continuing Education ........................................................................80
5.8 Succession Planning in a Lean Environment .................................80
5.9 Summary .............................................................................................. 82
Reference .........................................................................................................82

6. Talent Management and Retention and the Hidden Costs ..................83

6.1 Introduction .........................................................................................83
6.2 What Is Talent Management? ............................................................84
6.3 Balancing Employee Needs with Organizational Demands ........84
viii Contents

6.4 The Value of a Flexible Workforce ....................................................85

6.5 Knowledge Retention and Transfer .................................................. 86
6.6 Employee Retention Strategy ............................................................ 87
6.6.1 Employee Recognition........................................................... 89
6.7 Talent Care ...........................................................................................90
6.8 Why Do Employees Leave Their Companies? ................................ 91
6.8.1 Relationship with the Supervisor ........................................ 92
6.8.2 Incompetent Leadership ....................................................... 92
6.8.3 Lack of Challenging and Meaningful Work ...................... 92
6.8.4 Lack of Career Growth and Advancement
Opportunities ......................................................................... 93
6.8.5 Comparable Pay Does Matter............................................... 93
6.9 Why Do Employees Stay with Their Organization? ...................... 93
6.9.1 The Impact of Meaningful and Satisfying Work .............. 94
6.9.2 Trust in the Leadership Team and Its Impact .................... 95
6.9.3 Career Growth in a Learning Environment ...................... 95
6.9.4 Fair Pay and Benefits ............................................................. 96
6.9.5 Feeling of Value ...................................................................... 96
6.9.6 Supportive Management ...................................................... 96
6.10 Summary .............................................................................................. 97

7. Employee Development and the Hidden Cost........................................ 99

7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 99
7.2 Why Train? ......................................................................................... 100
7.3 The Role of the Leadership Team ................................................... 102
7.4 Training Needs Analysis ................................................................. 102
7.5 Training Delivery Methods ............................................................. 105
7.5.1 Classroom Training ............................................................. 106
7.5.2 On-the-Job Training............................................................. 106
7.5.3 Mentoring.............................................................................. 107
7.5.4 Job Rotation ........................................................................... 108
7.5.5 Coaching ............................................................................... 109
7.5.6 Shadowing ............................................................................ 110
7.6 Training Constraints in Lean Environments ................................ 110
7.7 Continuing Education ...................................................................... 111
7.8 Knowledge Management ................................................................. 112
7.9 Learning Culture............................................................................... 113
7.10 Assessing the Effectiveness and Quality of a
Training Program.............................................................................. 114
7.11 Summary ............................................................................................ 115
Contents ix

8. Environment Health and Safety in a Lean Environment................... 117

8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 117
8.2 Components of Corporate Environment Health and
Safety Program .................................................................................. 117
8.2.1 Environmental Protection .................................................. 118
8.2.2 Worker Safety and Health .................................................. 118
8.2.3 Environmental Health and Safety Training .................... 119
8.2.4 Health and Medical Services.............................................. 119
8.2.5 Radiation Safety Program .................................................. 119
8.3 Eliminating Waste through Compliance ....................................... 120
8.4 The Role of an Effective Environment Health and
Safety Program .................................................................................. 120
8.5 Environment Health and Safety Programs Value Proposition ....122
8.6 The Reality of Workforce Perception ............................................. 122
8.7 The Real Cost of Accidents .............................................................. 123
8.8 Applying Lean Principles and Application to
an EH&S Program ............................................................................. 124
8.9 The Synergy between Lean and Health and Safety Programs....125
8.10 Lean Tools Usage............................................................................... 127
8.11 Summary ............................................................................................ 128

9. Implementation Pitfalls and Hidden Costs........................................... 129

9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 129
9.2 What Are Pitfalls and Hidden Costs? ............................................ 130
9.3 A Project Management Approach to Lean .................................... 130
9.4 Organizational Alignment .............................................................. 131
9.5 Why Lean Fails? ................................................................................ 133
9.5.1 Performance Metrics ........................................................... 134
9.5.2 Retention of Staff in a Lean Environment ........................ 135
9.6 Minimizing Risk through Lean ...................................................... 136
9.7 The Impact of Trust on Costs and the Pitfalls of Lean
Implementation ................................................................................. 138
9.8 The Impact of Culture ...................................................................... 139
9.8.1 The Role of Subcultures ...................................................... 140
9.9 Lean Procurement ............................................................................. 140
9.10 Hidden Costs Are Multifaceted ...................................................... 141
9.11 Capturing the Actual Cost of Lean ................................................ 142
9.12 Summary ............................................................................................ 143
x Contents

10. Lean Implementation Case Study ........................................................... 145

10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 145
10.2 The Project Description .................................................................. 146
10.3 Identification and Quantification of the Problem....................... 146
10.3.1 Brainstorming................................................................... 147
10.3.2 Process Mapping .............................................................. 150
10.3.3 Worker Interviews ........................................................... 151
10.3.4 Job Hazard Analysis ........................................................ 152
10.3.5 Work Observation ............................................................ 153
10.4 Benchmarking and Technology Selection ................................... 154
10.5 Conducting the Pilot....................................................................... 154
10.5.1 Implementation of Technology to Reduce Risk in
Conducting Chemical Inventories: A Case Study ....... 155
10.6 Lean Thinking Leadership ............................................................ 156
10.6.1 Strategic Thinking Leadership ...................................... 157
10.6.2 People Oriented and Relationship Builder................... 157
10.6.3 Pulse of the Customer ..................................................... 158
10.6.4 Seeking Perfection Always ............................................. 158
10.7 Employee Engagement and Training ........................................... 158
10.8 Regulatory Impact .......................................................................... 159
10.9 Environment, Health, and Safety Aspects .................................. 159
10.10 The People Aspects of Implementation ....................................... 160
10.11 Case Study Implementation Pitfalls and Hidden Costs ............ 160
10.12 Summary .......................................................................................... 161

11. Evaluation Resource Packet ...................................................................... 163

Index ..................................................................................................................... 175

Preface

Lean thinking is a concept that is widely discussed and used on many levels
across various business processes. The application of Lean has been visible
in many industries, such as automotive, health care, and banking, and in
government. Lean in a sentence involves instituting practices that will
eliminate nonvalue added steps that will reduce waste and create value while
fostering a culture that is supportive of continuous improvement. The value
that is created can be beneficial to both the customer and the company. Lean
thinking and reengineered processes are helping companies to increase pro-
ductivity, meet and exceed their customer expectations, and improve their
financial goals.
Some practitioners refer to Lean as a process that affords an organization
the opportunity to “do more with less.” This essentially is true; often Lean
process improvement initiatives can result in staff reduction or reallocation
and changes in the company compliance posture, impact the ability to suc-
cessfully implement a succession planning strategy, limit knowledge trans-
fer and employee retention, and the list goes on. These impacts can be costly
to a company when balancing the changes that are required to keep these
processes optimized and address the people aspects of implementing Lean.
The impact and cost associated can be hidden if not addressed during the
upfront planning process.
The ability to successfully implement Lean requires that the culture
of the organization be open to adapting to changes in the new way that
business will be conducted. The lack of a culture that is supportive of
change has contributed to the failure of many attempts to implement
Lean process improvement initiatives. To successfully implement Lean
thinking within a company, a comprehensive strategy must be in place
that includes not only the reengineered process, but the people aspects
of the process. The strategy should include ways to address issues such
as the following:

• Implementation of the technical aspects of the newly improved

process
• Employee perception and engagement
• Impact to regulatory aspects such as the environmental safety and
health procedures and practices
• Succession planning strategy
• Retraining and technical knowledge retention

xi
xii Preface

• Policies and procedural changes related to implementing the new

process
• Considerations for the cultural changes needed to successfully
implement the Lean process

This book will address key organizational issues that must be considered
and addressed when implementing Lean business practices, offer solu-
tions for many of the challenges, provide a resource that leaders can use in
addressing cultural and regulatory issues, and provide a means to address
the associated people issues and the challenging task of knowledge retention
and succession planning. Vignettes are used to illustrate and provide exam-
ples of potential issues and solutions that can be considered for resolving
issues as well as identify key references that can be consulted for additional
information on key concepts. A case study is included that demonstrates
ways to address the technical and people aspects of implementing Lean to
ensure project success.
About the Author

Dr. Frances Alston has built a solid career foundation over the past 25 years
in leading the development of management and of environment, safety,
health and quality (ESH&Q) programs in diverse cultural environments.
Throughout her career, she has delivered superior performance in com-
plex, multistakeholder situations and has effectively dealt with challenging
safety, operational, programmatic, regulatory, and environmental issues.
She has been effective in facilitating the integration of ESH&Q programs
and policies as a core business function while leading a staff of business,
scientific, and technical professionals. She is skilled in providing technical
expertise in regulatory and compliance arenas as well as in determining nec-
essary and sufficient program requirements to ensure employee and public
safety, including environmental stewardship and sustainability. Dr. Alston
also has extensive knowledge and experience in assessing programs and
cultures to determine areas for improvement and development of strategy
for improvement.
She holds a BS degree in industrial hygiene and safety/chemistry, an
MS degree in hazardous and waste materials management/environmental
engineering, an MSE in systems engineering/engineering management,
and a PhD in industrial and systems engineering.
Dr. Alston is a fellow of the American Society for Engineering Management
(ASEM) and holds certifications as a Certified Hazardous Materials
Manager (CHMM) and a Professional Engineering Manager (PEM). Her
research interests include investigating and implementing ways to design
work cultures that facilitate trust.

xiii
1
Lean Thinking

1.1 Introduction
Many practitioners have argued the sustainability of Lean process improvement
in an organization. Some even believed it to be yet another fad or buzzword
that will dissipate with time. Lean process improvement initiatives are not
likely to be successful without being championed and supported by a Lean
thinking team that includes the leadership team and workers. Lean, simply
put, is a way of thinking followed by the right actions that guide the way in
which work is performed to improve business across the board in an efficient
and streamlined manner. The practices and procedures that support Lean
thinking must be ingrained in the culture and the mind of members of the
organization. Once Lean becomes ingrained in the minds of the leaders and
workers and is seen in their actions, the organization can move forward with
purpose and successfully implement a Lean business strategy. Lean thinking
is not a temporary state of mind or a way of thinking that can be turned off
and on at a whim. It requires a commitment to a physical condition as well as
long-term discipline. Lean is focused primarily on providing value for the cus-
tomer, eliminating waste, and continuously improving all facets of business
processes. The most important components that are critical to implementing
Lean are presented in Figure 1.1. These components will also be discussed in
some form throughout this chapter and this book.
Going Lean can be rigorous and draining on internal resources initially;
therefore, careful considerations along with a detailed strategy are necessary
to chart the way to success. Before beginning the journey to Lean, it is imper-
ative that top management is supportive and that support is demonstrated
through the words they speak and also through their actions. In addition, it
is necessary to ensure that the people, physical resources, and policies are in
place before moving forward.
Some would say that Lean offers an organization the ability to do more
with less; however, a more accurate depiction of Lean is that it offers the
ability to optimize processes and outcomes that yield a win–win environ-
ment for a company, its employees, and its customers. In doing so, often, the

1
2 Lean Implementation

Strategic
thinking

Flexible culture

Employee
engagement and
buy-in

Continuous
improvement

FIGURE 1.1
Lean process components.

greatest negative impact of Lean is experienced by the workers. Many com-

panies have failed in their attempt to implement Lean because the people
aspects of Lean were not considered at the up-front planning stage.

1.2 Attributes of a Lean Organization

Before implementing Lean, it is necessary to ensure that the organization is
ready and poised for success. It is wise to conduct a review of the organiza-
tion to determine if the characteristics needed for successful Lean implemen-
tation and sustainability are present. There are some fundamental principles
that must be kept in the mind of organizational members that are important
for success and must be embedded in the business practices. These prin-
ciples are listed in Table 1.1.
In order to chart the course to implement Lean principles, there are some
very fundamental attributes that are important and that must be nurtured.
The attributes listed later are not meant to be all-inclusive; however, they do
provide a place to begin when attempting to ensure success in implementing
the principles of Lean:

Attribute 1: Know your customer.

Attribute 2: Demonstrate respect for people.
Attribute 3: Management should make decision focusing on the long-
term value as opposed to the now.
Attribute 4: Create a culture that will allow workers to feel free to bring
problems to management’s attention as soon as they arise.
Lean Thinking 3

TABLE 1.1
Overriding Lean Principles
Principles of Lean Functions

Determine the customer value
Identify the value stream and
then map
Focus on eliminating waste and
create flow
Respond to pull by customer
Pursue perfection to achieve
continuous improvement
Clearly defines the value for products and services that
the customer is expecting and targets all nonvalue-
added activities for removal from the process. These
activities represents system waste
The value stream consists of all of the activities that are a
part of producing the products or services delivered to
the customer. The knowledge gained from this process
helps determine what means will be used to deliver
what the customer is expecting
Eliminating waste ensures efficient flow of products or
services to the customer without interruptions. Waste
elimination is also another way to reduce cost
Understanding what the customer wants and when they
expect delivery of products or services. Developing a
process to deliver
Continuous improvement in creating flow, identifying,
and removing waste

Attribute 5: A continual focus on continuous improvement.

Attribute 6: Maintain a focus on delivering quality continuously.
Attribute 7: Avoid overproduction (use a pull system) where feasible.
Attribute 8: Develop leaders who are inquisitive, walk the talk, and are
worker friendly.
Attribute 9: Develop a process that can monitor performance as well as
locate improvement initiatives.
Attribute 10: Never stop learning; develop a culture that embraces a
learning organization philosophy.

These attributes not only provide the optimal operating environment for
Lean, they are also beneficial to other aspects of a business strategy. Each
of these attributes will be discussed in a little more detail in Sections 1.2.1
through 1.2.10. These attributes are not listed or discussed in order of prefer-
ence or priority.

1.2.1 Know Your Customer

It is paramount that you know your customer base keeping in mind that
customers can be internal as well as external. Not all efforts performed
may add value to all customers and therefore may not be supported by all
customers. It is also paramount that the needs of each customer are known
and a strategy to deliver quality products and services is in place. A good
4 Lean Implementation

strategy to consider would be to schedule routine meetings with the cus-

tomer or ask the customer to complete a customer satisfaction survey at
some frequency. It is important to establish and keep a close connection
with all customers.
When meeting customers, ensure that the meetings are kept sacred,
which means that canceling and rescheduling should be avoided or kept at a
minimum. Canceling and rescheduling meetings may give the customer the
perception that you do not value their time and business. The meeting times
should be used wisely to build relationship and provide insights into what
the customer needs are and whether your organization is meeting those
needs. If a survey is used, ensure that the survey is designed to provide
meaningful data that can be used to determine performance and whether or
not the customer expectations are being met. If customer needs and expecta-
tions are not being met, it is appropriate to engage in a discussion with the
customer on the areas that the company needs to focus on in order to turn
performance and the relationship around. Good customer relationship often
yields repeated business opportunities.

1.2.2 Respect for People

This attribute can be viewed as one of the most important attributes
because it has to do with the people who will be impacted as a result of
implementing Lean. Often, we hear leaders communicate that the most
important resources in their company are the workers. Without dedicated
and skilled workers, a business cannot succeed. Implementation of Lean
without careful considerations and involvement of the workers can lead
to a loss of trust and respect for the leaders and the company. This can
represent a major problem when implementing Lean. Some actions that
management should exhibit if it desires to demonstrate respect are listed
as follows:

• Persistent and frequent communication

• Praise for a job well done when it occurs
• Listen to ideas and suggestions
• Consult employees on solutions to issues and process improvement
suggestions and initiatives
• Be willing to assist when needed
• Saying thanks when appropriate
• Treat people with courtesy and kindness
• Encourage the exchange of opinions and ideas
• Use workers’ ideas and input to improve work processes where
feasible
Lean Thinking 5

When people feel respected, they are likely to respect the management team
and the company. The respect of workers will manifest itself in the way they
respond to the leadership team and the work they perform on behalf of the
organization.

1.2.3 Management Make Decisions Focusing on the

Long-Term Value as Opposed to the Now
Decision making is a fundamental responsibility of management. In fact,
it is a primary function of a manager. Management effectiveness is based
heavily on the quality of the decision they make daily. A decision is sys-
tematically defined as selecting a course of action from a set of potential
actions to increase the probability of achieving a desired result. Therefore,
it is pertinent that decisions are made taking into considerations the long-
term strategy to ensure successful and continual implementation of Lean
thinking and process improvement. It is vital that management is strategic in
decision making, taking into considerations the long-term implications and
not seeking only to implement a strategy that will yield only a short-term
success. A strategy focused only on the short-term success is not optimal for
Lean sustainability.

1.2.4 Create a Culture That Will Allow Workers to Feel

Empowered and Free to Bring Problems to
Management’s Attention As Soon As They Arise
Worker involvement in the workplace is critical in accomplishing work. Not
only is worker involvement necessary for work to be performed, it also has a
direct impact on productivity and product quality, which are the two impor-
tant elements that directly impact the financial bottom line of a company.
Employees working in an empowered culture tend to be free with providing
suggestions and ideas that can improve business processes. The benefits of
the workplace culture are discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Also found in
Chapter 7 are ways to evaluate and improve culture. Recognizing that the
culture of an organization is the key in driving behaviors, managers must
spend time in nurturing and fostering workplace cultures that can support
Lean thinking and implementation.

1.2.5 A Continual Focus on Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement of business practices and processes is a way to
separate the marginal companies from the good companies. Companies and
workers who are happy with the status quo are not likely to achieve greater
success and are likely to see their business stifled due to the lack of inno-
vation. This lack of innovation and continuous improvement may cause an
6 Lean Implementation

organization to lose the ability to compete in their respective markets. This

principle is discussed in more detail in Section 1.7.

1.2.6 Maintain a Focus on Quality Continuously

The customer determines quality; therefore, in order to deliver quality to
your customers, there is the need to understand the needs and expectations
of the customer. Once there is an understanding of the customer quality
needs, then a plan should be put into place to ensure that quality is achieved
and maintained. Managing quality is crucial for a business because quality
products and services can help

• Maintain customer satisfaction and loyalty.

• Reduce the risk of producing faulty and unusable products.
• Build the company’s reputation for quality.
• Reduce the cost associated with rework.

There are a host of tools available to assist in evaluating and controlling

quality. Many of these tools are listed in Table 1.2.

1.2.7 Avoid Overproduction (Use a Pull System)

This principle is discussed in detail in Section 1.7.

1.2.8 Develop Leaders Who Are Inquisitive, Leaders Who Walk

the Talk on a Daily Basis, and Are Worker Friendly
Management by walk around is an effective way of management. In fact,
it puts the manager in touch with the workforce and what work is being
performed on the shop floor. This form of management is also effective in
building relationship with employees. Managers who spend time on the
shop floor are typically viewed by workers as being friendly, caring, and

TABLE 1.2
Quality Control Tools
Cumulative
Sum Control
Analysis of Runs Capability Analysis C Charts (CUSUM) Charts

Expoentially Weighted Moving Individual and Lag plots Levey-Jennings

Average (EWMA) charts moving range charts charts
Moving average charts NP charts Pareto charts P charts
Repeatability and R chart S chart Tolerance intervals
Reproducibility (R&R) studies
U charts X-bar charts X-bar and X-bar and R charts
S charts
Lean Thinking 7

approachable. Leaders who are inquisitive often know what questions to ask
in order to gage performance and uncover areas that require improvement.
They are also viewed by workers as being interested in their work and value
their contributions. An inquisitive manager who walk the talk is able to get
workers to openly provide feedback, embrace change, and participate in
important initiatives.

1.2.9 Develop a Process That Can Monitor Performance

As Well As Locate Improvement Areas
It is said that we generally do well in the areas that we monitor or are focused
on. This is often true because monitoring allows the focus to be directed to
a specific process or task. Monitoring can be done through various means;
however, before any attempt to monitor performance is embarked on, the
performance objectives must be defined. Some steps that can be used to help
with process monitoring include the following:

• Define the performance criteria

• Compare the actual performance against the desired performance
• Identify the difference and reason for the differences
• Determine a strategy to correct performance
• Implement and monitor strategy
• Review and analyze data

Many of the tools listed in Table 1.2 can be used to monitor performance as
well as to identify process improvements.

1.2.10 Develop a Culture That Embraces a Learning

Organization Philosophy
A learning culture has a set of values and practices that encourages indi-
viduals to increase knowledge, competence, and performance. In a learning
culture, employees are actively engaged in learning, and mistakes are used
as a teachable moment for employees and management. In a learning cul-
ture, one can expect the following:

• Learning is a daily habit that is demonstrated through behaviors.

• A recognition that mistakes can be an opportunity to learn.
• Mistakes are tolerated with no adverse penalty on employees.

In a culture where mistakes are tolerated, employees feel free to develop the
entrepreneurship and ingenuity needed to discover different and more effi-
cient ways of conducting business.
8 Lean Implementation

1.3 Why Go Lean?

The aforementioned principles operating within an organization can yield
great benefits to facilitate Lean thinking and implementation. One may ask,
why is Lean implementation important to business outcomes? The benefits
of a Lean organization include the following:

• Lean organizations require less efforts by humans to perform work.

• Lean organizations use less material to create products.
• Lean organizations offer streamlined effective services.
• Lean organizations take less time and efforts to develop their products.
• Lean organizations have a greater focus on the needs and wants of
the customer.
• Lean organizations are known for product quality.
• Lean organizations seek ways to continue to improve their products,
their way of doing business, and their relationship with the customer.
• Lean organizations have a greater focus on the people aspects of the
business.

1.4 Delivering Customer Value

Lean thinking organizations understand the importance of consistently
creating and delivering value to the customer. These organizations typi-
cally have continuous improvement at the forefront of everything they
do. There are different levels of value that the customers may be seeking.
Considerations should be given to values that are of importance in economic,
business, and personal areas. Figure 1.2 provides a brief summary of what
may be included in each value proposition category. Table 1.3 provides some
questions that can be used to identify and define each value proposition and
help zero in on what the customer may be seeking.

1.5 Defining the Waste Stream

Waste can cost a company a significant amount of revenues that otherwise
would be used to enhance other areas of the business. The challenge is to be
able to identify the waste that needs to be managed or mitigated. Identifying
Lean Thinking 9

• Financial impact
Economic value • Increase cash flow
• Reduced operational cost

• Productivity for user

Business value
• Productivity for company

• Personal growth impact

Personal value • Financial
• Influence

FIGURE 1.2
Customer values proposition.

TABLE 1.3
Value Proposition Identification
Value Proposition Questions

Economic value 1. What is the return on investment?

2. Will operational cost be less?
3. What is the financial impact on the company?
4. Will revenue or cash flow increase?
Business value 1. What does the investment do for the company?
2. How can the investment increase productivity?
Personal value 1. Will I get additional compensation?
2. Will I get promoted?
3. Will success improve my influence?

and eliminating waste are not generally easy. The first part of the process is
to be able to identify what constitutes waste. There are many ways to identify
waste. Some of these avenues are listed as follows:

• Ask the worker

• Map out the process
• Review performance data
• Conduct a third-party review of the process by experts
• Benchmark the performance of a similar process

Waste can fall within one or more categories or forms. These forms are listed
in Table 1.4 with a brief description of what to look for.
10 Lean Implementation

TABLE 1.4
Forms of Waste
Type of Waste Source

Defect Products that are not produced based on specifications

Transportation Moving items from one location to another
Underutilized Underutilizing skills of worker, workers engaged or not
Human capital Functioning to their potential
Inventory control Storing resources such as parts or equipment way in advance of usage
Stalled time Waiting for instructions or steps to be completed, equipment, and
supplies
Overproduction Producing more than what is needed
Movement Movement of people, having them perform unnecessary steps and
ergonomic issues resulting from awkward movement or performing
unnecessary tasks
Talent Not engaging workers in the business

1.6 Actions That Create Flow

Lean flow is concerned with how people and products move through the
system from one step to another or from one station to another. The goal is to
optimize the flow of work in a manner in which people and products move
quickly and safely throughout the system. Care must be given to avoid jeop-
ardizing quality while optimizing the flow. The optimal goal of an increas-
ing flow is to improve the throughput while improving quality and customer
satisfaction. Some actions that can be used to help create a flow are listed as
follows for considerations:

1. Focus on the needs of the customer.

2. Determine how work is performed.
3. Identify and remove inefficiencies (waste).
4. Empower workers and encourage them to be engaged in identifying
process improvement initiatives.
5. Evaluate how the process is functioning (collect and evaluate the data).

1.7 Produce What Is Used by the Customer

and Avoid Overproduction
Overproduction is defined as making products in larger quantities than
needed or before they will be used, leading to excessive inventory and the
need for a dedicated storage space. One key aspect of producing only what
Lean Thinking 11

is needed and avoiding overproduction is to use a pull system. In a pull

system, products are produced based on fulfilling orders or requests made
by the customer producing only what is requested. A pull system is used to
maintain small quantities of items needed and replace only what is used.
This practice helps avoid overproduction and the need to store large quanti-
ties of items for extended periods of time. Reducing overproduction reduces
the amount of funds tied up in raw materials, storage space needs, and move-
ment of inventory.

1.8 Seek Perfection to Achieve Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement in this context refers to ongoing efforts to identify
and eliminate problems and to seek and implement practices or procedures
to improve quality and efficiency of operation. Continuous improvement
is a philosophy that seeks to improve all factors related to transforming a
process on an ongoing basis. In order to achieve a culture of continuous
improvement, it requires long-term support and investment by top manage-
ment. Long-term support can include providing training to workers, allo-
cating adequate resources, or continuing to foster a culture of change and
employee engagement.
Continuous improvement requires that the entire organization be
involved in the process. Employees must be motivated and involved and
accept continuous improvement as a way that the company can gain a com-
petitive advantage and become a leader in the business segment in which
they compete. Employee engagement and empowerment are key elements
in the process of continuous improvement. When workers are active in
reporting issues to management and helping management seek solutions
to problems, continuous improvement becomes a constant part of the busi-
ness practices.

1.9 Overview of Lean Tools

In this section, several Lean tools will be highlighted that can be of some
use during the transition process. These tools can also be useful in fostering
a workplace culture that is needed to sustain process improvement for the
long haul. Not all of the tools mentioned will be useful for every change in
operation, practice, or procedure. The tools discussed are not represented as
an all-inclusive list, recognizing that there are other tools that may achieve
the same level of success in implementation.
12 Lean Implementation

Recognizing that one of the most important steps in Lean implementa-

tion is to gain support of the members of the implementing group, the next
step is to select tools that will help identify ways to improve the process
and measure performance. Increasingly, organizations are using Six Sigma
and the associated tools to identify areas where improvements can increase
value and the bottom line for the customer and the company. There are a
host of books written on Lean tools that can be used to diagnose, improve,
measure, and control processes.

1.9.1 Value Stream Mapping

There are many tools that can be used to identify, diagnose, and implement
Lean process improvement initiatives. However, the beginning of the evalu-
ation process should start with mapping the process. Process or value stream
mapping is effective in providing a pictorial chronological view of a project,
task, product, or process. It provides a view that allows the flow of work and
the process activities to become transparent, so that improvements in the
process can be adjusted to remove waste and increase efficiency. This view
provides a comprehensive look and a unique opportunity to analyze each
step or activity to improve efficiencies and eliminate waste.
Mapping is critical because during the mapping, the as is design is
determined and the to be design is defined. The value stream consists of
all activities involved in the process, task, or group involved in producing
the output. The identification process is most effective and comprehensive
when performed in a team setting. It is also critical to ensure that the right
team members are assembled to ensure optimal efficiency. At the conclu-
sion of the process, it should be clear what practices or steps in the pro-
cess are nonvalue added and can be discarded. Several tools that can be
used in identifying process issues and improving efficiency in operation are
included in Table 1.5. Many of these tools can also aid in monitoring system
performance.

1.9.2 Six Sigma and Lean

The goals of Six Sigma and Lean are in alignment because both are designed
to improve process efficiency, eliminate waste, improve quality, and create
efficiency in systems. This is accomplished by streamlining and improv-
ing processes across the business. Six Sigma was originally designed to be
used in manufacturing. However, it was quickly discovered that Six Sigma
has broad applicability throughout all aspects of a business process. Like
Six Sigma, Lean is a tool that when used effectively can help to streamline
business processes. The Six Sigma tool kit consists of a host of tools to help
analyze performance, identify improvement initiatives, and eliminate waste
in resources. The methodology of Six Sigma is typically implemented in five
TABLE 1.5
Lean Tools
Tool Description Value Proposition
Lean Thinking

Andon A visual system that displays the status of the process to
include providing an alert when assistance is needed and
provides empowerment to workers to stop production
when they determine it to be appropriate
Bottleneck analysis Used to identify the part of the process that limits and
hinders complete efficiency
Cellular manufacturing Process to simplify workflow and focusing on a single
product or a specific batch
Continuous flow Process designed to allow work to flow smoothly through
production with ease
Gemba A philosophy of encouraging field presence of everyone
from senior management to the worker level
Heijunka A scheduling technique using sequencing and producing
products in smaller batches
Hoshi Kanri (policy Alignment of the company’s goals and the work that is
implementation) being performed
Jidoka (automation) Design the process to take advantage of partial automation.
The process should be flexible enough to allow automation
to cease if defects or issues are detected
Just in time (JIT) Purchase (pull) parts based on known demand
Kaizen A strategy proactively used to continuously improve
process, procedures, or technologies using inputs from
employees at all levels of the company
A real-time communication tool that provides immediate
notification of issues that allows management to
immediately address problems as they occur
Improves throughput by removing and strengthening the
weakest part of the process
Used to organize a small team of people to focus on a
single or small batch of products completing the entire
product prior to leaving the work cell
Eliminates several forms of waste such as time, inventory,
and material
Promotes a top-down understanding of the actual process
and potential issues
Reduces lead time and inventory because batches are
smaller
Ensures that the strategic plan is consistently implemented
throughout the company
Less expensive than complete automation. Potently to
reduce labor cost because workers can monitor multiple
stations
Reduces inventories and space requirements and improves
cash flow
Uses the team approach and combines the talents within
the company to facilitate improvement. Works well with
standardized work
(Continued)
13
 14
TABLE 1.5 (Continued)
Lean Tools
Tool Description Value Proposition

Kanban A method for regulating the flow of goods internally and
externally using a system of automatic replenishment when
more supply is needed
Key performance Metrics that are designed to track the progress of critical
indicator (KPI) goals. These metrics can guide behavior because they are
typically reviewed frequently by management
Mistake proofing Combines Ishikawa charting and Pareto analysis to analyze
(Poka-yoke) and identify process-related issues
Plan, do, check, act The methodology involve establishing the plan,
(PDCA) implementing the plan, verify that the results received are
the expected results, and review and assess
Quick changeover Converting an equipment from servicing one product to
another in a short time period
Root cause analysis Problem-solving method that focuses on discovering the
underlying issue as opposed to leaping to the solution
Six Sigma A rigorous methodology that uses statistics to improve
process and work practices
Statistical process Uses a variety of analytical and measurement technique to
control (SPC) determine if the process is in control or operating as
intended
Takt time The average rate that a product or action must be transacted
based on customer requirements. It is the pace of
production that will meet customer needs
Eliminates the need to maintain inventory as well as the
act of inventorying goods
Key performance indicators are effective because they
should be aligned with senior management strategic
goals and can drive the behavior of those who are critical
to achieving results
Helps to identify process and procedural issues to improve
workflow
Applies a strategic approach to improving process,
practices, and procedures
Short changeover times can be effective in reducing batch
sizes and facilitating just in time production and delivery
Effective in ensuring that problems are eliminated by
instituting the appropriate corrective action or actions
that caused the problem
Improvement in quality and performance in practices and
process
Using statistics to improve quality and process capability
A simple and consistent method and pace of production
can increase process efficiency
(Continued)
Lean Implementation
Another random document with
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 of Collozoum inerme, 76;
of Myxomycetes, 92;
of Sporozoa, 95 f.;
of Gregarines, 95 f., 98 f.;
of Bodo saltans, 117;
kineto-, of Trypanosoma noctuae, 120, 121;
trophic, of T. noctuae, 120;
of Choanoflagellates, 122;
of Opalina, 123;
of Maupasia, 124;
of Sphaerella, 126;
of Volvox, 126;
of Noctiluca, 133
—fusion- or zygote-, 150;
of Paramecium caudatum, 148
—see also Meganucleus, Micronucleus, Gametonuclei, Nuclear
apparatus
Nuda, 423
Nummulitaceae, 59
Nummulites, 59, 63, 70
Nussbaum, on regeneration in Protozoa, 35 n.;
on Hydra, 254
Nutrition, 9;
animal and vegetal, 35 f.;
of Flagellates, 110 f., 113;
of Dinoflagellates, 130 f.—see Holozoic, Holophytic, Saprophytic
—of Alcyonaria, 339
Nutritive function of granular cytoplasm of muscle-cell, 19
Nuttall, history of discoveries on Acystosporidae, 103
Nutting, 276, 280 n.
Nyctotherus, 137;
habitat of, 152

Obelia, 280
Oceanapia, 223
Ocellus, 252
Octactine, 200
Octactinellida, 208
Octotremacis, 346
Ocular plate of Echinus esculentus, 512
Oculina, 399
Oculinidae, 399
Ocyroe, 420;
O. crystallina, 419
Ocyroidae, 420
Odinia, 474, 475
Oecology of Protista, 43
Oesophagus, of Asterias rubens, 438;
of Echinus esculentus, 516;
of Holothuria nigra, 562;
of Antedon rosacea, 583;
of Dipleurula, 605
Ogilvie, M., 401 n.
Oikomonadidae, 111
Oikomonas, 111, 112
Oil-drops, of Radiolaria, 79 f.;
luminous, 80
Oil-globules, 37;
of Ciliata, 144
Oleocyst, 305
Oligotrichaceae, 137, 155
Olindias, 291;
O. mülleri, 291
Olindiidae, 289, 291
Olindioides, 291;
O. formosa, 291
Olynthus, 185
Omne vivum, ex ovo, 42;
ex vivo, 44
Onychaster, 203
Onychaster, 502
Oocyte (a cell which by unequal divisions or mere nuclear divisions
becomes converted into an oosphere), 100
Oogamete of Coccidiaceae, 100 f.
Ookinete (active zygote) or oosperm, of Acystosporidae, 104 f.;
of Trypanosoma noctuae, 120
Oolitic limestones, nucleus of concretions of, 70
Oosperm, 34;
of Sporozoa, 96 f.;
of Volvox globator, 127 f.
Oosphere, 31;
formation of, in Metazoa, 75 n.;
of Gregarinidaceae, 99, 100;
of Coccidiaceae, 100 f.;
of Acystosporidae, 104 f.
Oospore (= zygotospore), from bisexual syngamy, 100;
of Volvox globator, 127 f.
Ooze, Globigerina, 61;
Radiolarian, 87
Oozooid, 358
Opalina, 111;
galvanotaxy, 22;
ciliiform flagella, 114;
species, 124 n.;
nuclei, 144 n.;
systematic position of, 144 n., 145 n.;
O. ranarum, 123
Opalinidae, 111, 123 f.
Opalinopsidae, 145 n.
Opercularia, 138, 158
Operculum of central capsule of Phaeodaria, 76, 82
Ophiacantha, 492, 499;
mouth-frame, 492;
O. chelys, 499
Ophiactis, 498;
O. balli, 498;
O. virens, 491, 498
Ophiarachna, 481, 499
Ophicephalous pedicellariae, of Echinus esculentus, 508;
of E. acutus, 509;
of E. elegans, 510;
 absent in Cidaridae, 534;
of Echinarachnius parma, 544
Ophidiaster, 471
Ophiocoma, 493, 499;
O. nigra, 499
Ophiocomidae, 499
Ophiodermatidae, 495 n.
Ophiodes, 277, 280
Ophiogeron, 494
Ophioglypha—see Ophiura
Ophiohelus, 481, 491, 494;
O. umbella, skeleton, 493
Ophiolepididae, 495
Ophiomusium, 497;
O. pulchellum, 497, 498
Ophiomyxa, 493, 494;
O. pentagona, 494
Ophiopholis, 491, 499;
O. aculeata, 499
Ophiopluteus, 606, 608;
metamorphosis of, 613
Ophiopsila, 499
Ophiopteron, 492, 500
Ophiopyrgus, 493, 497
Ophioscolex, mouth-frame, 492
Ophioteresis, 481, 491, 494
Ophiothrix, 493, 499;
mouth-frame, 492;
O. fragilis (pentaphyllum), 478, 479;
arm of, 479;
vertebra, 480, 491;
podia, 479;
mouth-frame, 482;
disc, 484;
genital bursa and respiratory movements, 485;
alimentary canal, 485;
water-vascular system, 486;
 axial sinus, 487;
perihaemal spaces, 488;
nervous system, 488;
genital organs, 489
Ophiura (Ophioglypha), 496;
O. albida, 497;
O. bullata, 495, 496;
O. ciliaris, 485 n., 497
Ophiuroidea (Brittle Stars), 431, 477 f., 561;
mesenchyme of larva, 604;
development of, 606, 606, 608, 613;
phylogeny, 622
Ophlitaspongia, 225
Ophrydium, 138, 158
Ophryocystis, 97
Oplorhiza (Campanulariidae, 280), 277
Oractis, 377
Oral apparatus, of Ciliata, its atrophy and regeneration during
conjugation, 151
Oral blood-ring, of Asterias rubens, 450;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 488;
of Holothuria nigra, 567
Oral cleft or groove of Noctiluca, 132 f.
Oral coelom of Antedon rosacea, 585
Oral plates, of Crinoidea, 588;
of Thaumatocrinus, 589;
of Hyocrinus, 588, 590;
of Holopus, 588, 592;
of Rhizocrinus, 589, 591;
absent in adult Antedon, 589;
of Rhizocrinidae, 590, 591;
of Bathycrinus, 591;
of Cystoidea, 598;
of Blastoidea, 599;
of young Antedon rosacea, 619
Oral spots of Protomastigaceae, 110
Oral valves, of Antedon rosacea, 581;
 of young A. rosacea, 619
Orbicella, 373, 375, 400
Orbiculina, 59, 66
Orbigny, A. d', on Foraminifera, 62
Orbitoides, 59
Orbitolites, 59, 66;
pylomes, 64;
dimorphism, 67;
monstrous shell, 69
Orbulina, 59, 66;
O. universa, 68
Orbulinella, habitat, 75
Organ-pipe Coral, 343
Organella, 44 n.
Organic compounds, their function in nutrition, 35 f.
Organoid, 44 n.
Oriental sore, 121
Ornamentation of shell-wall in Foraminifera, 66
Oscarella, 196, 213, 225;
A. lobularis, 230
Osculosa (Monotrypasta), 76
Osculum, of Radiolaria, 76;
of Phaeodaria, 76, 82;
of Sponges, 169, 171, 174, 188, 189
Ossicles of Holothuroidea, 569
Ostium, 169
Otocysts, of Elasipoda, 571;
of Synaptida, 576
Outer perihaemal ring, of Asterias rubens, 448;
development of, in Asterina gibbosa, 612;
represented by lantern-coelom of Echinus esculentus, 524;
by buccal sinus of Holothuria nigra, 566
Ovary of gnat infected by Trypanosoma germs, 120
Ovoid gland of Ophiothrix fragilis, 489
Ovum of Sea-urchin, 7;
of Sarcocystis tenella, 108 n.;
of Volvox globator, 127 f.
—see also Oosphere, Oosperm, Egg
Owl, blood parasites of, 120
Oxea, 183, 224
Oxyaster (an aster with a small centrum and oxeate actines), 222
Oxytricha, 138
Oxytylote (a rhabdus of which one actine is oxeate, the other tylote
or knobbed, the latter directed towards the surface of the
Sponge), 224

Pachychalina, 223
Pachymatisma, 215;
P. johnstonia, 215, 222;
P. normani, 215
Pairing in Trichosphaerium, 54
Pairing-cells, 31, 33 f.;
in Lankesteria, 95
—see also Gametes, Syngamy
Pairing nuclei, state of, 34;
of Ciliata, 150;
of Paramecium, 148
Palaeaster, 476
Palaeocoma, 476
Palaeodiscus, 557
Palaeoechinoidea, 556
Palaeoechinus, 557
Palephyra, 322
Pali, 370, 385, 387
Palmella state of Zooxanthella, 86
Palmipes, 461, 464;
P. membranaceus, 464
Pamphagus, test of, 59 f.
Panceri, 339
Pandorina morum, 111, 129
Pansporoblast of Myxosporidiaceae, 107
Pantostomata, 109
Papula (including dermal gill), 432, 457;
compared to diplopore of Cystoidea, 599
Paractinopoda, 570
Paragaster, 187
Paragastric canals, 416
Paraglycogen (= paramylum), 95
Paragorgia, 333, 336, 351
Paralcyonium, 349
Paramecium, 137, 143 n., 151, 153;
specific gravity of, 13 n.;
thigmotaxy of, 20;
reaction to repellent stimuli, 21 n.;
thermotaxy of, 22;
galvanotaxy of, 22;
chemiotaxy of, 23;
trichocysts of, 143, 151;
contractile vacuoles of, 143 n., 151;
P. bursaria, 153;
P. caudatum, 151;
in conjugation, 148
Paramoeba, 51 n., 110;
nutrition of, 113;
formation and regeneration of chromatophores in, 115;
P. eilhardii, 116 n.;
reproduction of, 116 n.
Paramuricea, 356;
spicule, 336
Paramylum (= paraglycogen), 37, 95, 115;
in Gregarines, 95;
in Flagellates, 115;
in Ciliata, 144
Parangi, 121 n.
Parapyle, 81
Pararchaster, 466
Parasites, in relation to brood-formation, 33;
internal, belonging to Metazoa, nutrition of, 38;
of man, 57, 103 f., 108 n., 119 f., 152;
of Radiolaria, 86 f.;
of Sticholonche, 86, 161;
 of plants, 88 f.;
of Acantharia, 86, 161;
of Crucifers, 89;
of Crustacea, 89;
of earthworm, 95;
of centipedes, 99;
of Epizoanthus glacialis, 99;
of Lithobius forficatus, 99;
of cold-blooded Vertebrates, 102;
of rabbit, 102;
of cattle, 102, 119 f.;
of frog, 102, 124;
of birds, 103;
of fish, 107;
of silkworm, 107;
of fish, 107, 119, 152;
of sheep, 108 n.;
of insects, 111, 123;
of Amphibia, 111, 123 f., 158;
of dog, 119;
of horse, 119;
of ox, 119;
of Rodents, 119;
of owl, 120 f.;
of cockroach, 123;
of mole-cricket, 123;
of Termites, 123;
of Metazoa, 152;
of Ruminants, 152;
of Heliozoa, 155;
of Raphidiophrys, 155;
of Hydra, 158;
of newts, 158;
of Ciliata, 159
Parasitic, Proteomyxa, 48, 88 f.;
Sporozoa, 48, 94 f.;
Flagellata, 48, 111, 119 f., 123;
 Rhizopoda, 57;
Ciliata, 152, 158;
Suctoria, 161;
Hydrozoa, 268 f.
Parasmilia, 401
Parazoa, 181
Parazoanthus, 406;
P. anguicomus, 406;
P. separatus, 406;
P. tunicans, 406
Parenchymalia, 201
Parenchymula, 227
Parisis, 351
Parker, 371
Parkeria, 283
Paroral cilia, 139;
of Vorticella, 156 n.
Parthenogenesis, of malarial parasites, conjectured, 106 n.
Pasteur, on organisms of fermentation and putrefaction, 43;
on nature of pébrine (Nosema bombycis), 107
Patellina, 59;
reproduction of, 69
Patina, 580;
of Antedon rosacea, 582;
of Thaumatocrinus, 589;
of Hyocrinus, 590;
of Rhizocrinidae, 590;
of Pentacrinidae, 591
Paulinella, 52;
test of, 54;
pylome of, 54
Pavonia (Fungiidae, 403), 390
Paxilla, 455;
evolution of, 466;
relation to granules of Valvata, 471
Paxillosa, 461, 466 f.;
restriction of papulae to dorsal surface, 469
Peachia, 366, 380;
P. hastata, 370
Pébrine, 107
Pectinate pedicellariae, 456, 466
Pectyllidae, 294
Pectyllis, 294
Pedal laceration, 372
Pedal nerve, of Asterias rubens, 455;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 488;
of Echinus esculentus, 518;
of Holothuria nigra, 566
Pedicellaria, of Asterias rubens, 432;
of A. glacialis, 434;
of Asteroidea, 456;
alveolate, 456;
pectinate, 456;
pincer-shaped, 456;
valvate, 456;
forcipulate, 433, 434, 456, 462;
representatives in Ophiuroidea, 492;
in Ophiothrix fragilis, 492;
in Ophiohelus, 492, 493;
of Echinus acutus, 509;
of E. esculentus, 506 f., 507;
tridactyle, 506, 509, 510;
gemmiform, 506, 509, 510;
trifoliate, 508, 509, 510;
ophicephalous, 508, 509, 510;
function of, 508 f.;
of Endocyclica, 532;
of Cidaridae, 532;
of Echinothuriidae, 532, 535;
of Centrostephanus longispinosus, 532;
of Echinarachnius parma, 544, 545;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 550;
absent in Pelmatozoa, 582
Pedicellaster, 474
Pedicellasteridae, 456, 474
Pegantha, 296
Peganthidae, 296
Pekelharing, 187 n., 234 n., 237
Pelagia, 311, 312, 315, 316, 323;
P. noctiluca, 311;
P. perla, 323;
P. phosphora, 311, 323
Pelagic, Foraminifera, 61, 66, 69;
Radiolaria, 76;
Dinoflagellates, 131
Pelagiidae, 323
Pelagohydra, 263, 274;
P. mirabilis, 274
Pelagohydridae, 274
Pelagothuria, 568, 569, 572;
P. natans, 572
Pelagothuriida, 572, 577, 578
Pellicle, of Protozoa, 46;
of Flagellates, 109 f., 113;
of Noctiluca, 133;
of Ciliata, 139, 141, 142;
of Coleps, 141, 152;
of Dysteria, 153;
of Vorticella, 157;
of Suctoria, 159;
of tentacles of Suctoria, 161
—see also Cuticle
Pelmatozoa, 430, 579 f.;
phylogeny of, 621
Pelomyxa, 51;
P. palustris, 52 f.;
pepsin in, 16
Penard, on Heliozoa, 71;
on Rhizopoda, 58 n.
Peneroplis, 59, 66;
pylomes of, 64
Peniagone, 572
Pennaria, 272
Pennariidae, 272
Pennatula, 361;
P. grandis, 361;
P. murrayi, 359, 362;
P. naresi, 362;
P. phosphorea, 338, 361
Pennatulacea, 333, 335, 337, 358, 358, 359, 363 f.
Pentaceros, 472
Pentacerotidae, 457, 458, 459, 471
Pentachogon, 294
Pentacrinidae, 588, 589, 591 f.
Pentacrinoidea, 595
Pentacrinus (Isocrinus), 591 f.;
P. asteria, 592;
P. maclearanus, 593
Pentagonaster, 471;
P. japonicus, 472
Pentagonasteridae, 455, 471
Pentremites, 599
Pepsin, 16
Peptic, digestion, 16;
juice in Carchesium, 147
Peptones, 15
Perforate, Corals, 371;
Foraminifera, 58 f.
Peribolaster, 453, 463
Peribranchial spaces of Asterias rubens, 449
Pericolpa, 322
Peridiniales, synonym of Dinoflagellata used by Schütt, 119, 132
Peridinium, 110;
fossil, 132;
P. divergens, 131
Perigonimus, 265, 266, 269
Perihaemal spaces (or canals), of Asterias rubens, 448;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 481, 488;
 of Echinus esculentus, 524;
of Holothuria nigra, 566
Peripatus, segmentation of, 32 n.
Periphylla, 311, 314, 322;
P. regina, 322
Periphyllidae, 310, 322
Periproct, of Echinus esculentus, 504, 507, 512, 513, 534;
of Endocyclica, 530, 534, 538;
of Cidaridae, 530, 533, 534;
of Arbaciidae, 530;
 of Echinothuriidae, 535;
development of, in young Echinoid, 613
Peripylaea (= Spumellaria), 76
Perisarc, 251, 263
Perisiphonia, 277, 280
Peristalsis of intestine of Holothuria nigra, 563
Peristome, of Ciliata, 137 f.;
in fission, 147;
of Peritrichaceae, 155 f.;
of Vorticellidae, 155 f., 157;
of Asterias rubens, 434;
of Echinus esculentus, 505, 513, 514;
of Asteroidea, 514;
of Cidaridae, 514, 530, 533;
of Endocyclica, 530;
of Echinothuriidae, 535;
of Asthenosoma hystrix, 537;
of Saleniidae, 537;
of Arbaciidae, 538;
of Diadematidae, 538;
of Echinidae, 539;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 550;
of Spatangoidea, 553;
of Palaeostomatidae, 554
Peristomial area, 139;
of Caenomorpha and Metopus, 154;
of Bursaria, 155
Peristomial collar, 142, 156, 157
Peristomial plate, of Ophiothrix fragilis, 483;
of Endocyclica, 530;
of Cidaridae, 530, 533;
of Echinothuriidae, 530, 535;
of Saleniidae, 537;
of Arbaciidae, 538;
of Echinus microtuberculatus, 540
Peritoneum, of Asterias rubens, 437;
of Holothuria nigra, 567
Peritrichaceae, 138;
pellicle, 141;
myonemes, 142;
trichocysts, 143;
contractile vacuole and reservoir, 145;
pharynx, vestibule, mode of feeding, 145;
fission, 147;
conjugation, 151;
peristomial collar, 156, 157
Perkins, 232 n., 290
Peronella, 549
Peronium, 295
Perrier, on classification of Asteroidea, 461
Persian Tick, 121
Petal, of Echinarachnius parma, 545;
of Fibularidae, 549;
of Echinanthidae, 549;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 551
Petalocrinus, 595
Petasidae, 294
Petasus, 294
Peters, 414 n.
Petrostroma, 193;
P. schulzei, 193
Pfeiffer, on Sporozoa, 94
Phacella, 314
Phacotus, 111;
shell, 113
Phaeoconchia, 79, 85
Phaeocystina, 79, 82, 87
Phaeodaria (Cannopylaea, Tripylaea), 76, 79;
skeleton, 82, 84, 85;
central capsule, 82, 84;
fission, 85
Phaeodium, 76, 81, 82
Phaeogromia, 79
Phaeosphaeria, 79
Phakellia, 224
Phalangopora, 284, 286
Phalansteridae, 111
Phalansterium, 113
Phanerocodonic, 253, 265
Phanerozonate, 454
Pharetronidae, 192
Pharyngella, 79, 85
Pharynx, of Stylonychia mytilus, 139;
of Ciliata, 145;
of Gymnostomaceae, 145;
of Paramecium caudatum, 151;
of Caenomorpha uniserialis, 155;
of Peritrichaceae, 145;
of Carchesium polypinum, 146 f.;
of Vorticella, 156, 157
Pharynx-tube of Euglenaceae, 124 f.
—see also Flagellar Pit
Pheronema, 204;
P. carpenteri, 204, 205, 221
Phialidium temporarium, 281
Pholidaster, 474
Phoriospongia, 220
Phosphorescence, of Dinoflagellata, 132;
of Cystoflagellata, 132, 134;
of Noctiluca, 132, 134;
of Scyphozoa, 311;
of Alcyonaria, 338;
of Pennatulids, 361;
of Ctenophores, 414
Phosphorescent oil-drops in Radiolaria, 80
Photopathy, 21
Phototaxy, 21;
of Euglena, 125
Phycochromaceae, 39
Phycomycetes Zoosporeae related to Flagellata, 109
Phycomycetous Fungi, relations of, 48
Phylactocarp, 276
Phyllactidae, 382
Phyllangia, 400;
P. americana, 374
Phyllode, 553
Phyllograptus, 282
Phyllophorus, 573;
P. rugosus, 567;
P. urna, 574
Physalia, 300, 302, 304, 308
Physiological contrast of Animals and Plants, 38
Physiology, of cell and protoplasm, 3 f.;
of Sponges, 234 f.;
of nervous system of Echinoidea, 519 f.
Physonectidae, 301, 307
Physophora, 301, 308;
P. borealis, 304
Physophorae, 307
Physophorinae, 308
Pigment, of Stentor, 154;
of Sponges, 169, 238;
-granules, of Phaeodaria, 76, 80 f.
Pinacocyte, 170, 213, 237
Pincer-shaped pedicellariae, 456
Pineau, on spontaneous generation, 43
Pinnule, of Antedon rosacea, 581, 583;
of A. eschrichtii, 594;
of Hyocrinus, 590;
of Metacrinus, 592;
of fossil Crinoidea, 595
Pinulus (a pentactine triaxon in which the unpaired actine bears
lateral spines and projects beyond the bounding surface), 204
Piroplasma, 120 f.
Placosmilia, 401
Placospongia, spicules of, 233
Plakina, 212, 213;
P. monolopha, 210, 212, 213
Plankton, Protozoa of, 48;
Foraminifera of, 61;
Radiolaria of, 75
Planorbulina, 59, 63
Plant(s), definition, 39;
Animals and, discussion on, 35 f.;
Higher, movements of, 38;
insectivorous, 38;
-Protists, relations of, 48;
-cells, wall of, 37;
protoplasmic connexions of, 37
—see also Metaphytes
Planula, 341
Plasmodiophora, 89
Plasmodium, 30;
rheotaxy, 21;
of Myxomycetes, 50, 90 f.;
of Proteomyxa, 88;
of Didymium, 92
Plasmodium, a generic name given to Acystosporid Coccidiaceae
producing malarial fever, 103 f.—see Haemamoeba,
Laverania
Plastid, 21, 36 f.;
of Paulinella, 54 n.;
of Flagellates, 110, 112 f.;
of Trachelomonas, 112
—see also Chromoplasts, Chromatophore, Chromoplastid
Plastogamy, 30, 34 n.;
of Rhizopods, 56;
of Foraminifera, Discorbina and Patellina, 69;
temporary, in Actinophrys sol, 72;
of Myxomycetes, 90 f.
Plastron, of Echinocardium cordatum, 550;
of Sternata, 554
Plate, on Dendrocometes, 162
Plates, siliceous, of shell of Rhizopods, 29, 53 f.;
ctenophoral, 141, 412 f.
Platt, Julia B., on density of living protoplasm, 13 n.
Platybrissus, 554
Platyctenea, 413, 416, 421
Platyhelminthes, bladder of, 14 n.
Plectinia, 193
Plectoidea, 78
Plectroninia, 193, 193;
P. halli, 193
Plesiofungiidae, 403
Plesioporitidae, 404
Pleurobrachia, 418;
P. pileus, 416, 417, 418;
P. rhodopis, 418
Pleurobrachiidae, 418
Pleurocorallium, 352
Pleurocoralloides, 352
Pleurogorgia, 355
Pleuronema, 137;
P. chrysalis, 153, 154
Plexaura, 356
Plexauridae, 356
Plimmer and Rose Bradford, on Trypanosoma, 121
Pliobothrus, 284, 286
Plocamia, 223
Plumohalichondria, 225
Plumularia, 279;
P. echinulata, 276;
P. halecioides, 276;
P. profunda, 275;
P. setacea, 276
Pluteus, 607
Pneumatophore, 300 f., 307 f.
Pneumatopyles, 309
Pneumotaxy, 23
Pocillon, 223
Pocillopora, 375, 402, 402;
P. septata, 402