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Mechanics of Materials
Ninth Edition
Barry J. Goodno
Georgia Institute of Technology
James M. Gere
Professor Emeritus, Stanford University
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Mechanics of Materials, Ninth Edition © 2018, 2013 Cengage Learning®
Authors: Barry J. Goodno and
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James M. Gere
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ConTenTS
About the Authors ix 3. Torsion 273

Preface xi 3.1 Introduction 274
MindTap Online Course xviii 3.2 Torsional Deformations of a Circular
Bar 274
Symbols xxi 3.3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic
Greek Alphabet xxiv Materials 277
3.4 Nonuniform Torsion 290
1. Tension, Compression, and Shear 1
3.5 Stresses and Strains in Pure
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics Shear 302
of Materials 2
3.6 Relationship Between Moduli of
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach 2
Elasticity E and G 309
1.3 Statics Review 3
3.7 Transmission of Power by Circular
1.4 Normal Stress and Strain 22 Shafts 311
1.5 Mechanical Properties of Materials 31 3.8 Statically Indeterminate Torsional
1.6 Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep 38 Members 315
1.7 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, 3.9 Strain Energy in Torsion and
and Poisson’s Ratio 44 Pure Shear 319
1.8 Shear Stress and Strain 50 3.10 Torsion of Noncircular Prismatic
1.9 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads 63 Shafts 326
1.10 Design For Axial Loads 3.11 Thin-Walled Tubes 336
and Direct Shear 70 *3.12 Stress Concentrations in Torsion 344
Chapter Summary and Review 74 Chapter Summary and Review 349
Problems 77 Problems 352
2. Axially Loaded Members 119
4. Shear Forces and Bending Moments 377
2.1 Introduction 120
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded
4.2 Types of Beams, Loads, and
Members 120
Reactions 378
2.3 Changes in Lengths under Nonuniform
4.3 Shear Forces and Bending
Conditions 128
Moments 388
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures 142
4.4 Relationships Among Loads, Shear
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits, and
Forces, and Bending Moments 396
Prestrains 155
4.5 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment
2.6 Stresses on Inclined Sections 174
Diagrams 400
2.7 Strain Energy 186
Chapter Summary and Review 427
*2.8 Impact Loading 197
Problems 429
*2.9 Repeated Loading and Fatigue 205
*2.10 Stress Concentrations 207 5. Stresses in Beams (Basic Topics) 445
*2.11 Nonlinear Behavior 214 5.1 Introduction 446
*2.12 Elastoplastic Analysis 218 5.2 Pure Bending and Nonuniform
Chapter Summary and Review 225 Bending 446
Problems 227 5.3 Curvature of a Beam 447
v
vi Contents
5.4 Longitudinal Strains in Beams 449 7.4 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 656
5.5 Normal Stress in Beams (Linearly 7.5 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress 669
Elastic Materials) 453 7.6 Triaxial Stress 675
5.6 Design of Beams for Bending 7.7 Plane Strain 679
Stresses 466 Chapter Summary and Review 694
5.7 Nonprismatic Beams 476 Problems 697
5.8 Shear Stresses in Beams of Rectangular
Cross Section 480 8. Applications of Plane Stress
5.9 Shear Stresses in Beams of Circular (Pressure Vessels, Beams, and
Cross Section 488 Combined Loadings) 719
5.10 Shear Stresses in the Webs of Beams 8.1 Introduction 720
with Flanges 491 8.2 Spherical Pressure Vessels 720
*5.11 Built-Up Beams and Shear Flow 498 8.3 Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 726
*5.12 Beams with Axial Loads 502 8.4 Maximum Stresses in Beams 733
*5.13 Stress Concentrations in Bending 509 8.5 Combined Loadings 741
Problems 518
Problems 768
6. Stresses in Beams (Advanced Topics) 553
9. Deflections of Beams 787
6.2 Composite Beams 554
9.2 Differential Equations of the Deflection
6.3 Transformed-Section Method 563
Curve 788
6.4 Doubly Symmetric Beams with Inclined
9.3 Deflections by Integration of the
Loads 571
Bending-Moment Equation 793
6.5 Bending of Unsymmetric Beams 578
9.4 Deflections by Integration of the Shear-
6.6 The Shear-Center Concept 589 Force and Load Equations 804
6.7 Shear Stresses in Beams of Thin-Walled 9.5 Method of Superposition 809
Open Cross Sections 590
9.6 Moment-Area Method 818
6.8 Shear Stresses in Wide-Flange
9.7 Nonprismatic Beams 826
Beams 593
9.8 Strain Energy of Bending 831
6.9 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open
Sections 597 *9.9 Castigliano’s Theorem 836
*6.10 Elastoplastic Bending 605 *9.10 Deflections Produced by Impact 848
Chapter Summary and Review 614 *9.11 Temperature Effects 850
Problems 616 Chapter Summary and Review 854
Problems 856
7. Analysis of Stress and Strain 639
7.1 Introduction 640 10. Statically Indeterminate Beams 883
7.2 Plane Stress 640 10.1 Introduction 884
7.3 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear 10.2 Types of Statically Indeterminate
Stresses 648 Beams 884
Contents vii
10.3 Analysis by the Differential Equations References and Historical notes 1019
of the Deflection Curve 887
APPenDIX A: Systems of Units and Conversion
10.4 Method of Superposition 893
Factors 1029
*10.5 Temperature Effects 907
*10.6 Longitudinal Displacements at the Ends APPenDIX B: Problem Solving 1043
of a Beam 914
APPenDIX C: Mathematical Formulas 1051
Problems 919 APPenDIX D: Review of Centroids and Moments
of Inertia 1057
11. Columns 933
APPenDIX e: Properties of Plane Areas 1083
11.2 Buckling and Stability 934 APPenDIX F: Properties of Structural-Steel
11.3 Columns with Pinned Ends 942 Shapes 1089
11.4 Columns with Other Support APPenDIX G: Properties of Structural
Conditions 951 Lumber 1101
11.5 Columns with Eccentric Axial
Loads 960 APPenDIX H: Deflections and
11.6 The Secant Formula for Columns 965 Slopes of Beams 1103
11.7 Elastic and Inelastic Column APPenDIX I: Properties of Materials 1109
Behavior 970
Answers to Problems 1115
11.8 Inelastic Buckling 972
11.9 Design Formulas for Columns 977 Index 1153
Problems 996
*A star attached to a section number indicates a specialized and/or advanced topic.
A B o U T T H eCAoUnTTHe on RT S
Barry J. Goodno
Barry John Goodno is Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at
Georgia Institute of Technology. He joined the Georgia Tech faculty in 1974. He
was an Evans Scholar and received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, in 1970. He received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in Structural Engineering from Stanford University, Stanford, California, in 1971
and 1975, respectively. He holds a professional engineering license (PE) in Georgia,
is a Distinguished Member of ASCE and an Inaugural Fellow of SEI, and has
held numerous leadership positions within ASCE. He is a past president of the
ASCE Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) Board of Governors and is also a
member of the Engineering Mechanics Institute (EMI) of ASCE. He is past-chair
of the ASCE-SEI Technical Activities Division (TAD) Executive Committee, and
past-chair of the ASCE-SEI Awards Committee. In 2002, Dr. Goodno received
© Barry Goodno
the SEI Dennis L. Tewksbury Award for outstanding service to ASCE-SEI. He
received the departmental award for Leadership in Use of Technology in 2013 for
his pioneering use of lecture capture technologies in undergraduate statics and
mechanics of materials courses at Georgia Tech. He is a member of the Earth-
quake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) and has held several leadership posi-
tions within the NSF-funded Mid-America Earthquake Center (MAE), directing
the MAE Memphis Test Bed Project. Dr. Goodno has carried out research, taught
graduate courses and published extensively in the areas of earthquake engineering
and structural dynamics during his tenure at Georgia Tech.
Dr. Goodno is an active cyclist, retired soccer coach and referee, and a
retired marathon runner. Like co-author and mentor James Gere, he has com-
pleted numerous marathons including qualifying for and running the Boston
Marathon in 1987.
James M. Gere
James M. Gere (1925-2008) earned his undergraduate and master’s degree in
Civil Engineering from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1949 and 1951,
respectively. He worked as an instructor and later as a Research Associate for
Rensselaer. He was awarded one of the first NSF Fellowships, and chose to study
at Stanford. He received his Ph.D. in 1954 and was offered a faculty position
in Civil Engineering, beginning a 34-year career of engaging his students in
challenging topics in mechanics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He
served as Department Chair and Associate Dean of Engineering and in 1974
co-founded the John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center at Stanford. In
1980, Jim Gere also became the founding head of the Stanford Committee on
Earthquake Preparedness. That same year, he was invited as one of the first for-
eigners to study the earthquake-devastated city of Tangshan, China. Jim retired
Courtesy of James and
from Stanford in 1988 but continued to be an active and most valuable member
Janice Gere Family Trust
of the Stanford community.
ix
x About the Authors
Jim Gere was known for his outgoing manner, his cheerful personality and
wonderful smile, his athleticism, and his skill as an educator in Civil Engi-
neering. He authored nine textbooks on various engineering subjects starting
in 1972 with Mechanics of Materials, a text that was inspired by his teacher
and mentor Stephan P. Timoshenko. His other well-known textbooks, used
in engineering courses around the world, include: Theory of Elastic Stability,
co-authored with S. Timoshenko; Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures and
Matrix Algebra for Engineers, both co-authored with W. Weaver; Moment
Distribution; Earthquake Tables: Structural and Construction Design Manual,
co-authored with H. Krawinkler; and Terra Non Firma: Understanding and
Preparing for Earthquakes, co-authored with H. Shah.
In 1986 he hiked to the base camp of Mount Everest, saving the life of a
companion on the trip. James was an active runner and completed the Boston
Marathon at age 48, in a time of 3:13. James Gere will be long remembered by
all who knew him as a considerate and loving man whose upbeat good humor
made aspects of daily life or work easier to bear.
P R e FAC e
Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that, along with statics,

must be understood by anyone concerned with the strength and physical per-
formance of structures, whether those structures are man-made or natural. At
the college level, statics is usually taught during the sophomore or junior year
and is a prerequisite for the follow-on course in Mechanics of Materials. Both
courses are required for most students majoring in mechanical, structural, civil,
biomedical, petroleum, nuclear, aeronautical, and aerospace engineering. In
addition, many students from such diverse fields as materials science, industrial
engineering, architecture, and agricultural engineering also find it useful to study
mechanics of materials.
Mechanics of Materials
In many university engineering programs today, both statics and mechanics of
materials are taught in large sections of students from the many engineering
disciplines. Instructors for the various parallel sections must cover the same
material, and all of the major topics must be presented so that students are
well prepared for the more advanced courses required by their specific degree
programs. An essential prerequisite for success in a first course in mechanics of
materials is a strong foundation in statics, which includes not only understanding
fundamental concepts but also proficiency in applying the laws of static equi-
librium to solutions of both two- and three-dimensional problems. This ninth
edition begins with an updated section on statics in which the laws of equilib-
rium and an expanded list of boundary (or support) conditions are reviewed, as
well as types of applied forces and internal stress resultants, all based upon and
derived from a properly drawn free-body diagram. Numerous examples and end-
of-chapter problems are included to help students review the analysis of plane
and space trusses, shafts in torsion, beams and plane and space frames, and to
reinforce basic concepts learned in the prerequisite course.
Many instructors like to present the basic theory of say, beam bending, and
then use real world examples to motivate student interest in the subject of beam
flexure, beam design, etc. In many cases, structures on campus offer easy access to
beams, frames, and bolted connections that can be dissected in lecture or in home-
work problems, to find reactions at supports, forces and moments in members
and stresses in connections. In addition, study of causes of failures in structures
and components also offers the opportunity for students to begin the process of
learning from actual designs and past engineering mistakes. A number of the new
example problems and also the new and revised end-of-chapter problems in this
ninth edition are based upon actual components or structures and are accompa-
nied by photographs so that the student can see the real world problem alongside
the simplified mechanics model and free-body diagrams used in its analysis.
An increasing number of universities are using rich media lecture (and/
or classroom) capture software (such as Panopto and Tegrity) in their large
undergraduate courses in mathematics, physics, and engineering. The many
new photos and enhanced graphics in the ninth edition are designed to support
this enhanced lecture mode.
xi
xii Preface
Key Features
The main topics covered in this book are the analysis and design of structural
members subjected to tension, compression, torsion, and bending, including
the fundamental concepts mentioned above. Other important topics are the
transformations of stress and strain, combined loadings and combined stress,
deflections of beams, and stability of columns. Some additional specialized top-
ics include the following: stress concentrations, dynamic and impact loadings,
non-prismatic members, shear centers, bending of beams of two materials (or
composite beams), bending of unsymmetric beams, maximum stresses in beams,
energy based approaches for computing deflections of beams, and statically
indeterminate beams.
Each chapter begins with a Chapter Overview highlighting the major top-
ics covered in that chapter and closes with a Chapter Summary and Review in
which the key points as well as major mathematical formulas in the chapter
are listed for quick review. Each chapter also opens with a photograph of
a component or structure that illustrates the key concepts discussed in the
chapter.
new Features
Some of the notable features of this ninth edition, which have been added as
new or updated material to meet the needs of a modern course in mechanics of
materials, are:
• Problem-Solving Approach—All examples in the text are presented in a
new Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach which is patterned after that
presented by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage
Learning, 2013. This new structured format helps students refine their
problem-solving skills and improve their understanding of the main con-
cepts illustrated in the example.
• Statics Review—The Statics Review section has been enhanced in Chapter
1. Section 1.2 includes four new example problems which illustrate calcu-
lation of support reactions and internal stress resultants for truss, beam,
circular shaft and plane frame structures. Thirty-four end-of-chapter prob-
lems on statics provide students with two- and three-dimensional structures
to be used as practice, review, and homework assignment problems of
varying difficulty.
• Expanded Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary and Review sections—
The Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary sections have been expanded
to include key equations and figures presented in each chapter. These sum-
mary sections serve as a convenient review for students of key topics and
equations presented in each chapter.
• Continued emphasis on underlying fundamental concepts such as equilib-
rium, constitutive, and strain-displacement/ compatibility equations in
problem solutions. Example problem and end-of-chapter problem solu-
tions have been updated to emphasize an orderly process of explicitly writ-
ing out the equilibrium, constitutive and strain-displacement/ compatibility
equations before attempting a solution.
Preface xiii
• Expanded topic coverage—The following topics have been updated or have

received expanded coverage: stress concentrations in axially loads bars
(Sec. 2.10); torsion of noncircular shafts (Sec. 3.10); stress concentrations
in bending (Sec. 5.13); transformed section analysis for composite beams
(Sec. 6.3); generalized flexure formula for unsymmetric beams (Sec. 6.5);
and updated code provisions for buckling of steel, aluminum and timber
columns (Sec. 11.9).
• Many new example and end-of-chapter problems—More than forty new
example problems have been added to the ninth edition. In addition, there
are more than 400 new and revised end-of-chapter problems out of the
1440 problems presented in the ninth edition text. The end-of-chapter
problems are now grouped as Introductory or Representative and are
arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
• Centroids and Moments of Inertia review has moved to Appendix D to free
up space for more examples and problems in earlier chapters.
Importance of example Problems

• Examples are presented throughout the book to illustrate the theoretical
concepts and show how those concepts may be used in practical situations.
All examples are presented in the Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach
format so that the basic concepts as well as the key steps in setting up and
solving each problem are clearly understood. New photographs have been
added showing actual engineering structures or components to reinforce
the tie between theory and application. Each example begins with a clear
statement of the problem and then presents a simplified analytical model
and the associated free-body diagrams to aid students in understanding
and applying the relevant theory in engineering analysis of the system. In
most cases, the examples are worked out in symbolic terms so as to better
illustrate the ideas, and then numeric values of key parameters are substi-
tuted in the final part of the analysis step. In selected examples through-
out the text, graphical display of results (e.g., stresses in beams) has been
added to enhance the student’s understanding of the problem results.
example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

involves the analysis of a
real physical structure, such
Figure 1-6 Figure 1-7 as this truss structure (Fig.
Free-body diagram of truss model 1-6) representing part of
y
the fuselage of a model air
P plane. Begin by sketching
C
the portion of the structure
2P
θC = 80° of interest showing
a members, supports,
b
θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

θA = 60° This Conceptualization
Ax A B
D x step in the analysis often
Ay By leads to a free-body
c/2 c/2 diagram (Fig. 1-7).
xiv Preface
Solution:
The solution involves the following steps:
The next step is to simplify 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a free-body dia-
the problem, list known gram of the entire truss model (Figure 1-7). Only known applied
data and identify all
forces at C and unknown reaction forces at A and B are shown and
unknowns, and make
necessary assumptions to then used in an equilibrium analysis to find the reactions.
create a suitable model 2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires that the
for analysis. This is the
Categorize step. force components in x and y directions and the moment about the z
axis must sum to zero; this leads to reaction force components Ax,
Ay, and By. The truss is statically determinate (unknowns: m 1 r 5 5
Write the governing 1 3 5 8, knowns: 2j 5 8) so all member forces can be obtained using
equations, then use the method of joints. . . .
appropriate mathematical
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
and computational
techniques to solve the solution]: First find the lengths of members AC and BC, which are
equations and obtain needed to compute distances to lines of action of forces.
results, either in the form
of mathematical formulas Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles u A, u B,
or numerical values. The and uC and c 5 10 ft to find lengths a and b:
Analysis step leads to
support reaction and sin(u B ) sin(408 )
b 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 6.527 ft,
member forces in the truss. sin(uC ) sin(808 )
sin(u A ) sin(608 )
a 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 8.794 ft
sin(uC ) sin(808 )
Check that computed lengths a and b give length c by using the law
of cosines:
c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft

List the major steps in your
analysis procedure so that it 4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—does it make sense? Are units
is easy to review or check at
a later time. correct? How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: There
are 2 j 5 8 equilibrium equations for the simple plane truss consid-
ered above and, using the method of joints, these are obtained by
applying SFx 5 0 and SFy 5 0 at each joint in succession. A com-
puter solution of these simultaneous equations leads to the three
reaction forces and five member forces. The method of sections is an
efficient way to find selected member forces.
List the major steps in the Finalize step,

review the solution to make sure that it is
presented in a clear fashion so that it can
be easily reviewed and checked by others.
Are the expressions and numerical values
obtained reasonable? Do they agree with
your initial expectations?
Preface xv
Problems
In all mechanics courses, solving problems is an important part of the learning
process. This textbook offers more than 1440 problems, many with multiple
parts, for homework assignments and classroom discussions. The problems
are placed at the end of each chapter so that they are easy to find and don’t
break up the presentation of the main subject matter. Also, problems are
generally arranged in order of increasing difficulty, thus alerting students to
the time necessary for solution. Answers to all problems are listed near the
back of the book.
Considerable effort has been spent in checking and proofreading the text so
as to eliminate errors. If you happen to find one, no matter how trivial, please
notify me by e-mail (bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu). We will correct any errors in the
next printing of the book.
Units
Both the International System of Units (SI) and the U.S. Customary System
(USCS) are used in the examples and problems. Discussions of both systems
and a table of conversion factors are given in Appendix A. For problems involv-
ing numerical solutions, odd-numbered problems are in USCS units and even-
numbered problems are in SI units. This convention makes it easy to know
in advance which system of units is being used in any particular problem. In
addition, tables containing properties of structural-steel shapes in both USCS
and SI units may be found in Appendix F so that solution of beam analysis
and design examples and end-of-chapter problems can be carried out in either
USCS or SI units.
Supplements
Instructor Resources
An Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available in both print and digital versions,
and includes solutions to all problems from this edition with Mathcad solutions
available for some problems. The Manual includes rotated stress elements for
problems as well as an increased number of free body diagrams. The digital
version is accessible to instructors on http://login.cengage.com. The Instructor
Resource Center also contains a full set of Lecture Note PowerPoints.
Student Resources
FE Exam Review Problems has been updated and now appears online. This
supplement contains 106 FE-type review problems and solutions, which cover
all of the major topics presented in the text and are representative of those likely
to appear on an FE exam. Each of the problems is presented in the FE Exam
format and is intended to serve as a useful guide to the student in preparing for
this important examination.
Many students take the Fundamentals of Engineering Examination upon
graduation, the first step on their path to registration as a Professional Engi-
neer. Most of these problems are in SI units which is the system of units used
xvi Preface
on the FE Exam itself, and require use of an engineering calculator to carry out
the solution. The student must select from four available answers, only one of
which is the correct answer. Go to http://www.cengagebrain.com to find the
FE Exam Review Problems and the resources below, which are available on
the student website for this book:
• Answers to the FE Exam Review Problems
• Detailed Solutions for Each Problem
S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

and J.M. Gere (1925–2008)
Many readers of this book will recognize the name of Stephen P. Timoshenko—
probably the most famous name in the field of applied mechanics. A brief
biography of Timoshenko appears in the first reference in the References and
Historical Notes section. Timoshenko is generally recognized as the world’s most
outstanding pioneer in applied mechanics. He contributed many new ideas and
concepts and became famous for both his scholarship and his teaching. Through
his numerous textbooks he made a profound change in the teaching of mechan-
ics not only in this country but wherever mechanics is taught. Timoshenko was
both teacher and mentor to James Gere and provided the motivation for the
first edition of this text, authored by James M. Gere and published in 1972.
The second and each subsequent edition of this book were written by James
Gere over the course of his long and distinguished tenure as author, educator,
and researcher at Stanford University. James Gere started as a doctoral student
at Stanford in 1952 and retired from Stanford as a professor in 1988 having
authored this and eight other well-known and respected text books on mechan-
ics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He remained active at Stanford
as Professor Emeritus until his death in January of 2008.
Acknowledgments
To acknowledge everyone who contributed to this book in some manner is clearly
impossible, but I owe a major debt to my former Stanford teachers, especially my
mentor and friend, and co-author James M. Gere.
I am grateful to my many colleagues teaching Mechanics of Materials at
various institutions throughout the world who have provided feedback and con-
structive criticism about the text; for all those anonymous reviews, my thanks.
With each new edition, their advice has resulted in significant improvements
in both content and pedagogy.
My appreciation and thanks also go to the reviewers who provided specific
comments for this ninth edition:
Erian Armanios, University of Texas at Arlington
Aaron S. Budge, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Virginia Ferguson, University of Colorado, Boulder
Preface xvii
James Giancaspro, University of Miami
Paul Heyliger, Colorado State University
Eric Kasper, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Richard Kunz, Mercer University
David Lattanzi, George Mason University
Gustavo Molina, Georgia Southern University
Suzannah Sandrik, University of Wisconsin—Madison
Morteza A.M. Torkamani, University of Pittsburgh
I wish to also acknowledge my Structural Engineering and Mechanics

colleagues at the Georgia Institute of Technology, many of whom provided
valuable advice on various aspects of the revisions and additions leading to
the current edition. It is a privilege to work with all of these educators and to
learn from them in almost daily interactions and discussions about structural
engineering and mechanics in the context of research and higher education.
I wish to extend my thanks to my many current and former students who have
helped to shape this text in its various editions. Finally, I would like to acknowl-
edge the excellent work of Edwin Lim who suggested new problems and also
carefully checked the solutions of many of the new examples and end of chapter
problems.
I wish to acknowledge and thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage
Learning for their dedication to this new book:
Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Mona Zeftel, Senior Content Developer;

D. Jean Buttrom, Content Project Manager; Kristin Stine, Marketing Manager;
Elizabeth Brown and Brittany Burden, Learning Solutions Specialists; Ashley
Kaupert, Associate Media Content Developer; Teresa Versaggi and Alexander
Sham, Product Assistants; and Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services, Inc.
They have skillfully guided every aspect of this text’s development and
production to successful completion.
I am deeply appreciative of the patience and encouragement provided by
my family, especially my wife, Lana, throughout this project.
Finally, I am very pleased to continue this endeavor begun so many years
ago by my mentor and friend, Jim Gere. This ninth edition text has now reached
its 45th year of publication. I am committed to its continued excellence and wel-
come all comments and suggestions. Please feel free to provide me with your
critical input at bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu.
Barry J. Goodno
Atlanta, Georgia
M I n DTA P o n L I n e C o U R S e
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SyMBoLS
A area
Af , Aw area of flange; area of web
a, b, c dimensions, distances
C centroid, compressive force, constant of integration
c distance from neutral axis to outer surface of a beam
D diameter
d diameter, dimension, distance
E modulus of elasticity
E r , Et reduced modulus of elasticity; tangent modulus of elasticity
e eccentricity, dimension, distance, unit volume change
(dilatation)
F force
f shear flow, shape factor for plastic bending, flexibility,
frequency (Hz)
fT torsional flexibility of a bar
G modulus of elasticity in shear
g acceleration of gravity
H height, distance, horizontal force or reaction, horsepower
h height, dimensions
I moment of inertia (or second moment) of a plane area
I x, I y, I z moments of inertia with respect to x, y, and z axes
I x1, I y1 moments of inertia with respect to x1 and y1 axes (rotated axes)
I xy product of inertia with respect to xy axes
I x1y1 product of inertia with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
IP polar moment of inertia
I1, I 2 principal moments of inertia
J torsion constant
K stress-concentration factor, bulk modulus of elasticity, effective
length factor for a column
k spring constant, stiffness, symbol for P /EI
kT torsional stiffness of a bar
L length, distance
LE effective length of a column
ln, log natural logarithm (base e); common logarithm (base 10)
M bending moment, couple, mass
M P, MY plastic moment for a beam; yield moment for a beam
m moment per unit length, mass per unit length
N axial force
xxi
xxii Symbols
n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

O origin of coordinates
O9 center of curvature
P force, concentrated load, power
Pallow allowable load (or working load)
Pcr critical load for a column
PP plastic load for a structure
Pr, Pt reduced-modulus load for a column; tangent-modulus load
for a column
PY yield load for a structure
p pressure (force per unit area)
Q force, concentrated load, first moment of a plane area
q intensity of distributed load (force per unit distance)
R reaction, radius
r radius, radius of gyration ( r 5 I /A )
S section modulus of the cross section of a beam, shear center
s distance, distance along a curve
T tensile force, twisting couple or torque, temperature
TP, TY plastic torque; yield torque
t thickness, time, intensity of torque (torque per unit distance)
tf , t w thickness of flange; thickness of web
U strain energy
u strain-energy density (strain energy per unit volume)
ur , ut modulus of resistance; modulus of toughness
V shear force, volume, vertical force or reaction
v deflection of a beam, velocity
v9, v 0, etc. dv/dx, d 2 v /dx 2 , etc.
W force, weight, work
w load per unit of area (force per unit area)
x, y, z rectangular axes (origin at point O)
xc , yc , zc rectangular axes (origin at centroid C)
x, y, z coordinates of centroid
Z plastic modulus of the cross section of a beam
a angle, coefficient of thermal expansion, nondimensional ratio
b angle, nondimensional ratio, spring constant, stiffness
bR rotational stiffness of a spring
g shear strain, weight density (weight per unit volume)
g xy , g yz , g zx shear strains in xy, yz, and zx planes
g x1y1 shear strain with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
gu shear strain for inclined axes
d deflection of a beam, displacement, elongation of a bar
or spring
Symbols xxiii
∆T temperature differential
d P , dY plastic displacement; yield displacement
« normal strain
« x, « y, « z normal strains in x, y, and z directions
« x1, « y1 normal strains in x1 and y1 directions (rotated axes)
«u normal strain for inclined axes
«1, « 2 , « 3 principal normal strains
«9 lateral strain in uniaxial stress
«T thermal strain
«Y yield strain
u angle, angle of rotation of beam axis, rate of twist of a bar
in torsion (angle of twist per unit length)
up angle to a principal plane or to a principal axis
us angle to a plane of maximum shear stress
k curvature (k 5 1/r )
l distance, curvature shortening
n Poisson’s ratio
r radius, radius of curvature ( r 5 1/k ), radial distance in polar
coordinates, mass density (mass per unit volume)
s normal stress
s x, s y, s z normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x, y, and z axes
s x1, s y1 normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x1 y1 axes (rotated
axes)
su normal stress on an inclined plane
s 1, s 2, s 3 principal normal stresses
s allow allowable stress (or working stress)
s cr critical stress for a column (s cr 5 Pcr /A)
s pl proportional-limit stress
sr residual stress
sT thermal stress
sU , sY ultimate stress; yield stress
t shear stress
t xy , t yz, t zx shear stresses on planes perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes
and acting parallel to the y, z, and x axes
t x1y1 shear stress on a plane perpendicular to the x1 axis and acting
parallel to the y1 axis (rotated axes)
tu shear stress on an inclined plane
t allow allowable stress (or working stress) in shear
t U , tY ultimate stress in shear; yield stress in shear
f angle, angle of twist of a bar in torsion
c angle, angle of rotation
v angular velocity, angular frequency (v 5 2p f )
xxiv Symbols
GReeK ALPHABeT
A a Alpha N n Nu
B b Beta J j Xi
Γ g Gamma O o Omicron
D d Delta Π p Pi
E « Epsilon P r Rho
Z z Zeta S s Sigma
H h Eta T t Tau
Θ u Theta Y y Upsilon
I ι Iota F f Phi
K k Kappa X x Chi
Λ l Lambda Ψ c Psi
M m Mu Ω v Omega
CHAPTER
Tension, Compression, and Shear 1
Jan Jirous/Shutterstock.com
This telecommunications tower is an assemblage of many members that act primarily in tension or compression.
Chapter Objectives
• Define mechanics of materials, which examines the stresses, • Investigate changes in lateral dimensions and volume of a
strains, and displacements in structures made of various bar, which depend upon Poisson’s ratio ( n ) for the material of
materials acted on by a variety of different loads. the bar.
• Study normal stress (s ) and normal strain (« ) in materials used • Study normal, shear, and bearing stresses in simple bolted
for structural applications. connections between members.
• Identify key properties of various materials, such as the modulus • Use factors of safety to establish allowable values
of elasticity (E) and yield (s y ) and ultimate (s u ) stresses, from of stresses.
plots of stress (s ) versus strain (« ). • Introduce basic concepts of design: the iterative process
• Plot shear stress (t ) versus shear strain (g ) and identify the by which the appropriate size of structural members is
shearing modulus of elasticity (G). determined to meet a variety of both strength and stiffness
• Study Hooke’s Law for normal stress and strain (s 5 E « ) requirements.
and also for shear stress and strain (t 5 Gg ).
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials 2 1.7 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio 44
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach 2 1.8 Shear Stress and Strain 50
1.3 Statics Review 3 1.9 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads 63
1.4 Normal Stress and Strain 22 1.10 Design For Axial Loads and Direct Shear 70
1.5 Mechanical Properties of Materials 31 Chapter Summary and Review 74
1.6 Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep 38 Problems 77 1
2 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. Other names for
this field of study are strength of materials and mechanics of deformable bodies.
The solid bodies considered in this book include bars with axial loads, shafts in
torsion, beams in bending, and columns in compression.
The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to determine the stresses,
strains, and displacements in structures and their components due to the loads
acting on them. An understanding of mechanical behavior is essential for the
safe design of all types of structures, whether airplanes and antennas, buildings
and bridges, machines and motors, or ships and spacecraft. That is why mechan-
ics of materials is a basic subject in so many engineering fields. Most problems in
mechanics of materials begin with an examination of the external and internal
forces acting on a stable deformable body. First the loads acting on the body are
defined, along with its support conditions, then reaction forces at supports and
internal forces in its members or elements are determined using the basic laws
of static equilibrium (provided that the body is statically determinate).
In mechanics of materials you study the stresses and strains inside real bod-
ies, that is, bodies of finite dimensions that deform under loads. To determine the
stresses and strains, use the physical properties of the materials as well as numer-
ous theoretical laws and concepts. Mechanics of materials provides additional
essential information, based on the deformations of the body, to solve statically
indeterminate problems (not possible using the laws of static equilibrium alone).
Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles
in mechanics of materials. Theories are used to derive formulas and equations
for predicting mechanical behavior but these expressions cannot be used in
practical design unless the physical properties of the materials are known.
Such properties are available only after careful experiments have been carried
out in the laboratory. Furthermore, not all practical problems are amenable
to theoretical analysis alone, and in such cases physical testing is a necessity.
The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend
of both theory and experiment—theory has pointed the way to useful results in
some instances, and experiment has done so in others. Such famous persons as
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) performed exper-
iments to determine the strength of wires, bars, and beams, although they did
not develop adequate theories (by today’s standards) to explain their test results.
By contrast, the famous mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) developed
the mathematical theory of columns and calculated the critical load of a column
in 1744, long before any experimental evidence existed to show the significance
of his results. Without appropriate tests to back up his theories, Euler’s results
remained unused for over a hundred years, although today they are the basis for
the design and analysis of most columns (see Refs. 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3).
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach*

The study of mechanics divides naturally into two parts: first, understanding
the general concepts and principles, and second, applying those concepts and
principles to physical situations. You can gain an understanding of the general
*The four step problem-solving approach presented here is patterned after that presented
by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage Learning, 2013.
Section 1.3 Statics Review 3
concepts by studying the discussions and derivations presented in this book. You
can gain skill only by solving problems on your own. Of course, these two aspects
of mechanics are closely related, and many experts in mechanics will argue that
you do not really understand the concepts if you cannot apply them. It is easy to
recite the principles, but applying them to real situations requires an in-depth
understanding. Problem solving gives meaning to the concepts and also provides
an opportunity to gain experience and develop judgment.
A major objective of this text is to assist you in developing a structured solu-
tion process for problems in statics and mechanics of materials. This process
is referred to as a problem-solving approach (PSA) and is used in all example
problems in the text. The PSA involves the following four steps:
1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: List all relevant data and draw a sketch
showing all applied forces, support/boundary conditions, and interactions
between adjacent bodies. Development and refinement of the free-body
diagram is an essential part of this step.
2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Identify the unknowns in the problem and
make any necessary assumptions to simplify the problem and streamline
the solution process.
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
solution]: Apply appropriate theories, set up the necessary equations for the
chosen mathematical model, and then solve for the unknowns.
4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—Does it make sense? Are units correct?
How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: Study the answers, com-
pare them to those for similar problems you have solved in the past, and
test the robustness of the solution by varying key parameters to see how
the results change (perhaps even plot the main result as a function of that
parameter to investigate the sensitivity of the answer).
You are encouraged to study the problem-solving approach presented in
the example problems and then apply it to homework and in-class labora-
tory problems. This structured systematic approach also will be useful during
examinations. See Appendix B.2 for further discussion of the Problem Solving
Approach summarized above.
All problems appear at the ends of the chapters, with the problem numbers
and subheadings identifying the sections to which they belong. In the case of
problems requiring numerical solutions, odd-numbered problems are in U.S.
Customary System (USCS) units and even-numbered problems are in Inter-
national System of Units (SI).
In this book, final numerical results are usually presented with three sig-
nificant digits when a number begins with the digits 2 through 9, and with four
significant digits when a number begins with the digit 1. Intermediate values
are often recorded with additional digits to avoid losing numerical accuracy
due to rounding of numbers.
1.3 Statics Review

In your prerequisite course on statics, you studied the equilibrium of rigid bodies
acted upon by a variety of different forces and supported or restrained in such a
way that the body was stable and at rest. As a result, a properly restrained body
could not undergo rigid-body motion due to the application of static forces. You
drew free-body diagrams of the entire body, or of key parts of the body, and then
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Although it is impossible to raise ice even one degree above 32°
without thawing, it is not difficult to reduce water many degrees
below that point without freezing it.
In order to obtain both the constituents of water in a separate state, it
must be decomposed by galvanism, each pole of a battery
terminating in a separate tube containing water, when the result will
be that at the positive pole oxygen gas will be evolved, and hydrogen
at the negative, the latter being double the quantity of the former.
Now, if you mix the gases thus obtained, introduce them into a
vessel called a “Eudiometer,” and pass an electric spark through
them from a Leyden vial, a sudden flash will be seen, and the gases
will entirely disappear, being again converted into water. If you have
a mercurial trough, and perform this experiment over mercury, the
inside of the eudiometer will exhibit minute drops of water. Thus you
have proved both by analysis and synthesis, that water consists of
oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion of one volume of the former
to two of the latter.
Experiment.
Take some perfectly pure distilled water, filter it, surround it with a
mixture of light snow, or powdered ice, and salt, taking care to keep
it perfectly still, a thermometer having been previously placed in it.
The mercury will gradually sink many degrees below the freezing
point 32° (it has been reduced as low as 4°), the water still remaining
fluid; when all at once, either from shaking the table, or simply
because the reduction can be carried no further, it suddenly starts
into ice, and the thermometer jumps up at once to 32°, where it
remains until the whole is frozen, when the temperature gradually
sinks to that of the surrounding medium.
Now if you remove the glass of ice from the freezing mixture into the
apartment, and watch the thermometer, you will find it gradually rise
to 32°, and there remain until all the ice is melted, when it will
gradually acquire the temperature of the room. The reason of this is,
that the water in passing from the solid to the fluid form absorbs, and
in passing from the fluid to the solid form gives out caloric, so
maintaining the temperature at 32°, the point at which the change of
form takes place, until it is completed.
Between the temperature of 32° and 212°, water exists in a fluid
form, under ordinary circumstances; but at the latter point it assumes
the form of vapor or steam, and acquires many of the properties of
gases, being indefinitely expansible by heat, the force increasing as
the temperature is raised, provided the steam be confined, until it
becomes irresistible—witness the frequent explosions of steam-
engines in this country, where the engines are worked at a high
pressure.
The temperature at which water boils is modified by the pressure
applied to it. Thus, as you ascend a mountain, and so pass through
a portion of the atmosphere, water boils at a lower temperature, until
at great heights it boils at so low a heat, that good tea cannot be
made because it is impossible to heat the water sufficiently. Under
the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, water boils at about 140°.
Chlorine.
Another gaseous element, sometimes called a supporter of
combustion, is named chlorine, from a Greek word signifying
yellowish green.
This gas was formerly called “oxymuriatic acid,” being supposed to
be a compound of oxygen and muriatic acid gases, until Sir H. Davy,
in a series of masterly experiments carried on during the years 1808-
9-10 and 11, proved that it contained no oxygen or muriatic acid, and
that it was in fact a simple or undecompounded substance, and
changed its name to chlorine, which name was, after some
discussion, accepted by the scientific world, and is still in use.
This gas may be obtained for experiment, by gently heating in a
retort a mixture of muriatic or hydrochloric acid, hydrochloride, as it is
now called, with some black oxide of manganese: the muriatic acid,
a compound of chlorine and hydrogen, is decomposed, and so is the
oxide of manganese, giving out some of its oxygen, which takes the
hydrogen from the muriatic acid to form water, while the chlorine gas,
with which the hydrogen had been united, is set at liberty, and may
be collected in jars over water.
Chlorine gas is transparent, of a greenish yellow color, has a peculiar
disagreeable taste and smell, and if breathed even in small
quantities, occasions a sensation of suffocation, of tightness in the
chest, and violent coughing, attended with great prostration. I have
been compelled to retire to bed from having upset a bottle containing
some of this gas. It destroys most vegetable colors when moist, and
is in fact the agent now universally employed for bleaching purposes.
It has also the power of combining with and destroying all noxious
smells, and is invaluable as a purifier of foul rooms, and destroyer of
infection. For these latter purposes it is used in combination with
lime, either in substance or solution, under the name of “Chloride of
Lime.”
Chlorine gas is a powerful supporter of combustion, many of the
metals taking fire spontaneously when introduced in a fine state of
division into the gas.
Experiments.
1. Into a jar of chlorine gas introduce a few sheets of copper leaf,
sold under the name of Dutch foil, when it will burn with a dull red
light.
2. If some metallic antimony in a state of powder be poured into a jar
of this gas, it will take fire as it falls, and burn with a bright white light.
3. A small piece of the metal potassium may be introduced, and will
also take fire.
4. A piece of phosphorus will also generally take fire spontaneously
when introduced into this gas. In all these cases direct compounds of
the substances with chlorine are produced, called chlorides.
5. If a lighted taper be plunged quickly into the gas, it will continue to
burn with a dull light, giving off a very large quantity of smoke, being
in fact the carbon of the wax taper, with which the chlorine does not
unite; while the other constituent of the taper, the hydrogen, forms
muriatic acid by union with the chlorine.
6. This substance has the property of destroying most vegetable
colors and is used in large quantities for bleaching calico, linen, and
the rags of which paper is made. It is a curious fact that it shows this
property only when water is present, for if a piece of colored cloth is
introduced dry into a jar of the gas, also dry, no effect will be
produced—wet the cloth, and reintroduce it, and in a very short time
its color will be discharged.
7. Introduce a quantity of the infusion of the common red cabbage,
which is of a beautiful blue color, into a jar of this gas, and it will
instantly become nearly as pale as water, retaining a slight tinge of
yellow. A solution of sulphate of indigo can always be obtained, and
answers well for this experiment.
Muriatic Acid Gas, or Chloride.

With chlorine, hydrogen forms a compound called muriatic, or
hydrochloric acid gas. It cannot easily be formed by the direct union
of its elements, but is procured from some compound in which it
exists ready formed. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is generally
employed; and when acted on by strong sulphuric acid (or oil of
vitriol), the gas is disengaged in abundance. It must be collected
over mercury, for water absorbs it, forming the liquid muriatic, or
hydrochloric acid.
A lighted taper plunged into this gas is instantly extinguished. It is
very dangerous to animal life if respired. It has the property of
destroying animal effluvia, and was once employed to purify the
cathedral of Dijon, which was so filled with putrid emanations from
the bodies buried in it, that it had been closed for some time. It
perfectly succeeded, but it is so destructive to all metallic substances
that it is not used now, for the chlorides of lime and zinc have since
been discovered to act more effectually than the muriatic acid gas,
without its inconvenience.
The compounds of hydrogen with iodine are passed over.
With nitrogen, hydrogen unites and forms one of the most
extraordinary compounds in the whole range of chemistry,—the gas
called ammonia. This is the only gas possessing what are called
alkaline properties; i.e., it changes the blue color of certain
vegetables to green, yellow to deep brown, and unites with the acids
to form neutral compounds, just as the other alkalies, potash and
soda, which are oxides of metals. It may be procured in abundance
by heating the hydrochlorate of ammonia, or sal ammoniac, as it is
usually called, with quick-lime, which takes the hydrochloric acid,
and sets free this remarkable gas. It must be received over mercury,
as it is absorbed to almost any extent by water, forming the fluid sold
as “spirits of hartshorn” in the shops.
This gas is colorless and transparent, lighter than atmospheric air,
and will not support combustion; it has a very pungent but not
disagreeable smell. Under certain circumstances it is combustible.
Experiments.
1. Take a bottle containing chlorine gas, and invert over its mouth
another filled with ammoniacal gas; then if the bottles be held in the
hand (guarded by a pair of gloves), and suddenly turned, so that the
chlorine be uppermost, the two gases will unite so rapidly that a
white flame fills the bottles for an instant.
2. Substitute for the chlorine of the last experiment a bottle of
carbonic or hydrochloric acid gas; in either case the gases
disappear, and a light white powder settles on the sides of the
bottles, being the carbonate or hydrochlorate of ammonia, according
to the acid used.
Carbonate of ammonia is the substance sold for “smelling salts;” and
the hydrochlorate, or muriate of ammonia, is the salt called “sal
ammoniac,” whence the alkaline gas was first obtained, and from
which it got its name of ammonia. The salt itself was so called,
because it was formerly brought from the deserts near the ruins of
the temple of Jupiter Ammon.
This salt is, as has been shown, a compound of muriatic acid gas
and ammoniacal gas, containing therefore only three simple
elements—hydrogen, chlorine, and nitrogen, all gases, and known
only in the gaseous state, its symbol being NH4C2; yet they by union
form a solid body, resembling in all essential qualities the salts of
potash and soda, which are oxides of known metals. Moreover, if
some mercury be placed in a solution of this salt, and subjected to
the action of galvanism, the negative pole being applied to the
mercury, and the positive to the sal ammoniac, the mercury presently
loses its fluidity, increases greatly in size, and in fact presents the
same appearance as when it is mixed with some metal, forming what
is called an “amalgam.” When the battery ceases to act, a
succession of white films forms on the surface of the amalgam, and
the mercury soon returns to its original state. How is this to be
explained? Some chemists have supposed that there must be a
base united to the mercury, and have named this hypothetical
substance “ammonium,” to correspond to potassium and sodium, the
bases of potash and soda, which resemble ammonia in so many
properties. But what is this ammonium? and how is it formed? for
hydrogen and nitrogen are simply elementary bodies. Are all metals
compounds of gases? and are there but a few elements instead of
the 64 now enumerated? This, however, is a difficult question, not
fitted for discussion here.
Carbonate of ammonia may be obtained by mixing together
powdered chalk (which is a carbonate of lime) and muriate of
ammonia, and heating the mixture in close vessels, when the salt in
question will rise in fumes, and be condensed in a mass in the upper
part of the vessel. It is, however, so largely produced in other
manufactures, particularly in gas-works, that there is no necessity to
resort to the more expensive and direct method. It is the well-known
“smelling salts.”
The only other salt of ammonia worth our notice here is the nitrate,
from the destructive distillation of which is obtained the nitrous oxide,
or laughing gas, already mentioned.
Iodine—Bromine—Fluorine.
On the coasts of certain islands belonging to the Duke of Argyll, vast
quantities of sea-weed are occasionally torn up from their ocean
beds and deposited on the shores. This weed, after being partially
dried by exposure to the sun and air, is burnt in a shallow pit; the
ashes are then collected, and form the commercial raw material
called kelp, from which iodine is procured by a gradual series of
processes.
Experiments.
Iodine has a beautiful metallic luster, with a bluish black color, and
should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. A small quantity placed in
a clear flask and heated, affords a magnificent violet vapor, which
may be poured from the flask into another glass vessel, when it
condenses again into crystalline plates. The color of the vapor
originates the name of this element, so called from a Greek word,
meaning violet-colored. If a little iodine be placed in contact with a
thin slice of phosphorus, the latter takes fire almost immediately.
Bromine.
From the Greek, signifies a bad odor, and is most intimately allied
with chlorine and iodine; like these elements, it belongs to the sea,
and is a constituent of sea-water. Bromine is a very heavy fluid, and
should be preserved by keeping it covered with water in a stoppered
bottle.
Experiments with liquid bromine are not recommended, as all the
most interesting ones can be performed with the vapor, which is
easily procured by letting fall a few drops of bromine into a warm dry
bottle.
Experiments.
Pounded antimony sprinkled into the vapor takes fire immediately.
A thin slice of phosphorus placed in a deflagrating ladle and placed
into the vapor of bromine ignites very quickly.
A solution of sulphate of indigo, or an infusion of red cabbage, are
easily bleached by being shaken violently with the vapor of bromine.
Fluorine.
In many parts of England, especially in Devonshire, Cornwall, and
above all in Derbyshire, is found a very beautiful mineral, known by
the name of Fluor Spar, Derbyshire Spar, and called by the miners
Blue John, to distinguish it from another mineral found in the same
locality, called Black Jack. It occurs in very regular and frequently
large crystals in the form of cubes, and occasionally in octoëdra. It is
a compound of calcium with fluorine, and is very abundant in certain
fossil bones. This element, in combination with hydrogen and called
hydrofluoric acid, acts so energetically upon all substances
containing silica, that it cannot be preserved in vessels of glass or
porcelain—very few of the metals are capable of resisting its action,
lead being nearly the only common metal possessed of this power.
Gutta percha may also be employed for vessels to hold it.
This property of dissolving silica has caused this acid to be used for
engraving on glass.
Experiment.
Mix one part of fluor-spar, quite pure, with two parts of oil of vitriol, in
a saucer, and apply a gentle heat, when the acid will be disengaged
in the form of vapor. Prepare a piece of glass after the manner of
engraving on copper, by coating it with a thin covering of wax,
placing a paper over the wax, and then drawing any design with a
sharp-pointed instrument, when, on removing the paper, the wax-
coating will be found to be removed wherever the instrument has
passed over it. Now invert this glass over the fumes of the acid for
half an hour or so, and then heat the glass so as to soften the
coating, and wipe it off; the design will then appear “bitten in,” as the
term is, that is, the acid will have dissolved the glass wherever it was
not protected by the wax, and will exhibit the design indelibly fixed on
the glass.
This acid requires the greatest care in handling, for it is extremely
corrosive, producing very troublesome ulcers if it comes in contact
with the skin; even the fumes will produce smarting if the skin is long
exposed to them.
Carbon.
The next substance in our list of elementary bodies is named carbon.
The purest form of carbon is the precious stone called diamond,
which consists entirely of carbon in a crystallized form. The French
chemist Lavoisier was the first who proved the combustibility of the
diamond; and Sir H. Davy found that when once set on fire it would
continue to burn in oxygen gas air, and that the product of the
combustion was carbonic acid gas, exactly equal in quantity to the
gas produced by burning an equal weight of pure charcoal, the most
common form of carbon.
Plumbago, or “black-lead,” as it is very improperly called, is also
nearly pure carbon, a very small quantity of iron being united with it.
By far the greater part of all vegetable, and a very large portion of
animal bodies consists of carbon; and in the state of carbonic acid in
combination with lime and some other earths, it forms nearly the half
of all the chalk, marble, and limestone of our hills; so that it is, in one
shape or other, one of the most widely diffused bodies in nature.
Carbon forms two gaseous compounds with oxygen; the first, called
carbonic oxide, is easily obtained by boiling oxalic acid with its own
bulk of sulphuric acid, in a flask to which a cork and bent tube is
attached. The gas comes over in large quantities, and must be
collected in a gas jar, or the pneumatic trough. It is inflammable, and
burns with a lambent blue flame.
The other compound, carbonic acid, is transparent, colorless, much
heavier than atmospheric air, has an agreeable taste, has the power
of irritating the mucous membrane of the nose (as any one can tell
who has drunk soda-water), without possessing any particular odor,
is absorbed by water, does not support respiration, and extinguishes
flame.
Carbonic acid gas may be obtained with the greatest facility by
pouring some muriatic or sulphuric acid, diluted with about six parts
of water, upon some pieces of marble or limestone in a bottle with a
tube attached, when the gas comes over in torrents. It may be
collected over water.
Experiments.
1. To show the great comparative weight of this gas, place a lighted
taper at the bottom of a tall glass jar, then take a jar full of carbonic
acid gas, and pour it as you would pour water into the jar containing
the lighted taper; you will soon find the taper will be extinguished as
effectually as if you had poured water on it, and the smoke of the
taper will float on the surface of the gas in very beautiful wavy forms.
2. Heat a piece of the metal potassium in a metal spoon (platinum is
best), and if introduced in a state of ignition into the gas, it will
continue burning brilliantly, producing a quantity of dense smoke,
which is the carbon from the carbonic acid, the potassium having
seized the oxygen, and being converted by it into potash.
3. If a mouse, bird, or other small animal be placed in a jar of this
gas, it becomes insensible almost immediately; but if speedily
removed it will occasionally recover.
4. Shake up some water with some of this gas in a bottle; the greater
part of the gas will be absorbed by the water, which acquires a
sparkling appearance and a pleasant sharp taste; with the addition of
a little soda this becomes the well-known beverage called soda-
water, so famous for removing the morning headaches caused by
“that salmon” having disagreed at yesterday’s dinner.
It is the presence of this gas which renders it so dangerous to
descend into deep wells, for by its great weight it collects at the
bottom, and instantly suffocates any unfortunate person who
incautiously subjects himself to it. Hence it is prudent always to let
down a lighted candle before any one descends into a well, or other
deep excavation, and if the candle is extinguished, it is necessary to
throw down several pails of water—lime-water, if possible—and
again to try the candle, which must burn freely before it is safe for
any one to descend.
It is this same gas, under the name of “choke-damp,” which proves
so dangerous to miners, particularly after an explosion of “fire-
damp,” for it is the principal product of the explosion, and it is by no
means an easy matter to dislodge it.
Carbonic acid gas has been condensed into the fluid form by
causing it to be disengaged under great pressure; the fluid acid has
the appearance of water. When the pressure is removed, as by
allowing some of the fluid acid to escape from the vessel in which it
has been condensed, it instantly reassumes the gaseous form, and
in so doing absorbs so much latent caloric that a portion of the acid
is actually solidified, and appears in the shape of snow, which may
be collected and preserved for a short time.
Carbonic acid and lime are mutually tests for each other. If a jar
containing a little lime-water be put into a jar of this gas, it speedily
becomes turbid, the gas uniting with the lime, and producing chalk
(the carbonate of lime), which is insoluble in water.
This gas is produced in large quantities by the respiration of animals,
as may be proved by respiring through a tube immersed in lime-
water, when the water will be instantly rendered turbid from the
formation of chalk.
Carbon and Hydrogen.

To the combination of these elements in various proportions, and
with the occasional addition of other substances, we are indebted for
all, or nearly all, our means of obtaining light and heat. Coal, wood,
spirit, oil, and all the varieties of fats, are composed principally of
carbon and hydrogen, and may easily be converted into the gas with
which our houses and streets are lighted, which is nearly pure
carbureted hydrogen.
The two chief definite gaseous compounds of those two elements
are the light carbureted hydrogen and the heavy carbureted
hydrogen, or olefiant gas. The first is easily procured by stirring the
bottom of stagnant water on a hot summer’s day, and collecting the
bubbles in a bottle filled with water and inverted over the place
where the bubbles rise. This gas burns with a yellowish flame, and
when mixed with a certain proportion of air, or oxygen gas, explodes
with great violence on the application of a flame. It is the much
dreaded fire-damp generated so profusely in some coal-mines, and
causing such fearful destruction to life and property when
accidentally inflamed.
The other compound, the heavy carbureted hydrogen, forms part of
the gas used for illumination; and, in fact, whatever substance is
employed for artificial light, whether oil, tallow, wax, etc., etc., it is
converted into this gas by heat, and then furnishes the light by its
own combustion.
This gas has some very curious properties, and may be obtained
nearly pure by mixing in a retort, very carefully, one part of spirits of
wine and four of sulphuric acid. A lamp must be placed under the
retort, when the gas will be speedily disengaged, and come over in
great abundance; it may be collected over water.
This gas is transparent, colorless, will not support combustion, but is
itself inflammable, burning with a brilliant white light, and being
converted into carbonic acid and water. If mixed with three or four
times its bulk of oxygen, or with common atmospheric air in much
larger proportion, it explodes with great violence.
This gas is sometimes called “olefiant gas,” from the property it has
of forming an oily substance when mixed with chlorine.
Experiment.
Into a jar standing over water half full of this gas, pass an equal
quantity of chlorine gas. The gases will speedily unite and form an
oily-looking liquid, which may be collected from the sides of the jar
as it trickles down. By continually supplying the jar with the two
gases as they combine, a considerable quantity of this substance
may be collected. Care should be taken that the olefiant gas is rather
in excess.
The substance produced is insoluble in water, with which it should be
washed by shaking them together in a tube, and has a pleasant
sweetish taste and aromatic smell, somewhat resembling ether.
Coal Gas.
The gas so universally employed for the purposes of illumination is a
mixture of the carbureted and the bi-carbureted hydrogen, with
minute portions of other gases scarcely worth mentioning. It is
procured by submitting coals to a red heat in iron retorts, having a
tube passing from one end, along which passes all the fluid and
gaseous matter separated from the coal, namely, gas tar,
ammoniacal liquor, and various gases, carbureted hydrogen,
carbonic acid, sulphureted hydrogen, etc., etc. The tar and
ammoniacal liquor remain in the vessel in which the tubes from the
retorts terminate, and the gaseous productions are conveyed
through water and lime to separate the impurities; the remaining gas,
now fit for use, passes into large iron vessels, called gasometers,
inverted over water (like the jars in a pneumatic trough), whence it is
sent through pipes and distributed where required. What remains in
the retorts is called coke. It consists principally of charcoal mixed
with the earthy and metallic particles contained in the coal.
Experiment.
If you possess an iron bottle, fill it with powdered coal, and attach a
flexible tube to it, and put it in the fire; as soon as it becomes red-hot,
large quantities of smoke will escape from the end of the tube, being
the gas mixed with all its impurities. By passing it through water (if
mixed with lime it will be better), the gas may be collected in jars
standing over water, and submitted to experiment. If you do not
possess a bottle, take a tobacco-pipe with a large bowl, fill the bowl
with small coal, cover it with clay or putty, and when dry put it into the
fire, and the gas will soon appear at the other end of the pipe, when
it may be lighted, or the gas may be collected over water, as in the
former experiment.
The light carbureted hydrogen contained in this gas is given off
spontaneously in some coal-mines, and as it forms explosive
mixtures with atmospheric air, the mines where it abounds could not
be worked except at the greatest risk until about the beginning of the
present century, when Sir H. Davy, while prosecuting some
researches on the nature of flame, found that flame would not pass
through metallic tubes, and he gradually reduced the length of the
tubes, until he found fine iron-wire gauze formed an effectual barrier
against the passage of flame. He then thought that if the light in a
lantern were surrounded with this gauze it might safely be used in an
inflammable atmosphere, where a naked light would instantly cause
an explosion. Upon submitting the lamp to experiment, he found that
by passing coal-gas by degrees into a vessel in which one of his
lamps was suspended, the flame first became much larger, and then
was extinguished, the cylinder of gauze being filled with a pale
flame, and though the gauze sometimes became red-hot, it did not
ignite the gas outside. As the supply of coal-gas was diminished, the
wick of the lamp was rekindled, and all went on as at first. A coil of
platinum wire was afterwards suspended in the lamps, which
becomes intensely heated by the burning gas, and gives out
sufficient light to enable the miner to see to work. As long as the
gauze is perfect it is almost impossible for the external air to be
kindled by the wick of the lamp, but the miners are so careless that
they will often remove the gauze to get a better light, to look for a
tool, or some cause equally trivial, and many lives have been lost in
consequence of such carelessness.
The effect of the fine wire gauze in preventing the passage of flame
may be shown by bringing a piece of the gauze gradually over the
flame of a spirit-lamp, until it nearly touches the wick, when the flame
will be nearly extinguished, but the vapor of the spirit passes
through, and may be lighted on the upper side of the gauze, which
will thus have a flame on either side, though totally unconnected with
each other. The flame from a gas-burner will answer as well as the
spirit-lamp.
Nearly all the fluids, and solids also, used for procuring artificial light,
such as naptha, various oils, tallow, wax, spermaceti, spirits of wine,
ether, etc., are compounds of carbon and hydrogen in different
proportions, with the occasional addition of some other elements,
especially oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions to form water; as
a general rule, those bodies containing the greatest proportion of
carbon give the most light, though not necessarily the most heat.
Phosphorus.
The next body we have to notice is phosphorus, a most remarkable
substance, procured from the earthy part of bones by a process not
worth detailing here. It should be always kept under water, and the
naked fingers should not be allowed even to touch it, for the smallest
piece getting under the nail will inflame the first time the hand comes
near the fire, and produce a sore very painful and difficult to heal. It
should be cut under water by a knife or scissors, and removed with a
pair of forceps. Its combustible properties have been frequently
mentioned. It has also the property of shining in the dark, so that if
you write on a wall with a solution of phosphorus in oil, the letters will
appear luminous in the dark—there is no danger, excepting from the
greasiness of the oil.
Of the compounds of phosphorus with oxygen we have nothing to do
here, but it forms with hydrogen a very curious gaseous compound,
which takes fire spontaneously on the contact of air, or almost any
gas containing oxygen.
Experiments.
It may be procured in either of two ways, according to the purpose
for which it is wanted. The simplest way is to put a lump or two of
phosphuret of lime into a saucer, about two inches in depth,
containing some very diluted hydrochloric acid; bubbles of gas will
speedily arise, and bursting on the surface of the fluid will burn with a
slight explosion, and a circular wreath of smoke will rise into the
atmosphere, enlarging as it rises, and wreathing itself round and
round in the most elegant forms. Care must be taken that the
phosphuret is fresh, and has been kept in a well-closed bottle, or the
experiment will fail. The apartment must be free from draughts. If you
desire to collect the gas, another method must be employed.
Fill a small retort quite full, neck and all, of a solution of caustic
potash, drop five or six pieces of phosphorus into it, place the finger
on the end of the retort, and immerse it in a basin also containing a
hot solution of potash, remove the finger, and on applying the heat of
a lamp to the retort, the gas will soon be disengaged rapidly, and
drive out the fluid in the retort; it then escapes into the air, when it
inflames with the same appearances as before described. Or it may
be collected in gas jars filled with the potash solution, and held over
the mouth of the retort. The object in using hot solution of potash in
the basin is, that when the gas ceases to be given off, and the heat
of the lamp is withdrawn, the hot fluid may gradually fill the vacuum
which will form in the retort, and so prevent its being broken.
This gas is transparent and invisible, like most other gases. It is very
poisonous if inhaled. If kept for any time, it loses its property of
spontaneous inflammation, and must therefore be made at the time it
is required.
Sulphur.
Sulphur, or brimstone, as it is frequently called, is sold in the form of
sticks, or roll brimstone, or in fine powder called flowers of
brimstone.
It is capable of showing electric phenomena when rubbed, giving out
slight sparks, and first attracting and then repelling light bodies, such
as small pieces of paper, etc. It is so bad a conductor of heat, that if
grasped suddenly in a hot hand, it will crack and split into pieces just
as glass does when suddenly heated or cooled—of course I am
speaking of the roll brimstone. Water has no effect on it, as may be
seen in the pans placed for pet dogs to drink out of, where the same
piece of brimstone lies for years entirely unaltered, though it is
supposed to prevent the dogs from having the mange!
Sulphur is largely used in the arts, principally in the manufacture of
gunpowder, and fireworks of various kinds.
It combines with hydrogen and forms a gaseous compound called
sulphureted hydrogen, which is almost the most poisonous of all the
gases. It fortunately has so abominable a smell that due notice is
given of its presence. Rotten eggs, a dirty gun-barrel, cabbage
water, putrid animal and vegetable matter, etc., are indebted to this
gas for their inviting odor; and it is found in certain mineral springs,
as at Harrogate, where the water contains a considerable quantity of
this gas, and is found useful in many diseases of the skin. It is also
given off in a gaseous form by some volcanoes.
This gas may be obtained by pouring dilute hydrochloric acid upon a
metallic sulphuret, such as that called crude antimony, being a native
sulphuret of that metal. The gas may be kept for a short time over
water. It is colorless and transparent, inflammable, but quite
irrespirable, a small bird dying instantly when placed in air containing
only 1-1500th of this gas. Its most remarkable property perhaps is
the effect it has on certain metallic oxides and other metallic salts,
blackening them instantly. White paint is easily stained by this gas,
and it will darken the color of a metal in a solution, especially of lead,
even when diluted with 20,000 times its weight of water. By way of
experiment slips of ribbon, silk, or even paper, may be wetted with
various metallic solutions, such as silver, mercury, lead, etc., or
words may be written with the solutions, and on holding them over a
stream of this gas they will be instantly darkened.
If this gas be collected in the pneumatic trough, which is usually
painted white, you will have the pleasure of seeing the color changed
to a very dark brown when your experiments are finished. With this
very limited description of some of the non-metallic elements and
their combinations, we must, for want of space, take leave of this
division of chemistry, “the beginning of which is pleasure, its
progress knowledge, its objects truth and utility.”
Metals.
We have a few words to say about a class of bodies called metals,
which are of the utmost importance to mankind, and indeed without
some of them, especially iron, few of the arts of civilized life could
exist.
Fifty substances are now included in the list of metals; some of them,
however, are only supposed to exist, such as ammonium, the
supposed base of ammonia; and very many are to be viewed rather
in the light of chemical curiosities, as from their great rarity they are
too expensive for use, even if possessed of valuable properties of
which others might be destitute.
Several metals have been known from the earliest period of which
we have any record; such were iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, tin,
mercury, and probably zinc, or at least its ores; for brass, which is an
alloy of copper and zinc, is frequently mentioned in the early part of
the Old Testament. In the sixteenth century others were discovered,
such as antimony and bismuth. In the last century, cobalt, arsenic,
platinum, nickel, manganese and chromium, together with several
unimportant metals, were discovered by various philosophers; while
in the present century, Dr. Wollaston discovered rhodium, the
hardest and nearly the most indestructible of all the metals; and a
few years later Sir Humphry Davy found that the alkalies, potash and
soda, with many of the earths as they were called, had each a metal
for its base, to which he gave the Latin name of the alkali or earth,
with the termination um, as potassium, the base of potassa, sodium
of soda, calcium of calx (lime), etc.
Until Sir H. Davy’s discovery of the metals of the alkalies, great
specific gravity was regarded as one of the most striking
characteristics of a metal, the lightest of them being much heavier
than the heaviest earth; but potassium is very much lighter than
water, and not much heavier than spirits of wine. The other metals
vary from a specific gravity of nearly twenty-one—or twenty-one
times heavier than an equal bulk of water—that of platinum, to
somewhat less than seven, which is the specific gravity of antimony.
When pure, they all have a luster, differing indeed among
themselves, but so peculiar that it is called the metallic luster; for
instance, gold and copper are yellow and red—nearly all the others
white, but of a different shade; still there is no mistaking their metallic
character, no other substances at all equaling them in this respect.
They are also opaque, although some, like gold, when reduced to
thin films, allow light to pass through them. They are all good
conductors of heat and electricity, though some possess that
property to a greater extent than others.
Many of them are what is called malleable, that is, may be extended
or spread out by rolling, or beating them with a hammer; and ductile,
or have the property of being drawn out into wire. Gold, silver,
copper, and iron are the most remarkable in this respect.
All the metals are fusible, but some require very different degrees of
heat to render them fluid—platinum requiring the heat of the oxy-
hydrogen blowpipe, while tin melts in the flame of a candle, and
mercury is fluid at all temperatures in this climate, but becomes solid
at 40 degrees Fahrenheit below 0—a temperature occasionally
experienced in the Arctic regions, where the mercurial thermometer
is useless, the mercury becoming solid.
They are all excellent conductors of heat and electricity, and have
the property of reflecting light and forming mirrors; for looking-
glasses owe their power of reflecting objects principally to what is
called the “silvering;” that is, a mixture of mercury and tin spread
over the back of the glass, which being transparent, allows the
image reflected from the metal to pass through it.
The following classification is most instructive, because it suggests
to the young student that there must be identical properties in the
metals thus placed together:
Class 1. Ammonium, cæsium, lithium, potassium, sodium.
Class 2. Calcium, barium, strontium.
Class 3. Aluminium, cerium, didymium, erbium, glucinium,
lanthanum, thorium, yttrium, zirconium.
Class 4. Zinc class: cadmium, magnesium, zinc.
Class 5. Iron class: cobalt, chromium, indium, iron, manganese,
nickel, uranium.
Class 6. Tin class: niobium, tantalum, tin, titanium.
Class 7. Tungsten class: molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium.
Class 8. Arsenic class: antimony, arsenic, bismuth.
Class 9. Lead class: lead, thallium.
Class 10. Silver class: copper, mercury, silver.
Class 11. Gold class: gold, iridium, osmium, palladium, platinum,
rhodium, ruthenium.
Potassium.
Potassium was discovered by Sir H. Davy in the beginning of the
present century. It is a brilliant white metal, so soft as to be easily cut
with a penknife, and so light as to swim upon water, on which it acts
with great energy, uniting with the oxygen, and liberating the
hydrogen, which takes fire as it escapes.
Experiment.
Trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel’s-hair brush
dipped in water, and place a piece of potassium about the size of a
pea on one of the lines, and it will follow the course of the pencil,
taking fire as it runs, and burning with a purplish light. The paper will
be found covered with a solution of ordinary potash. If turmeric paper
be used, the course of the potassium will be marked with a deep
brown color.—Corollary. Hence, if you touch potassium with wet
fingers you will burn them.
If a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice, it will
instantly take fire, and form a deep hole, which will be found to
contain a solution of potash.
In consequence of its great affinity for oxygen, potassium must be
kept in some fluid destitute of that element, such as naphtha.
Caution!—As the globules of potassium after conversion into potash,
when thrown on ice or water burst, strewing small particles of caustic
hot potash in every direction, the greatest care should be taken to
keep at a sufficient distance whilst performing the above experiment.

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Muriatic Acid Gas, or Chloride.

Carbon and Hydrogen.

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