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Mechanics of Materials 9th Edition
Barry J. Goodno
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Mechanics of Materials
Ninth Edition
Barry J. Goodno
Georgia Institute of Technology
James M. Gere
Professor Emeritus, Stanford University
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Mechanics of Materials, Ninth Edition © 2018, 2013 Cengage Learning®
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ConTenTS
About the Authors ix 3. Torsion 273

Preface xi 3.1 Introduction 274
MindTap Online Course xviii 3.2 Torsional Deformations of a Circular
Bar 274
Symbols xxi 3.3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic
Greek Alphabet xxiv Materials 277
3.4 Nonuniform Torsion 290
1. Tension, Compression, and Shear 1
3.5 Stresses and Strains in Pure
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics Shear 302
of Materials 2
3.6 Relationship Between Moduli of
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach 2
Elasticity E and G 309
1.3 Statics Review 3
3.7 Transmission of Power by Circular
1.4 Normal Stress and Strain 22 Shafts 311
1.5 Mechanical Properties of Materials 31 3.8 Statically Indeterminate Torsional
1.6 Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep 38 Members 315
1.7 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, 3.9 Strain Energy in Torsion and
and Poisson’s Ratio 44 Pure Shear 319
1.8 Shear Stress and Strain 50 3.10 Torsion of Noncircular Prismatic
1.9 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads 63 Shafts 326
1.10 Design For Axial Loads 3.11 Thin-Walled Tubes 336
and Direct Shear 70 *3.12 Stress Concentrations in Torsion 344
Chapter Summary and Review 74 Chapter Summary and Review 349
Problems 77 Problems 352
2. Axially Loaded Members 119
4. Shear Forces and Bending Moments 377
2.1 Introduction 120
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded
4.2 Types of Beams, Loads, and
Members 120
Reactions 378
2.3 Changes in Lengths under Nonuniform
4.3 Shear Forces and Bending
Conditions 128
Moments 388
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures 142
4.4 Relationships Among Loads, Shear
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits, and
Forces, and Bending Moments 396
Prestrains 155
4.5 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment
2.6 Stresses on Inclined Sections 174
Diagrams 400
2.7 Strain Energy 186
Chapter Summary and Review 427
*2.8 Impact Loading 197
Problems 429
*2.9 Repeated Loading and Fatigue 205
*2.10 Stress Concentrations 207 5. Stresses in Beams (Basic Topics) 445
*2.11 Nonlinear Behavior 214 5.1 Introduction 446
*2.12 Elastoplastic Analysis 218 5.2 Pure Bending and Nonuniform
Chapter Summary and Review 225 Bending 446
Problems 227 5.3 Curvature of a Beam 447
v
vi Contents
5.4 Longitudinal Strains in Beams 449 7.4 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 656
5.5 Normal Stress in Beams (Linearly 7.5 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress 669
Elastic Materials) 453 7.6 Triaxial Stress 675
5.6 Design of Beams for Bending 7.7 Plane Strain 679
Stresses 466 Chapter Summary and Review 694
5.7 Nonprismatic Beams 476 Problems 697
5.8 Shear Stresses in Beams of Rectangular
Cross Section 480 8. Applications of Plane Stress
5.9 Shear Stresses in Beams of Circular (Pressure Vessels, Beams, and
Cross Section 488 Combined Loadings) 719
5.10 Shear Stresses in the Webs of Beams 8.1 Introduction 720
with Flanges 491 8.2 Spherical Pressure Vessels 720
*5.11 Built-Up Beams and Shear Flow 498 8.3 Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 726
*5.12 Beams with Axial Loads 502 8.4 Maximum Stresses in Beams 733
*5.13 Stress Concentrations in Bending 509 8.5 Combined Loadings 741
Problems 518
Problems 768
6. Stresses in Beams (Advanced Topics) 553
9. Deflections of Beams 787
6.2 Composite Beams 554
9.2 Differential Equations of the Deflection
6.3 Transformed-Section Method 563
Curve 788
6.4 Doubly Symmetric Beams with Inclined
9.3 Deflections by Integration of the
Loads 571
Bending-Moment Equation 793
6.5 Bending of Unsymmetric Beams 578
9.4 Deflections by Integration of the Shear-
6.6 The Shear-Center Concept 589 Force and Load Equations 804
6.7 Shear Stresses in Beams of Thin-Walled 9.5 Method of Superposition 809
Open Cross Sections 590
9.6 Moment-Area Method 818
6.8 Shear Stresses in Wide-Flange
9.7 Nonprismatic Beams 826
Beams 593
9.8 Strain Energy of Bending 831
6.9 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open
Sections 597 *9.9 Castigliano’s Theorem 836
*6.10 Elastoplastic Bending 605 *9.10 Deflections Produced by Impact 848
Chapter Summary and Review 614 *9.11 Temperature Effects 850
Problems 616 Chapter Summary and Review 854
Problems 856
7. Analysis of Stress and Strain 639
7.1 Introduction 640 10. Statically Indeterminate Beams 883
7.2 Plane Stress 640 10.1 Introduction 884
7.3 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear 10.2 Types of Statically Indeterminate
Stresses 648 Beams 884
Contents vii
10.3 Analysis by the Differential Equations References and Historical notes 1019
of the Deflection Curve 887
APPenDIX A: Systems of Units and Conversion
10.4 Method of Superposition 893
Factors 1029
*10.5 Temperature Effects 907
*10.6 Longitudinal Displacements at the Ends APPenDIX B: Problem Solving 1043
of a Beam 914
APPenDIX C: Mathematical Formulas 1051
Problems 919 APPenDIX D: Review of Centroids and Moments
of Inertia 1057
11. Columns 933
APPenDIX e: Properties of Plane Areas 1083
11.2 Buckling and Stability 934 APPenDIX F: Properties of Structural-Steel
11.3 Columns with Pinned Ends 942 Shapes 1089
11.4 Columns with Other Support APPenDIX G: Properties of Structural
Conditions 951 Lumber 1101
11.5 Columns with Eccentric Axial
Loads 960 APPenDIX H: Deflections and
11.6 The Secant Formula for Columns 965 Slopes of Beams 1103
11.7 Elastic and Inelastic Column APPenDIX I: Properties of Materials 1109
Behavior 970
Answers to Problems 1115
11.8 Inelastic Buckling 972
11.9 Design Formulas for Columns 977 Index 1153
Problems 996
*A star attached to a section number indicates a specialized and/or advanced topic.
A B o U T T H eCAoUnTTHe on RT S
Barry J. Goodno
Barry John Goodno is Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at
Georgia Institute of Technology. He joined the Georgia Tech faculty in 1974. He
was an Evans Scholar and received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, in 1970. He received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in Structural Engineering from Stanford University, Stanford, California, in 1971
and 1975, respectively. He holds a professional engineering license (PE) in Georgia,
is a Distinguished Member of ASCE and an Inaugural Fellow of SEI, and has
held numerous leadership positions within ASCE. He is a past president of the
ASCE Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) Board of Governors and is also a
member of the Engineering Mechanics Institute (EMI) of ASCE. He is past-chair
of the ASCE-SEI Technical Activities Division (TAD) Executive Committee, and
past-chair of the ASCE-SEI Awards Committee. In 2002, Dr. Goodno received
© Barry Goodno
the SEI Dennis L. Tewksbury Award for outstanding service to ASCE-SEI. He
received the departmental award for Leadership in Use of Technology in 2013 for
his pioneering use of lecture capture technologies in undergraduate statics and
mechanics of materials courses at Georgia Tech. He is a member of the Earth-
quake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) and has held several leadership posi-
tions within the NSF-funded Mid-America Earthquake Center (MAE), directing
the MAE Memphis Test Bed Project. Dr. Goodno has carried out research, taught
graduate courses and published extensively in the areas of earthquake engineering
and structural dynamics during his tenure at Georgia Tech.
Dr. Goodno is an active cyclist, retired soccer coach and referee, and a
retired marathon runner. Like co-author and mentor James Gere, he has com-
pleted numerous marathons including qualifying for and running the Boston
Marathon in 1987.
James M. Gere
James M. Gere (1925-2008) earned his undergraduate and master’s degree in
Civil Engineering from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1949 and 1951,
respectively. He worked as an instructor and later as a Research Associate for
Rensselaer. He was awarded one of the first NSF Fellowships, and chose to study
at Stanford. He received his Ph.D. in 1954 and was offered a faculty position
in Civil Engineering, beginning a 34-year career of engaging his students in
challenging topics in mechanics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He
served as Department Chair and Associate Dean of Engineering and in 1974
co-founded the John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center at Stanford. In
1980, Jim Gere also became the founding head of the Stanford Committee on
Earthquake Preparedness. That same year, he was invited as one of the first for-
eigners to study the earthquake-devastated city of Tangshan, China. Jim retired
Courtesy of James and
from Stanford in 1988 but continued to be an active and most valuable member
Janice Gere Family Trust
of the Stanford community.
ix
x About the Authors
Jim Gere was known for his outgoing manner, his cheerful personality and
wonderful smile, his athleticism, and his skill as an educator in Civil Engi-
neering. He authored nine textbooks on various engineering subjects starting
in 1972 with Mechanics of Materials, a text that was inspired by his teacher
and mentor Stephan P. Timoshenko. His other well-known textbooks, used
in engineering courses around the world, include: Theory of Elastic Stability,
co-authored with S. Timoshenko; Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures and
Matrix Algebra for Engineers, both co-authored with W. Weaver; Moment
Distribution; Earthquake Tables: Structural and Construction Design Manual,
co-authored with H. Krawinkler; and Terra Non Firma: Understanding and
Preparing for Earthquakes, co-authored with H. Shah.
In 1986 he hiked to the base camp of Mount Everest, saving the life of a
companion on the trip. James was an active runner and completed the Boston
Marathon at age 48, in a time of 3:13. James Gere will be long remembered by
all who knew him as a considerate and loving man whose upbeat good humor
made aspects of daily life or work easier to bear.
P R e FAC e
Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that, along with statics,

must be understood by anyone concerned with the strength and physical per-
formance of structures, whether those structures are man-made or natural. At
the college level, statics is usually taught during the sophomore or junior year
and is a prerequisite for the follow-on course in Mechanics of Materials. Both
courses are required for most students majoring in mechanical, structural, civil,
biomedical, petroleum, nuclear, aeronautical, and aerospace engineering. In
addition, many students from such diverse fields as materials science, industrial
engineering, architecture, and agricultural engineering also find it useful to study
mechanics of materials.
Mechanics of Materials
In many university engineering programs today, both statics and mechanics of
materials are taught in large sections of students from the many engineering
disciplines. Instructors for the various parallel sections must cover the same
material, and all of the major topics must be presented so that students are
well prepared for the more advanced courses required by their specific degree
programs. An essential prerequisite for success in a first course in mechanics of
materials is a strong foundation in statics, which includes not only understanding
fundamental concepts but also proficiency in applying the laws of static equi-
librium to solutions of both two- and three-dimensional problems. This ninth
edition begins with an updated section on statics in which the laws of equilib-
rium and an expanded list of boundary (or support) conditions are reviewed, as
well as types of applied forces and internal stress resultants, all based upon and
derived from a properly drawn free-body diagram. Numerous examples and end-
of-chapter problems are included to help students review the analysis of plane
and space trusses, shafts in torsion, beams and plane and space frames, and to
reinforce basic concepts learned in the prerequisite course.
Many instructors like to present the basic theory of say, beam bending, and
then use real world examples to motivate student interest in the subject of beam
flexure, beam design, etc. In many cases, structures on campus offer easy access to
beams, frames, and bolted connections that can be dissected in lecture or in home-
work problems, to find reactions at supports, forces and moments in members
and stresses in connections. In addition, study of causes of failures in structures
and components also offers the opportunity for students to begin the process of
learning from actual designs and past engineering mistakes. A number of the new
example problems and also the new and revised end-of-chapter problems in this
ninth edition are based upon actual components or structures and are accompa-
nied by photographs so that the student can see the real world problem alongside
the simplified mechanics model and free-body diagrams used in its analysis.
An increasing number of universities are using rich media lecture (and/
or classroom) capture software (such as Panopto and Tegrity) in their large
undergraduate courses in mathematics, physics, and engineering. The many
new photos and enhanced graphics in the ninth edition are designed to support
this enhanced lecture mode.
xi
xii Preface
Key Features
The main topics covered in this book are the analysis and design of structural
members subjected to tension, compression, torsion, and bending, including
the fundamental concepts mentioned above. Other important topics are the
transformations of stress and strain, combined loadings and combined stress,
deflections of beams, and stability of columns. Some additional specialized top-
ics include the following: stress concentrations, dynamic and impact loadings,
non-prismatic members, shear centers, bending of beams of two materials (or
composite beams), bending of unsymmetric beams, maximum stresses in beams,
energy based approaches for computing deflections of beams, and statically
indeterminate beams.
Each chapter begins with a Chapter Overview highlighting the major top-
ics covered in that chapter and closes with a Chapter Summary and Review in
which the key points as well as major mathematical formulas in the chapter
are listed for quick review. Each chapter also opens with a photograph of
a component or structure that illustrates the key concepts discussed in the
chapter.
new Features
Some of the notable features of this ninth edition, which have been added as
new or updated material to meet the needs of a modern course in mechanics of
materials, are:
• Problem-Solving Approach—All examples in the text are presented in a
new Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach which is patterned after that
presented by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage
Learning, 2013. This new structured format helps students refine their
problem-solving skills and improve their understanding of the main con-
cepts illustrated in the example.
• Statics Review—The Statics Review section has been enhanced in Chapter
1. Section 1.2 includes four new example problems which illustrate calcu-
lation of support reactions and internal stress resultants for truss, beam,
circular shaft and plane frame structures. Thirty-four end-of-chapter prob-
lems on statics provide students with two- and three-dimensional structures
to be used as practice, review, and homework assignment problems of
varying difficulty.
• Expanded Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary and Review sections—
The Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary sections have been expanded
to include key equations and figures presented in each chapter. These sum-
mary sections serve as a convenient review for students of key topics and
equations presented in each chapter.
• Continued emphasis on underlying fundamental concepts such as equilib-
rium, constitutive, and strain-displacement/ compatibility equations in
problem solutions. Example problem and end-of-chapter problem solu-
tions have been updated to emphasize an orderly process of explicitly writ-
ing out the equilibrium, constitutive and strain-displacement/ compatibility
equations before attempting a solution.
Preface xiii
• Expanded topic coverage—The following topics have been updated or have

received expanded coverage: stress concentrations in axially loads bars
(Sec. 2.10); torsion of noncircular shafts (Sec. 3.10); stress concentrations
in bending (Sec. 5.13); transformed section analysis for composite beams
(Sec. 6.3); generalized flexure formula for unsymmetric beams (Sec. 6.5);
and updated code provisions for buckling of steel, aluminum and timber
columns (Sec. 11.9).
• Many new example and end-of-chapter problems—More than forty new
example problems have been added to the ninth edition. In addition, there
are more than 400 new and revised end-of-chapter problems out of the
1440 problems presented in the ninth edition text. The end-of-chapter
problems are now grouped as Introductory or Representative and are
arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
• Centroids and Moments of Inertia review has moved to Appendix D to free
up space for more examples and problems in earlier chapters.
Importance of example Problems

• Examples are presented throughout the book to illustrate the theoretical
concepts and show how those concepts may be used in practical situations.
All examples are presented in the Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach
format so that the basic concepts as well as the key steps in setting up and
solving each problem are clearly understood. New photographs have been
added showing actual engineering structures or components to reinforce
the tie between theory and application. Each example begins with a clear
statement of the problem and then presents a simplified analytical model
and the associated free-body diagrams to aid students in understanding
and applying the relevant theory in engineering analysis of the system. In
most cases, the examples are worked out in symbolic terms so as to better
illustrate the ideas, and then numeric values of key parameters are substi-
tuted in the final part of the analysis step. In selected examples through-
out the text, graphical display of results (e.g., stresses in beams) has been
added to enhance the student’s understanding of the problem results.
example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

involves the analysis of a
real physical structure, such
Figure 1-6 Figure 1-7 as this truss structure (Fig.
Free-body diagram of truss model 1-6) representing part of
y
the fuselage of a model air
P plane. Begin by sketching
C
the portion of the structure
2P
θC = 80° of interest showing
a members, supports,
b
θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

θA = 60° This Conceptualization
Ax A B
D x step in the analysis often
Ay By leads to a free-body
c/2 c/2 diagram (Fig. 1-7).
xiv Preface
Solution:
The solution involves the following steps:
The next step is to simplify 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a free-body dia-
the problem, list known gram of the entire truss model (Figure 1-7). Only known applied
data and identify all
forces at C and unknown reaction forces at A and B are shown and
unknowns, and make
necessary assumptions to then used in an equilibrium analysis to find the reactions.
create a suitable model 2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires that the
for analysis. This is the
Categorize step. force components in x and y directions and the moment about the z
axis must sum to zero; this leads to reaction force components Ax,
Ay, and By. The truss is statically determinate (unknowns: m 1 r 5 5
Write the governing 1 3 5 8, knowns: 2j 5 8) so all member forces can be obtained using
equations, then use the method of joints. . . .
appropriate mathematical
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
and computational
techniques to solve the solution]: First find the lengths of members AC and BC, which are
equations and obtain needed to compute distances to lines of action of forces.
results, either in the form
of mathematical formulas Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles u A, u B,
or numerical values. The and uC and c 5 10 ft to find lengths a and b:
Analysis step leads to
support reaction and sin(u B ) sin(408 )
b 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 6.527 ft,
member forces in the truss. sin(uC ) sin(808 )
sin(u A ) sin(608 )
a 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 8.794 ft
sin(uC ) sin(808 )
Check that computed lengths a and b give length c by using the law
of cosines:
c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft

List the major steps in your
analysis procedure so that it 4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—does it make sense? Are units
is easy to review or check at
a later time. correct? How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: There
are 2 j 5 8 equilibrium equations for the simple plane truss consid-
ered above and, using the method of joints, these are obtained by
applying SFx 5 0 and SFy 5 0 at each joint in succession. A com-
puter solution of these simultaneous equations leads to the three
reaction forces and five member forces. The method of sections is an
efficient way to find selected member forces.
List the major steps in the Finalize step,

review the solution to make sure that it is
presented in a clear fashion so that it can
be easily reviewed and checked by others.
Are the expressions and numerical values
obtained reasonable? Do they agree with
your initial expectations?
Preface xv
Problems
In all mechanics courses, solving problems is an important part of the learning
process. This textbook offers more than 1440 problems, many with multiple
parts, for homework assignments and classroom discussions. The problems
are placed at the end of each chapter so that they are easy to find and don’t
break up the presentation of the main subject matter. Also, problems are
generally arranged in order of increasing difficulty, thus alerting students to
the time necessary for solution. Answers to all problems are listed near the
back of the book.
Considerable effort has been spent in checking and proofreading the text so
as to eliminate errors. If you happen to find one, no matter how trivial, please
notify me by e-mail (bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu). We will correct any errors in the
next printing of the book.
Units
Both the International System of Units (SI) and the U.S. Customary System
(USCS) are used in the examples and problems. Discussions of both systems
and a table of conversion factors are given in Appendix A. For problems involv-
ing numerical solutions, odd-numbered problems are in USCS units and even-
numbered problems are in SI units. This convention makes it easy to know
in advance which system of units is being used in any particular problem. In
addition, tables containing properties of structural-steel shapes in both USCS
and SI units may be found in Appendix F so that solution of beam analysis
and design examples and end-of-chapter problems can be carried out in either
USCS or SI units.
Supplements
Instructor Resources
An Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available in both print and digital versions,
and includes solutions to all problems from this edition with Mathcad solutions
available for some problems. The Manual includes rotated stress elements for
problems as well as an increased number of free body diagrams. The digital
version is accessible to instructors on http://login.cengage.com. The Instructor
Resource Center also contains a full set of Lecture Note PowerPoints.
Student Resources
FE Exam Review Problems has been updated and now appears online. This
supplement contains 106 FE-type review problems and solutions, which cover
all of the major topics presented in the text and are representative of those likely
to appear on an FE exam. Each of the problems is presented in the FE Exam
format and is intended to serve as a useful guide to the student in preparing for
this important examination.
Many students take the Fundamentals of Engineering Examination upon
graduation, the first step on their path to registration as a Professional Engi-
neer. Most of these problems are in SI units which is the system of units used
xvi Preface
on the FE Exam itself, and require use of an engineering calculator to carry out
the solution. The student must select from four available answers, only one of
which is the correct answer. Go to http://www.cengagebrain.com to find the
FE Exam Review Problems and the resources below, which are available on
the student website for this book:
• Answers to the FE Exam Review Problems
• Detailed Solutions for Each Problem
S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

and J.M. Gere (1925–2008)
Many readers of this book will recognize the name of Stephen P. Timoshenko—
probably the most famous name in the field of applied mechanics. A brief
biography of Timoshenko appears in the first reference in the References and
Historical Notes section. Timoshenko is generally recognized as the world’s most
outstanding pioneer in applied mechanics. He contributed many new ideas and
concepts and became famous for both his scholarship and his teaching. Through
his numerous textbooks he made a profound change in the teaching of mechan-
ics not only in this country but wherever mechanics is taught. Timoshenko was
both teacher and mentor to James Gere and provided the motivation for the
first edition of this text, authored by James M. Gere and published in 1972.
The second and each subsequent edition of this book were written by James
Gere over the course of his long and distinguished tenure as author, educator,
and researcher at Stanford University. James Gere started as a doctoral student
at Stanford in 1952 and retired from Stanford as a professor in 1988 having
authored this and eight other well-known and respected text books on mechan-
ics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He remained active at Stanford
as Professor Emeritus until his death in January of 2008.
Acknowledgments
To acknowledge everyone who contributed to this book in some manner is clearly
impossible, but I owe a major debt to my former Stanford teachers, especially my
mentor and friend, and co-author James M. Gere.
I am grateful to my many colleagues teaching Mechanics of Materials at
various institutions throughout the world who have provided feedback and con-
structive criticism about the text; for all those anonymous reviews, my thanks.
With each new edition, their advice has resulted in significant improvements
in both content and pedagogy.
My appreciation and thanks also go to the reviewers who provided specific
comments for this ninth edition:
Erian Armanios, University of Texas at Arlington
Aaron S. Budge, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Virginia Ferguson, University of Colorado, Boulder
Preface xvii
James Giancaspro, University of Miami
Paul Heyliger, Colorado State University
Eric Kasper, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Richard Kunz, Mercer University
David Lattanzi, George Mason University
Gustavo Molina, Georgia Southern University
Suzannah Sandrik, University of Wisconsin—Madison
Morteza A.M. Torkamani, University of Pittsburgh
I wish to also acknowledge my Structural Engineering and Mechanics

colleagues at the Georgia Institute of Technology, many of whom provided
valuable advice on various aspects of the revisions and additions leading to
the current edition. It is a privilege to work with all of these educators and to
learn from them in almost daily interactions and discussions about structural
engineering and mechanics in the context of research and higher education.
I wish to extend my thanks to my many current and former students who have
helped to shape this text in its various editions. Finally, I would like to acknowl-
edge the excellent work of Edwin Lim who suggested new problems and also
carefully checked the solutions of many of the new examples and end of chapter
problems.
I wish to acknowledge and thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage
Learning for their dedication to this new book:
Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Mona Zeftel, Senior Content Developer;

D. Jean Buttrom, Content Project Manager; Kristin Stine, Marketing Manager;
Elizabeth Brown and Brittany Burden, Learning Solutions Specialists; Ashley
Kaupert, Associate Media Content Developer; Teresa Versaggi and Alexander
Sham, Product Assistants; and Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services, Inc.
They have skillfully guided every aspect of this text’s development and
production to successful completion.
I am deeply appreciative of the patience and encouragement provided by
my family, especially my wife, Lana, throughout this project.
Finally, I am very pleased to continue this endeavor begun so many years
ago by my mentor and friend, Jim Gere. This ninth edition text has now reached
its 45th year of publication. I am committed to its continued excellence and wel-
come all comments and suggestions. Please feel free to provide me with your
critical input at bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu.
Barry J. Goodno
Atlanta, Georgia
M I n DTA P o n L I n e C o U R S e
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xviii
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SyMBoLS
A area
Af , Aw area of flange; area of web
a, b, c dimensions, distances
C centroid, compressive force, constant of integration
c distance from neutral axis to outer surface of a beam
D diameter
d diameter, dimension, distance
E modulus of elasticity
E r , Et reduced modulus of elasticity; tangent modulus of elasticity
e eccentricity, dimension, distance, unit volume change
(dilatation)
F force
f shear flow, shape factor for plastic bending, flexibility,
frequency (Hz)
fT torsional flexibility of a bar
G modulus of elasticity in shear
g acceleration of gravity
H height, distance, horizontal force or reaction, horsepower
h height, dimensions
I moment of inertia (or second moment) of a plane area
I x, I y, I z moments of inertia with respect to x, y, and z axes
I x1, I y1 moments of inertia with respect to x1 and y1 axes (rotated axes)
I xy product of inertia with respect to xy axes
I x1y1 product of inertia with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
IP polar moment of inertia
I1, I 2 principal moments of inertia
J torsion constant
K stress-concentration factor, bulk modulus of elasticity, effective
length factor for a column
k spring constant, stiffness, symbol for P /EI
kT torsional stiffness of a bar
L length, distance
LE effective length of a column
ln, log natural logarithm (base e); common logarithm (base 10)
M bending moment, couple, mass
M P, MY plastic moment for a beam; yield moment for a beam
m moment per unit length, mass per unit length
N axial force
xxi
xxii Symbols
n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

O origin of coordinates
O9 center of curvature
P force, concentrated load, power
Pallow allowable load (or working load)
Pcr critical load for a column
PP plastic load for a structure
Pr, Pt reduced-modulus load for a column; tangent-modulus load
for a column
PY yield load for a structure
p pressure (force per unit area)
Q force, concentrated load, first moment of a plane area
q intensity of distributed load (force per unit distance)
R reaction, radius
r radius, radius of gyration ( r 5 I /A )
S section modulus of the cross section of a beam, shear center
s distance, distance along a curve
T tensile force, twisting couple or torque, temperature
TP, TY plastic torque; yield torque
t thickness, time, intensity of torque (torque per unit distance)
tf , t w thickness of flange; thickness of web
U strain energy
u strain-energy density (strain energy per unit volume)
ur , ut modulus of resistance; modulus of toughness
V shear force, volume, vertical force or reaction
v deflection of a beam, velocity
v9, v 0, etc. dv/dx, d 2 v /dx 2 , etc.
W force, weight, work
w load per unit of area (force per unit area)
x, y, z rectangular axes (origin at point O)
xc , yc , zc rectangular axes (origin at centroid C)
x, y, z coordinates of centroid
Z plastic modulus of the cross section of a beam
a angle, coefficient of thermal expansion, nondimensional ratio
b angle, nondimensional ratio, spring constant, stiffness
bR rotational stiffness of a spring
g shear strain, weight density (weight per unit volume)
g xy , g yz , g zx shear strains in xy, yz, and zx planes
g x1y1 shear strain with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
gu shear strain for inclined axes
d deflection of a beam, displacement, elongation of a bar
or spring
Symbols xxiii
∆T temperature differential
d P , dY plastic displacement; yield displacement
« normal strain
« x, « y, « z normal strains in x, y, and z directions
« x1, « y1 normal strains in x1 and y1 directions (rotated axes)
«u normal strain for inclined axes
«1, « 2 , « 3 principal normal strains
«9 lateral strain in uniaxial stress
«T thermal strain
«Y yield strain
u angle, angle of rotation of beam axis, rate of twist of a bar
in torsion (angle of twist per unit length)
up angle to a principal plane or to a principal axis
us angle to a plane of maximum shear stress
k curvature (k 5 1/r )
l distance, curvature shortening
n Poisson’s ratio
r radius, radius of curvature ( r 5 1/k ), radial distance in polar
coordinates, mass density (mass per unit volume)
s normal stress
s x, s y, s z normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x, y, and z axes
s x1, s y1 normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x1 y1 axes (rotated
axes)
su normal stress on an inclined plane
s 1, s 2, s 3 principal normal stresses
s allow allowable stress (or working stress)
s cr critical stress for a column (s cr 5 Pcr /A)
s pl proportional-limit stress
sr residual stress
sT thermal stress
sU , sY ultimate stress; yield stress
t shear stress
t xy , t yz, t zx shear stresses on planes perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes
and acting parallel to the y, z, and x axes
t x1y1 shear stress on a plane perpendicular to the x1 axis and acting
parallel to the y1 axis (rotated axes)
tu shear stress on an inclined plane
t allow allowable stress (or working stress) in shear
t U , tY ultimate stress in shear; yield stress in shear
f angle, angle of twist of a bar in torsion
c angle, angle of rotation
v angular velocity, angular frequency (v 5 2p f )
xxiv Symbols
GReeK ALPHABeT
A a Alpha N n Nu
B b Beta J j Xi
Γ g Gamma O o Omicron
D d Delta Π p Pi
E « Epsilon P r Rho
Z z Zeta S s Sigma
H h Eta T t Tau
Θ u Theta Y y Upsilon
I ι Iota F f Phi
K k Kappa X x Chi
Λ l Lambda Ψ c Psi
M m Mu Ω v Omega
CHAPTER
Tension, Compression, and Shear 1
Jan Jirous/Shutterstock.com
This telecommunications tower is an assemblage of many members that act primarily in tension or compression.
Chapter Objectives
• Define mechanics of materials, which examines the stresses, • Investigate changes in lateral dimensions and volume of a
strains, and displacements in structures made of various bar, which depend upon Poisson’s ratio ( n ) for the material of
materials acted on by a variety of different loads. the bar.
• Study normal stress (s ) and normal strain (« ) in materials used • Study normal, shear, and bearing stresses in simple bolted
for structural applications. connections between members.
• Identify key properties of various materials, such as the modulus • Use factors of safety to establish allowable values
of elasticity (E) and yield (s y ) and ultimate (s u ) stresses, from of stresses.
plots of stress (s ) versus strain (« ). • Introduce basic concepts of design: the iterative process
• Plot shear stress (t ) versus shear strain (g ) and identify the by which the appropriate size of structural members is
shearing modulus of elasticity (G). determined to meet a variety of both strength and stiffness
• Study Hooke’s Law for normal stress and strain (s 5 E « ) requirements.
and also for shear stress and strain (t 5 Gg ).
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials 2 1.7 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio 44
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach 2 1.8 Shear Stress and Strain 50
1.3 Statics Review 3 1.9 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads 63
1.4 Normal Stress and Strain 22 1.10 Design For Axial Loads and Direct Shear 70
1.5 Mechanical Properties of Materials 31 Chapter Summary and Review 74
1.6 Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep 38 Problems 77 1
2 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. Other names for
this field of study are strength of materials and mechanics of deformable bodies.
The solid bodies considered in this book include bars with axial loads, shafts in
torsion, beams in bending, and columns in compression.
The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to determine the stresses,
strains, and displacements in structures and their components due to the loads
acting on them. An understanding of mechanical behavior is essential for the
safe design of all types of structures, whether airplanes and antennas, buildings
and bridges, machines and motors, or ships and spacecraft. That is why mechan-
ics of materials is a basic subject in so many engineering fields. Most problems in
mechanics of materials begin with an examination of the external and internal
forces acting on a stable deformable body. First the loads acting on the body are
defined, along with its support conditions, then reaction forces at supports and
internal forces in its members or elements are determined using the basic laws
of static equilibrium (provided that the body is statically determinate).
In mechanics of materials you study the stresses and strains inside real bod-
ies, that is, bodies of finite dimensions that deform under loads. To determine the
stresses and strains, use the physical properties of the materials as well as numer-
ous theoretical laws and concepts. Mechanics of materials provides additional
essential information, based on the deformations of the body, to solve statically
indeterminate problems (not possible using the laws of static equilibrium alone).
Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles
in mechanics of materials. Theories are used to derive formulas and equations
for predicting mechanical behavior but these expressions cannot be used in
practical design unless the physical properties of the materials are known.
Such properties are available only after careful experiments have been carried
out in the laboratory. Furthermore, not all practical problems are amenable
to theoretical analysis alone, and in such cases physical testing is a necessity.
The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend
of both theory and experiment—theory has pointed the way to useful results in
some instances, and experiment has done so in others. Such famous persons as
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) performed exper-
iments to determine the strength of wires, bars, and beams, although they did
not develop adequate theories (by today’s standards) to explain their test results.
By contrast, the famous mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) developed
the mathematical theory of columns and calculated the critical load of a column
in 1744, long before any experimental evidence existed to show the significance
of his results. Without appropriate tests to back up his theories, Euler’s results
remained unused for over a hundred years, although today they are the basis for
the design and analysis of most columns (see Refs. 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3).
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach*

The study of mechanics divides naturally into two parts: first, understanding
the general concepts and principles, and second, applying those concepts and
principles to physical situations. You can gain an understanding of the general
*The four step problem-solving approach presented here is patterned after that presented
by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage Learning, 2013.
Section 1.3 Statics Review 3
concepts by studying the discussions and derivations presented in this book. You
can gain skill only by solving problems on your own. Of course, these two aspects
of mechanics are closely related, and many experts in mechanics will argue that
you do not really understand the concepts if you cannot apply them. It is easy to
recite the principles, but applying them to real situations requires an in-depth
understanding. Problem solving gives meaning to the concepts and also provides
an opportunity to gain experience and develop judgment.
A major objective of this text is to assist you in developing a structured solu-
tion process for problems in statics and mechanics of materials. This process
is referred to as a problem-solving approach (PSA) and is used in all example
problems in the text. The PSA involves the following four steps:
1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: List all relevant data and draw a sketch
showing all applied forces, support/boundary conditions, and interactions
between adjacent bodies. Development and refinement of the free-body
diagram is an essential part of this step.
2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Identify the unknowns in the problem and
make any necessary assumptions to simplify the problem and streamline
the solution process.
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
solution]: Apply appropriate theories, set up the necessary equations for the
chosen mathematical model, and then solve for the unknowns.
4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—Does it make sense? Are units correct?
How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: Study the answers, com-
pare them to those for similar problems you have solved in the past, and
test the robustness of the solution by varying key parameters to see how
the results change (perhaps even plot the main result as a function of that
parameter to investigate the sensitivity of the answer).
You are encouraged to study the problem-solving approach presented in
the example problems and then apply it to homework and in-class labora-
tory problems. This structured systematic approach also will be useful during
examinations. See Appendix B.2 for further discussion of the Problem Solving
Approach summarized above.
All problems appear at the ends of the chapters, with the problem numbers
and subheadings identifying the sections to which they belong. In the case of
problems requiring numerical solutions, odd-numbered problems are in U.S.
Customary System (USCS) units and even-numbered problems are in Inter-
national System of Units (SI).
In this book, final numerical results are usually presented with three sig-
nificant digits when a number begins with the digits 2 through 9, and with four
significant digits when a number begins with the digit 1. Intermediate values
are often recorded with additional digits to avoid losing numerical accuracy
due to rounding of numbers.
1.3 Statics Review

In your prerequisite course on statics, you studied the equilibrium of rigid bodies
acted upon by a variety of different forces and supported or restrained in such a
way that the body was stable and at rest. As a result, a properly restrained body
could not undergo rigid-body motion due to the application of static forces. You
drew free-body diagrams of the entire body, or of key parts of the body, and then
applied the equations of equilibrium to find external reaction forces and moments
or internal forces and moments at critical points. In this section, the basic static
equilibrium equations are reviewed and then applied to the solution of example
structures (both two and three-dimensional) using both scalar and vector opera-
tions (both acceleration and velocity of the body are assumed to be zero). Most
problems in mechanics of materials require a static analysis as the first step, so
all forces acting on the system and causing its deformation are known. Once all
external and internal forces of interest have been found, you can proceed with
the evaluation of stresses, strains, and deformations of bars, shafts, beams, and
columns as described in subsequent chapters.
Equilibrium Equations
The resultant force R and resultant moment M of all forces and moments acting
on either a rigid or deformable body in equilibrium are both zero. The sum of
the moments may be taken about any arbitrary point. The resulting equilibrium
equations can be expressed in vector form as:
R 5 SF 5 0 (1-1)
M 5 SM 5 S( r 3 F ) 5 0 (1-2)
where F is one of a number of vectors of forces acting on the body and r is a
position vector from the point at which moments are taken to a point along the
line of application of any force F. It is often convenient to write the equilibrium
equations in scalar form using a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, either
in two dimensions (x, y) or three dimensions (x, y, z) as
SFx 5 0 SFy 5 0 SM z 5 0 (1-3)
Equation (1-3) can be used for two-dimensional or planar problems, but in three
dimensions, three force and three moment equations are required:
SFx 5 0 SFy 5 0 SFz 5 0 (1-4)
SM x 5 0 SM y 5 0 SM z 5 0 (1-5)
If the number of unknown forces is equal to the number of independent equilib-
rium equations, these equations are sufficient to solve for all unknown reaction
or internal forces in the body, and the problem is referred to as statically determi-
nate (provided that the body is stable). If the body or structure is constrained by
additional (or redundant) supports, it is statically indeterminate, and a solution
is not possible using the laws of static equilibrium alone.
Applied Forces
External loads applied to a body or structure may be either concentrated
or distributed forces or moments. For example, force FB (with units of
pounds, lb, or newtons, N) in Fig. 1-1 is a point or concentrated load and
is assumed to act at point B on the body, while moment MA is a concen-
trated moment or couple (with units of lb-ft or N · m) acting at point A.
Distributed forces may act along or normal to a member and may have
constant intensity, such as line load q1 normal to member BC (Fig. 1-1)
or line load q2 acting in the 2y direction on inclined member DF; both q1
and q2 have units of force intensity (lb/ft or N/m). Distributed loads also
FiguRE 1-1
Plane frame structure
F
q2
4
q0 3
e
C q1
E D
c d b
4 B
y 3
a
FB
MA
x
A
may have a linear (or other) variation with some peak intensity q0 (as on
member ED in Fig. 1-1). Surface pressures p (with units of lb/ft 2 or Pa),
such as wind acting on a sign (Fig. 1-2), act over a designated region of a
body. Finally, a body force w (with units of force per unit volume, lb/ft 3 or
N/m 3 ), such as the distributed self-weight of the sign or post in Fig. 1-2,
acts throughout the volume of the body and can be replaced by the compo-
nent weight W acting at the center of gravity (c.g.) of the sign (Ws ) or post
(W p ). In fact, any distributed loading (line, surface, or body force) can be
replaced by a statically equivalent force at the center of gravity (or center of
pressure for wind) of the distributed loading when overall static equilibrium
of the structure is evaluated using Eqs. (1-1) to (1-5).
Free-Body Diagrams
A free-body diagram (FBD) is an essential part of a static analysis of a rigid or FiguRE 1-2
deformable body. All forces acting on the body, or component part of the body, Wind on sign
must be displayed on the FBD if a correct equilibrium solution is to be obtained. y
This includes applied forces and moments, reaction forces and moments, and any
connection forces between individual components. For example, an overall FBD p
of the plane frame in Fig. 1-1 is shown in Fig. 1-3a; all applied and reaction forces Ws
are shown on this FBD and statically equivalent concentrated loads are displayed
for all distributed loads. Statically equivalent forces Fq 0, Fq1, and Fq 2, each acting P
at the c.g. of the corresponding distributed loading, are used in the equilibrium
Wp
equation solution to represent distributed loads q0 , q1, and q2 , respectively.
Next, the plane frame has been disassembled in Fig. 1-3b, so that sepa- H
rate FBDs can be drawn for each part of the frame, thereby exposing pin-
connection forces at D ( Dx , Dy ) . Both FBDs must show all applied forces as
well as reaction forces Ax and Ay at pin-support joint A and Fx and Fy at z x
FiguRE 1-3
(a) Overall FBD of plane frame F
structure from Fig. 1-1, and
Fx
(b) Separate free-body diagrams Fq2
of part ABCDE and part DF Fy
of the plane frame structure in
Fig. 1-1
Fq0 4
q0 3
e
C q1
E D Fq1
c d
b
4
B
3
y
a
FB
MA
x A
Ax
Ay
(a)
Fq 2 Fx
F
q2
Fy
Fq0 D Dx
q0
Dy Resultant D
Dy Dx
C q1
E D Fq1
4 B
3
y
FB
MA
x A Ax
Ay Resultant A
(b)
pin-support joint F. The forces transmitted between frame elements EDC and
DF at pin connection D must be determined if the proper interaction of these
two elements is to be accounted for in the static analysis.
The FBDs presented in Figs. 1-3a and 1-3b are essential parts of this
solution process. A statics sign convention is usually employed in the solution
for support reactions; forces acting in the positive directions of the coordi-
nate axes are assumed positive, and the right-hand rule is used for moment
vectors.
Reactive Forces and Support Conditions

Proper restraint of the body or structure is essential if the equilibrium equations
are to be satisfied. A sufficient number and arrangement of supports must be
present to prevent rigid-body motion under the action of static forces. A reaction
force at a support is represented by a single arrow with a slash drawn through it
(see Fig. 1-3) while a moment restraint at a support is shown as a double-headed
or curved arrow with a slash. Reaction forces and moments usually result from
the action of applied forces of the types described above (i.e., concentrated,
distributed, surface, and body forces).
A variety of different support conditions may be assumed depending on
whether the problem is 2D or 3D. Supports A and F in the 2D plane frame
structure shown in Fig. 1-1 and Fig. 1-3 are pin supports, while the base of
the 3D sign structure in Fig. 1-2 may be considered to be a fixed or clamped
support. Some of the most commonly used idealizations for 2D and 3D sup-
ports, as well as interconnections between members or elements of a struc-
ture, are illustrated in Table 1-1. The restraining or transmitted forces and
moments associated with each type of support or connection are displayed
in the third column of the table (these are not FBDs, however). The reactions
forces and moments for the 3D sign structure in Fig. 1-2 are shown on the
FBD in Fig. 1-4a; only reactions Ry , Rz, and M x are nonzero because the sign
structure and wind loading are symmetric with respect to the y-z plane. If the
sign is eccentric to the post (Fig. 1-4b), only reaction Rx is zero for the case of
wind loading in the 2z direction. (See Problems 1.8-19 and 1.9-17 at the end of
Chapter 1 for a more detailed examination of the reaction forces due to wind
pressure acting on several sign structures similar to that shown in Fig. 1-2;
forces and stresses in the base plate bolts are also computed).
FiguRE 1-4
y
(a) FBD of symmetric sign
y structure, and (b) FBD of
eccentric sign structure
Ws
Ws
P
P
Wp Wp
H
Mx
Mx
Rz Rz
Mz Ry x
z x z
Ry
My
(a) (b)
Table 1-1 Display of restraint

Modeling reaction Type of support Simplified sketch of support forces and moments,
forces and support or connection or connection or connection forces
conditions in 2D or 3D
static analysis 1. Roller Support: A single reaction force R is developed and is normal to the rolling surface; force R opposes
motion into or away from the rolling surface. The rolling surface may be horizontal, vertical, or inclined at some
angle u. If friction is present, then include a force F opposing the movement of the support and tangential to the
rolling surface. In 3D, the roller moves in the x-z plane and reaction Ry is normal to that plane.
(a) Two-dimensional roller
The Earthquake Engineering
support (friction force F 5 0

for smooth rolling surface)
y
(1.1) (1.2) (1.3)
Online Archive
Horizontal roller support [(1.1),

(1.2)]; or alternate representation F
Bridge with roller support as rocker support [(1.3)] R
(see 1.1, 1.2) Both downward and uplift
motions are restrained. y
Rx x
y
x
Vertical roller restraints θ
R F
Bridge with rocker support
(see 1.3) (b) Three-dimensional roller
support (friction force F 5 0
for smooth rolling surface;
Rotated or inclined roller reaction Ry acts normal to
support plane x-z on which roller
y translates)
y
z x Ry
z x
3D roller support
2. Pin Support: A single resultant force, usually shown using two rectangular components Rx and Ry
in 2D but three components in 3D, resists motion in any direction normal to the pin. The pin support
cannot resist moment, and the pin is free to rotate about the z axis. In 3D, the pin becomes a ball-
and-socket joint or support.
(a) Two-dimensional pin support

The Earthquake Engineering
y
Online Archive
x
Two-dimensional pin
Rx Ry
y
y
Rx x
© David Chapman/Alamy
Ry
Stock Photo
(b) Three-dimensional pin

support
Ball-and-socket joint model z x
(camera mount, 3D) y
Ball-and-socket joint model
Pelvis
Artificial Rz Rx
hip joint
Ry
z x
Femur
(thigh bone)
Hip prosthesis for hip

replacement
3. Sliding Support: A support that translates without rotation is a sliding support. Examples are a collar sliding
along a sleeve or a flange moving within a slot. Reactions in 2D are a force Rx normal to the sleeve and a
moment Mz representing resistance to rotation relative to the sleeve. In 3D, the sliding support translates on
frictionless plane y-z and reaction moment components My and Mz prevent rotation relative to that plane.
y (a) Two-dimensional sliding

support
(support translates on
frictionless path along 1y
or 2y direction)
x y
Mz
Frictionless sleeve
on vertical shaft Rx
x
Sliding support for column light
Two-dimensional sliding support
stand
Friction F opposes motion in F
1y direction in 2D along sliding (b) Three-dimensional sliding
surface; F is zero if smooth support
surface is assumed. (support translates on
In 3D, add restraint moment M x frictionless y-z plane)
y
to prevent rotation about x axis.
My
Rx x
Mz
(Continued)
Display of restraint
Type of support Simplified sketch of support forces and moments,
or connection or connection or connection forces
4. Fixed Support: No translation or rotation occurs between member and support in a fixed support. This
requires three reaction components in 2D: force components Rx and Ry and moment M z . In 3D, three
force reaction components and three moment reaction components are required.
A (a) Two-dimensional fixed support

Franco Nadalin/Shutterstock.com
y
Mz
Weld
Rx x
Ry
Pole
Base plate Horizontal member
Steel bollard anchored in concrete y
Radovan1/Shutterstock.com
Rx
Mz
Ry
Concrete pier
Vertical member
Fixed support at base of sign
Column bolted to footing (b) Three-dimensional fixed
post
support
y
x
Rz
Mz Rx Mx
Ry
z
My
5. Elastic or Spring Support: In 2D, there may be a longitudinal or normal translational spring or a
combination of both. For linear springs, the support reaction at the base of the spring is the product of
the spring constant k times the displacement d in the direction of the spring axis. If joint A translates
in 1x (d x ) and 1y (d y ) directions, reaction forces Rx and Ry are created in –x and –y directions,
respectively, at the supports of linear translational springs. Alternatively, the support may be pinned for
translation but have moment spring kr for rotation. If joint A rotates about the 1z axis (u z ), reaction
moment M z is created in the –z direction at the base of the rotational spring. In 3D, a fully elastic
support consists of three translational springs (kx , k y , kz ) and three rotational springs (kr x, kr y, kr z ),
and an arbitrary joint displacement results in three reaction forces and three reaction moments. In
the limit, as each spring constant value approaches infinity, the elastic support becomes a fully fixed
support like that shown in Section 4b above.
In 3D, add spring in 1z (a) Translational spring (k) in 2D
Nipon Laicharoenchokchai/
direction kz with reaction force y

Rz 5 2kzd z. δy
A
Shutterstock.com
In 3D, add rotational flexural

spring about 1y direction kry with x
Rx = –kxδx kx δx
reaction moment M y 5 2kryu y ky
and add rotational torsional spring
about 1x direction with reaction
Translational spring support for
moment M x 5 2krxu x . Ry = –kyδ y
heavy equipment
Torsion springs are found in (b) Rotational spring ( kr ) in 2D

Shutterstock.com
window shades and as part of the θz
y
lift mechanism in power garage
montego/
door-opening systems. kr
A x
Rotational spring in a clothespin
Rx
Ry
Mz = − kr θz
6. Wheel on Rail Support: This support is a particular form of the 3D roller support (see Section 1b above).
Now general movement in the x-z plane is constrained by normal force Ry and lateral force Rx , both acting
normal to the rail or slot on which the wheel travels. If friction is considered, friction force F is added along
the rail in the direction opposing the wheel translation.
Wheel rolls on rail or in slot y
along z axis; friction force
opposing motion is neglected;
© Paul Rollins/Alamy
Rx is lateral constraint force, Ry z

is normal force.
Stock Photo
y x
Rx
Ry
x Rx
Ry
Cross section through guide rail

7. Thrust-Bearing Support: A thrust bearing constrains translational motion along the shaft axis while
allowing rotary motion to occur about that axis. Support reaction forces and moment components act in all
directions except for reaction moment M x 5 0 about the thrust axis (in the absence of friction). A special
case is the journal bearing for which axial thrust restraint component Rx 5 0 .
Thrust bearing has support Journal bearing has no axial y
reaction force (Rx, Ry, Rz ) and thrust reaction force ( Rx 5 0) in
My
reaction moment components addition to ( M x 5 0).
(M y, M z )—no moment M x about y
the thrust or rotation (x) axis. Ry
My
dcwcreations/Shutterstock.com
Rx
Ry x
Rz
Rx Mz
Rz z
Mz x
Pillow block bearing
z
Internal Forces (Stress Resultants)

Mechanics of materials is concerned with study of the deformations of the
members or elements that make up the overall deformable body. In order to
compute the member deformations, first find the internal forces and moments
(i.e., the internal stress resultants) at key points along the members of the over-
all structure. It is useful to create graphical displays of the internal axial force,
torsional moment, transverse shear, and bending moment along the axis of each
member of the body so that critical points or regions within the structure are
readily identified. The first step is to make a section cut normal to the axis of
each member so that a FBD can be drawn that displays the internal forces of
interest. For example, Fig. 1-5 shows two cuts made through members ED and
DF in the plane frame; the resulting FBDs now can be used to find N, V, and M
in members ED and DF of the plane frame. Stress resultants N, V, and M are
usually taken along and normal to the member under consideration (i.e., local
or member axes are used), and a deformation sign convention (e.g., tension is
positive, compression is negative) is employed in their solution.
The following examples review the application of the equations of static
equilibrium to solve for external reactions and internal forces in truss, beam,
circular shaft, and frame structures. First reaction forces are computed for
a truss structure then member forces are found using the method of joints.
Properly drawn FBDs are essential to the overall solution process. The sec-
ond example involves static analysis of a beam structure to find reactions and
internal forces at a particular section along the beam. In the third example,
reactive and internal torsional moments in a stepped shaft are computed. And,
finally, the fourth example presents the solution of a plane frame structure.
FiguRE 1-5
FBDs for internal stress
resultants in ED and DF
Fq2 V Fx
M F
q2 M N
N Fy
FBDED V FBDDF
Fq0 D Dx
q0 Dy
V
M M Dy
Dx C
N q1
N
E V D Fq2
B
y
FB
MA
x A Ax
Ay
Example 1-1
FiguRE 1-6 The plane truss shown in Fig. 1-6 has four joints and five mem-
Plane truss model bers. Find support reactions at A and B and then use the methods
y
of joints and sections to find all member forces. Let P 5 35 kips
P and c 5 10 ft.
C 2P
θC = 80° Solution:
a Use the following four-step problem-solving approach.
b
θB = 40° 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a

θA = 60°
A D B free-body diagram of the entire truss model (Fig. 1-7).
x
Only known applied forces at C and unknown reaction
c/2 c/2
forces at A and B are shown and then used in an equilib-
rium analysis to find the reactions.
FiguRE 1-7 2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires
Free-body diagram of truss model that the force components in x and y directions and the
y moment about the z axis must sum to zero; this leads to
P reaction force components Ax , Ay , and B y . The truss is stat-
C 2P ically determinate (unknowns: m 1 r 5 5 1 3 5 8, knowns:
θC = 80°
a
2 j 5 8), so all member forces can be obtained using the
b
θB = 40° method of joints. If only a few selected member forces are of

θA = 60° interest, the method of sections can be used. Use a statics sign
Ax A B
D x convention when computing external reactions and a defor-
Ay By mation sign convention when solving for member forces.
c/2 c/2
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical solution]:
First find the lengths of members AC and BC needed to compute distances
to lines of action of forces.
Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles u A, u B, and uC
and c 5 10 ft to find lengths a and b:
sin(u B ) sin(408 ) sin(u A ) sin(608 )
b 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 6.527 ft, a 5 c 5 (10 ft) 5 8.794 ft
sin(uC ) sin(808 ) sin(uC ) sin(808 )
Check that computed lengths a and b give length c by using the law of cosines:
c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft
Support reactions: Using the truss model free-body diagram in Fig. 1-7, sum
forces in x and y directions and moments about joint A:
1
SM A 5 0 B y 5 [ P ( b cos(u A )) 1 2 P ( b sin(u A )) ] 5 51 kips
c
SFx 5 0 Ax 522 P 5 270 kips
SFy 5 0 Ay 5 P 2 B y 5 216 kips
Reaction force components Ax and Ay are both negative, so they act in the
negative x and y directions, respectively, based on a statics sign convention.
FiguRE 1-8
Free-body diagram of pin y
at each truss joint P
C 2P
AC CD BC
BC
Ax = –70 kips A
60° AD 80° 100° BD 40° B
x
D
Ay = –16 kips By = 51 kips
Member forces using method of joints: Begin by drawing free-body diagrams

of the pin at each joint (Fig. 1-8). Use a deformation sign convention in which
each member is assumed to be in tension (so the member force arrows act
away from the two joints to which each member is connected). The forces are
concurrent at each joint, so use force equilibrium at each location to find the
unknown member forces.
First sum forces in the y direction at joint A to find member force AC, and
then sum forces in the x direction to get member force AD:
21
SFy 5 0 AC 5 A 5 18.46 kips
sin(608 ) y
SFx 5 0 AD 5 2Ax 2AC cos(608 ) 5 60.8 kips
Summing forces at joint B gives member forces BC and BD as
21
SFy 5 0 BC 5 B 5 279.3 kips
sin(408 ) y
SFx 5 0 BD 5 2BC cos(408 ) 5 60.8 kips
The minus sign means that member BC is in compression, not in tension as
assumed. Finally, observe that CD is a zero-force member because forces in the
y direction must sum to zero at joint D.
FiguRE 1-9 Selected member forces using method of sections:

Section cut leading to right-hand free-body diagram An alternative approach is to make a section
cut all the way through the structure to expose
y member forces of interest, such as AD, CD, and
P
BC in Fig. 1-9. Summing moments about joint B
C 2P
qC = 80° confirms that the force in member CD is zero.
BC Summing moments about joint C (which
a
b
CD is not on the free-body diagram but is a con-

qA = 60°
Ax = –70 kips A B venient point about which to sum moments
x
AD D because forces CD and BC act through joint C)
Ay = –16 kips By = 51 kips
confirms the solution for force AD as
c/2 c/2
1
SMC 5 0 AD 5  B ( a ) cos(408 )  5 60.8 kips
b sin(608 )  y 
Finally, summing moments about A in Fig. 1-9 confirms member force BC:
1
SM A 5 0 BC 5 [2B y c ] 5 279.3 kips
c sin(408 )
4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—Does it make sense? Are units correct?
How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: There are 2 j 5 8 equilib-
rium equations for the simple plane truss considered, and using the method
of joints, these are obtained by applying SFx 5 0 and SFy 5 0 at each joint
in succession. A computer solution of these simultaneous equations leads to
the three reaction forces and five member forces. The method of sections is
an efficient way to find selected member forces. A key step is the choice of an
appropriate section cut, which isolates the member of interest and eliminates
as many unknowns as possible. This is followed by construction of a free-body
diagram for use in the static equilibrium analysis to compute the member force
of interest. The methods of sections and joints were used, a common solution
approach in plane and space truss analysis.
Example 1-2
A simple beam with an overhang is supported at points A and B (Fig. 1-10). A linearly
varying distributed load of peak intensity q0 5 160 N/m acts on span AB. Concentrated
moment M 0 5 380 N ⋅ m is applied at A, and an inclined concentrated load P 5 200 N
acts at C. The length of segment AB is L 5 4 m, and the length of the overhang BC is 2 m.
Find support reactions at A and B and then calculate the axial force N, shear
force V, and bending moment M at midspan of AB.
FiguRE 1-10
M0 q0 P
Beam with an
overhang and uniform 4
and concentrated loads
B 3
C
L L/2
A
Solution:
Use the following four-step problem-solving approach.
1. Conceptualize: Find the reaction forces Ay , Bx , and B y using the FBD of the
overall structure shown in Fig. 1-11. Internal axial force N, shear force V, and
bending moment M at midspan of AB (Fig. 1-12) are obtained by cutting the
beam at that location. Either the left-hand or right-hand free-body diagram in
Fig. 1-12 may be used to find N, V, and M.
FiguRE 1-11
M0 q0
Free-body diagram
of beam 4P/5
B 3P/5
A
L Bx L/2 C
Ay By
FiguRE 1-12
M0 q0
Left- and right-hand q0 /2 q0 /2
free-body diagrams M M 4P/5
from section cut at B
midspan of AB 3P/5
A V N N
L/2 L/2 B L/2 C
Ay V x
By
2. Categorize: The free-body diagrams in Fig. 1-12 show internal axial force N,
shear force V, and bending moment M in their assumed positive directions
based on a deformation sign convention. Start by finding reaction forces Ay ,
Bx , and B y then use either the left-hand or right-hand free-body diagram in
Fig. 1-12 to find N, V, and M.
3. Analyze:
Solution for external reactions: Sum forces in the x direction to find reaction
force component Bx . Next sum moments about A to find reaction component
B y . Finally, sum forces in the y direction to find reaction Ay . Use a statics sign
convention in the solution as
3
SFx 5 0 P 5 120 N
Bx 5
5
1 1 2L 4 L
SM A 5 0 B y 5 M 0 1 q0 L ( ) 1 P ( L 1 )  5 548 N
L 2 3 5 2 
1 4
SFy 5 0 Ay 5 2B y 1 q0 L 1 P 5 268 N( ↓ )
2 5
Reaction Ay is negative, so in accordance with a statics sign convention, it
acts downward. Reaction components Bx and B y are positive, so they act in
the directions shown in Figs. 1-11 and 1-12. The resultant reaction force at B is
Bres 5 Bx2 1 B y2 5 561 N.
Solution for internal axial force N, shear force V, and moment M at midspan
of AB: Using the left-hand free-body diagram in Fig. 1-12,
1 q0 L
SFx 5 0 N 5 0 SFy 5 0 V 5 Ay 2 5 2148 N( ↑ )
2 2 2
L 1 q L 1 L
SM 5 0 M 5 M 0 1 Ay 2 0  5 190 N ? m
2 2 2 2  3 2 
Alternatively N, V, and M can be obtained if the right-hand free-body dia-
gram is used (Fig. 1-12). Note that the trapezoidal distributed load segment is
treated as two triangular loads when moments are summed to find internal
moment M:
3 4 1 q L
SFx 5 0N 5 Bx 2 P 5 0 SFy 5 0 V 5 2B y 1 P 1  0 1 q0  5 2148 N( ↓ )
5 5 2 2 2
L 4 L L q
1 0 L 1 L  1 L 2 L 
SM 5 0 M 5 B y 2 P  1  2 2 q0  5 190 N ⋅ m
2 5 2 2 2 2 2  3 2  2 2  3 2 
The minus sign on internal shear force V shows that it acts opposite to that
assumed in Fig. 1-12, as indicated by the arrows in the previous equations.
4. Finalize: The results show that computed internal forces (N and V) and
internal moment (M) can be determined using either the left- or right-hand
free-body diagram. This applies for any section taken through the beam at
any point along its length. Plots or diagrams that show the variation of N,
V, and M over the length of the beam are very useful in the design of shafts
and beams, because they readily show the critical regions of the beam where
N, V, and M have maximum values.
Example 1-3
A stepped circular shaft is fixed at A and has three gears that transmit the torques
shown in Fig. 1-13. Find the reaction torque MAx at A and then find the internal
torsional moments in segments AB, BC, and CD. Use properly drawn free-body
diagrams in your solution.
FiguRE 1-13
Stepped circular
shaft subjected to
concentrated torques
MAx
17,000 lb-in.
A
9000 lb-in.
5000 lb-in.
B
C
x
D
Solution:
Use the following four-step problem-solving approach to find internal torsional
moments T(x).
1. Conceptualize: The cantilever shaft structure is stable and statically deter-
minate. The solution for the reaction moment at A( MAx ) must begin with a
proper drawing of the FBD of the overall structure (Fig. 1-14). The FBD shows
all applied and reactive torques. Separate FBDs showing internal torques T in
each segment are obtained by cutting the shaft in regions AB, BC, and CD in
succession and are given in Fig. 1-15(a–c). Each cut produces a left-hand and a
right-hand free-body diagram.
FiguRE 1-14
Free-body diagram
MAx 5000 lb-in.
of shaft 17,000 lb-in. 9000 lb-in.
x
A B C D
FiguRE 1-15
(a, b, c) Left and right
free-body diagrams MAx 17,000 lb-in. 9000 lb-in. 5000 lb-in.
for each shaft segment x
A TAB B C D
Left FBD Right FBD
(a)
MAx 17,000 lb-in. TBC 9000 lb-in. 5000 lb-in.

x
A B C D
Left FBD Right FBD
(b)
MAx 17,000 lb-in. 9000 lb-in. 5000 lb-in.

x
TCD
A B C D
Left FBD Right FBD
(c)
2. Categorize: The shaft is subjected to applied torques that act along the centroidal
axis of the shaft, so only internal torsional moment T(x) is present at any section
cut along the shaft. There is no distributed torque acting on this shaft, so the inter-
nal torsional moment T is constant within each segment.
3. Analyze:
Solution for external reaction moment MAx :
Sum the moments about the x-axis to find the reaction moment MAx . This
structure is statically determinate because there is one available equation
from statics ( SM x 5 0) and one reaction unknown ( MAx ). A statics sign con-
vention is used [i.e., right-hand rule or counterclockwise (CCW) is positive].
MAx 2 17,000 lb-in. 1 9000 lb-in. 1 5000 lb-in. 5 0

MAx 5 2(217000 lb-in. 1 9000 lb-in. 1 5000 lb-in.)
5 3000 lb-in.
The computed result for MAx is positive, so the reaction moment vector is in the
positive x direction as assumed.
Solution for internal torsional moments T in each shaft segment:

Start with segment AB and use either FBD in Fig. 1-15a to find:
Left FBD: Right FBD:
TAB 5 2MAx 5 23000 lb-in. TAB 5 217,000 lb-in. 1 9000 lb-in.
1 5000 lb-in. 5 23000 lb-in.
Next consider segment BC. Summing moments about the x axis in
Fig. 1-15b gives
TBC 5 2MAx 1 17,000 lb-in. TBC 5 9000 lb-in. 1 5000 lb-in.
5 14, 000 lb-in. 5 14, 000 lb-in.
Finally, moment equilibrium about the x axis leads to a solution for the
internal torsional moment in segment CD:
TCD 5 2MAx 1 17,000 lb-in. TCD 5 5000 lb-in.
29000 lb-in. 5 5000 lb-in.
In each segment, the internal torsional moments computed using either the left
or right FBDs are the same.
4. Finalize: Segment BC has the maximum positive internal torsional
moment, and segment AB has the maximum negative torsional moment.
This is important information for the designer of the shaft. Properly drawn
free-body diagrams are essential to a correct solution. Either the left or
right free-body diagram can be used to find the internal torque at any
section.
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Egli non volle disturbare il loro giuoco leggiadro. Trovandosi presso
un muro diroccato, vi si nascose dietro rapidamente, e aspettò che le
fanciulle fosser passate. Il cane irsuto e nero, che lo aveva visto,
venne a fiutarlo con diffidenza, e, come rassicurato, riprese il suo
cammino, senz’abbajare; egli udì i passi grevi e cadenzati delle tre
bestie batter su i ciottoli della strada vicino a lui e allontanarsi. Le
risa delle fanciulle risonarono in fine più prossime, stridule,
acutissime, strozzate dall’affanno della corsa.
— Sì, sì: lo so, — una diceva, fuggendo: — Tonio è il tuo amoroso!
— Stupida! Stupida! — gridava l’altra che la rincorreva.
— Io lo so. Il mio fratellino m’ha detto d’avervi incontrati soli, sul
tardi, vicino al camposanto....
— Stupida! Non è vero!
— È vero! E m’ha detto che vi siete baciati....
— Non è vero!
— E che avete preso la strada dei monti....
— Stupida! Stupida! Se ti piglio....
Le grida si confusero, s’affievolirono, si spensero presto nel silenzio
del bosco.
Quando fu sicuro di non esser veduto, Aurelio uscì dal nascondiglio,
e riprese la sua via a passo più veloce, quasi volesse sottrarsi al
fascino della scena inaspettata. Le parole audaci di quelle fanciulle,
il suono delle loro voci, i loro scoppii nervosi d’ilarità, quella fuga
ninfale su l’erba fiorente tra i fusti muscosi delle querce, gli avevan
dato un senso d’ebrezza, che non gli era del tutto ignoto e lo
sgomentava. Dentro di lui la scena aveva risvegliato il ricordo
d’un’altra somigliante: la prima improvvisa apparizione di Flavia e di
Luisa su la scalea marmorea, negli estremi chiarori del vespero, e la
fantastica fuga nella pineta. Anche la commozione provata allora
rassomigliava assai a quella da cui si sentiva posseduto in questo
momento: una specie d’alterazione indefinibile, una violenza di cose
soffocate, come un vaneggiamento leggero che non gli permetteva
di distinguer nettamente dentro né intorno a sè. Ma questa volta la
commozione era men chiara, più complessa, più aspra: pareva
avvelenata da alcunchè di sgradevole e quasi di doloroso.
«L’Amore, sempre l’Amore!» egli si ripeteva cercando di dominare la
strana inquietudine dello spirito, mentre camminava a grandi passi
tra le siepi arborescenti della via. E le due visioni l’accompagnavano
ostinate e moleste, come un profumo troppo forte che lo avesse
investito.
Più d’una volta rimase.
Nulla omai si moveva nella selva: saliva il romore delle onde morte
sul greto, simile a un lento respiro affannoso; e qualche fronda alta
stormiva.
Ah, quella solitudine e quel silenzio e quella mitezza di clima e di
paese! Ah, l’implacabile educazione dell’eterna Natura, che
seducendo ordina e impera!
«Io sono infelice!» mormorò d’un tratto il giovine, arrestandosi
attonito, girando gli occhi intorno a sè per le vòlte capricciose del
bosco, dove il sole irrompeva a fasci, a sprazzi, a scintille,
dispensatore di vivido oro su le foglie polite e su i rami vellutati di
muschi e di licheni. La frase gli era misteriosamente sgorgata dalle
viscere profonde, ed egli l’aveva detta senz’averne coscienza, per
un bisogno irresistibile quasi di liberazione. Non l’anima sua l’aveva
suggerita; aveva parlato in lui l’oscuro Genio della Specie; ed era, la
sconsolata frase, una delle innumeri espressioni di lamento delle
creature che si senton sole e sterili e vane, il grido d’angoscia che
l’Avvenire strappa a queste reclamando le sue vittime in pericolo di
non essere. Non diversamente il cervo solitario gitta al silenzio della
foresta il suo triste bramito; non diversamente dall’eccelse vette degli
alberi l’usignuolo, alato poeta della notte, piange e chiama la
compagna lontana e sconosciuta.
Aurelio alzò lentamente le spalle, parve riflettere un poco; poi ripetè
una seconda volta, con tutt’altro accento: «Io sono infelice!»
Sogghignò, per irridere a sè medesimo, e riprese al passo concitato
di prima il suo cammino.
Il sentiere, dopo essere alquanto disceso, usciva alfine dalla
boscaglia e costeggiava la spiaggia del lago, a pena protetto da una
siepe di mori prugnoli che i fanciulli avevan qua e là abbattuta. Il sole
lo inondava tutto di luce, un bel sole estivo non ancora alto, non
ancora cocente, sospeso in un cielo opalino, d’una singolare purità.
Una calma estatica teneva il lago; avevan le acque tal lucidezza che
ripetevan con perfetta similitudine qualunque imagine. Le montagne
della riva di Piemonte, popolate di villaggi, s’ergevan nette, gaje,
luminose, come spiccando da un tersissimo specchio.
Uscendo dall’ombra a quella luce suprema, parve al giovine di
sottrarsi a un malefizio e di riprendere d’un tratto la sua personalità.
Il turbamento s’acquetò; il suo cuore riprese a pulsare con la
regolarità consueta; le torbide visioni, che lo avevano occupato, a
poco a poco si dissiparono; ed egli potè novamente impadronirsi del
governo del suo pensiero. Senza indugio, per natural reazione dello
spirito violentato, egli sentì il bisogno di formular da capo il suo
grande principio di condotta, d’enunciare a sè stesso il programma
della sua vita com’egli voleva che fosse, d’affermare con una sintesi
stringente la solidità del suo piano e la forza della sua volontà.
«La vita è breve», egli pensava; «occorre affrettarsi. Occorre
sviluppare la propria individualità in tutta la sua potenza; allargarla
fin dove le resistenze esterne lo concedono; giungere possibilmente
fino al punto lontano che gli occhi del pensiero vedono e segnano
come una mèta. Ecco dunque il dovere: non distoglier mai lo
sguardo da quel punto; non deviare mai dal diretto cammino che
conduce a quel punto.» — Poichè il Destino non aveva voluto ch’ei
possedesse terre, servi e cavalli, doveva per altra più ardua via (ed
Esso glie ne aveva fornito i mezzi e le attitudini), raggiungere un alto
fine vitale. Gli uomini della sua stirpe, anche nei tempi meno propizii,
non erano stati a nessuno secondi: l’avolo suo Gian Franco,
nell’amor della patria; il padre Alessandro, nello splendore del fasto
e dell’eleganza. E lo sventurato esule, morto nelle prigioni dello
Spielberg, sognando in una estrema visione profetica l’Italia liberata,
doveva nel mondo delle ombre tendere pietoso la mano al figliuolo
demente che, negli anni torpidi della pace, aveva cercato di salvare il
lustro del Nome, sacrificandogli la fortuna e la salute. Egli veniva
terzo: egli, povero e oscuro, sentiva pur sempre nel sangue lo stesso
sfrenato orgoglio, che aveva già trascinato in turbini diversi le anime
de’ suoi maggiori. Compire e coronare l’opera iniziata dall’avolo,
ecco il suo grande disegno; ed egli, per affrettare l’evento
favorevole, sognava a sua volta, per la patria ormai risorta e già
minacciata da ruina, un dominio d’uomini nobili e possenti, che ne
rialzassero e assicurassero le sorti maravigliose, mostrando al
mondo l’indistruttibile preminenza del più puro sangue latino. «Un
popolo fedele, guidato da un’aristocrazia degna, attiva e sapiente»,
egli pensava, «ha nell’età nostra, tra popoli inquieti retti dal
malgoverno plebeo, tutte le probabilità di trionfare e d’imporsi.»
E Aurelio Imberido si sentiva pronto e capace di mettersi alla testa
d’un’agitazione schiettamente aristocratica nel grigio e turbolento
diluvio delle odierne democrazie. Egli, libero da ogni giogo, forte
d’un’antica eredità d’ambizioni, sorretto da una vasta dottrina
positiva, avrebbe trovato, nella lotta viva contro i preconcetti politici e
morali del tempo, il mezzo più sicuro e più nobile per dare alla sua
esistenza un particolare significato e uno scopo superiore; per
estendere la sua personalità oltre i limiti ristretti e oscuri che
s’impongono ai più; per divenire un uomo, nel senso più alto della
parola, e tentare anche l’erta della Grandezza. «Combattere per
un’idea, o, sia pure, per un sogno,» diceva l’Imberido: «ecco l’opera
che sola affranca dall’umiltà delle nostre origini, e fa men grave la
coscienza della nostra vita precaria.» Ma, perché potesse egli
attuare il suo programma, era necessario che ad esso consacrasse
intera la propria attività, era necessario che facesse a sua volta una
rinunzia suprema: non certo quella vile dell’individualità e d’ogni
sano impulso agonistico, che le presenti ambigue tendenze spirituali
tristamente sembrano esaltare; ma bensì quell’altera rinunzia d’ogni
sentimento volgare e d’ogni timida fede e d’ogni morbosa pietà, che
inizia l’uomo all’esercizio delle più feconde virtù e lo dirige sicuro alla
prova delle imprese più memorabili.
Così il giovine, meditando sotto il sole benefico, si tracciava
novamente la prediletta linea di condotta, e ritrovava a poco a poco
la sua volontà adamantina e insieme con questa il geloso tesoro
delle sue speranze di gloria. L’opera futura, ch’egli avrebbe dovuto
compire, gli si veniva per tal modo disegnando e precisando dentro
al pensiero nelle sue diverse possibili estrinsecazioni, — opera di
franca propaganda per mezzo del libro, del giornale, della parola,
anche, se fosse occorso, dell’azione diretta. E le due formule
rigorose su cui poggiava l’edificio della sua concezione
riscintillavano d’avanti a lui, come fossero incise a lettere di fuoco
dovunque il suo sguardo cadeva. «L’umanità resta e progredisce,
non ostante ogni scempio più doloroso de’ suoi individui.» E l’altra:
«L’unico ideale degno d’un uomo intelligente è l’aspirazione a
un’umanità superiore, a un’evoluzione della Specie spinta più che
sia dato verso il cielo. Fermarsi a rendere felici quelli che esistono
non è e non può essere che un ingenuo e vano desiderio
sentimentale.»
Un improvviso entusiasmo l’assalì. Dov’erano omai tutti gli
sbigottimenti e le ansie e le fosche imagini che lo avevano prima
oscurato? Dov’erano gli obliqui desiderii e i disgusti e le insidiose
memorie? Egli non si ricordava più di nulla. Il suo spirito erasi
liberato dai fantasmi, aveva disperso le nebbie che l’attorniavano.
Pareva che un altro principio di vita fosse entrato in lui; pareva che
qualcuno fosse uscito da lui, segretamente, e avesse portato seco il
triste fardello dei dubbii, degli scoramenti, delle debolezze. Egli
riacquistava la fiducia in sè stesso.
A capo alto e raggiante nel viso, Aurelio rientrò in Cerro. Sotto l’arco
caliginoso, che sta in guisa di porta all’inizio del villaggio, trovò
Camilla, frettolosa, tutta rossa e con gli occhi gonfii, la quale gli
venne in contro singhiozzando, coprendosi la faccia col fazzoletto.
— Che c’è di nuovo? — egli chiese stupito.
— La signora.... La signora.... — balbettò a stento la ragazza, e non
potè continuare, interrotta come fu da uno scoppio di pianto.
— La signora?... Ebbene?... Che è avvenuto?...
Aurelio cominciava a inquietarsi. Sempre in timore per la salute della
nonna, egli supponeva già ch’ella avesse avuto un attacco più atroce
del suo male; e un leggero tremito aveva per il corpo e nella voce,
mentre interrogava la cameriera che muta e a viso coperto gli
singhiozzava d’innanzi.
Poi che questa non accennava ancora a rispondere, egli richiese più
vivamente, quasi con ira:
— Ebbene?... Che è avvenuto?.... Parla in nome di Dio!
— Io non ho colpa.... Io non ho fatto nulla.... Pretendeva che avessi
percosso il bambino del guardiano, e non era vero.... Non era vero,
glie lo giuro, signor Aurelio! Il bambino è caduto per caso.... Io non
l’ho visto cadere.... E la signora m’ha licenziata in malo modo....
— Ah, è per questo che piangi? — fece Aurelio, senza lasciarla
continuare, dopo aver tratto un gran respiro.
Ella affermò a pena, col capo.
— Sempre la stessa storia! — mormorò il giovine, stringendosi nelle
spalle. Poi si rivolse ancora a lei: — E dove te ne andavi or ora con
tanta fretta?
— Andavo a Laveno.
— A Laveno? E per che fare?
— Per cercarmi un posto....
— Così sùbito?!.. Via, non far sciocchezze, Camilla! Adesso torna a
casa: avrai tempo più tardi per pensare ai fatti tuoi.
E s’incamminò, sorridendo con un poco d’amarezza, verso il
palazzo.
Presso la porta il guardiano, un vecchio robusto e sanguigno dalla
folta capigliatura grigiastra e dagli occhi di volpe, era seduto sopra
una delle lastre di granito infisse nella parete, intento ad affilare il
falcetto, e fischiava allegramente.
— Olà, Giuseppe! — gli gridò Aurelio, salendo i gradi del rialto. — È
vero che il vostro piccino s’è fatto male?
— Oh, signor conte, una cosa da nulla! Il monellaccio è ruzzolato
mentre correva per il cortile.... Che vuole? Non può stare un
momento quieto! Lo si sorveglia tutto il santo giorno; ma non serve.
Egli sa trovar sempre il momento buono per farne qualcuna delle
sue!...
— Voi, Giuseppe, eravate presente quando è caduto?
— Sicuro! Era anch’io in cortile con lui.... Fortuna volle che questa
volta non si sia fatto quel male che avrebbe potuto! Una leggera
ammaccatura su la testa.... cosa da nulla, le dico, signor conte.
— Tanto meglio! — concluse il giovine e, salutato il guardiano, entrò
risoluto in casa.
La sala da pranzo, con le persiane chiuse, era avvolta in una
mezz’ombra glauca, appena rotta qua e là da alcune lamine sottili di
sole, a traverso le quali i pulviscoli dell’aria si vedevano
incessantemente roteare. In un angolo, presso l’ultima finestra,
donna Marta era seduta, come d’abitudine, sul suo seggiolone
d’avanti al tavolino da lavoro tutto ingombro di fili, di gomitoli, di
ritagli, di minuti arnesi muliebri.
Il giovine s’avvicinò lentamente a lei. Ella, il capo arrovesciato su la
spalliera, le mani penzolanti dai bracciuoli, giaceva abbandonata e
inerte, come affranta da un immane sforzo; e ansimava. I suoi
lineamenti alterati dalla collera e dal dolore avevano l’immobilità, la
rigidezza, il pallor d’un cadavere: e gli occhi, quei grandi occhi
giovenili, saettavano in giro sguardi sinistri, all’ombra delle
sopracciglia irte e aggrottate.
— Mamma, che hai? Sei così pallida... — mormorò il giovane con la
voce dolce, quando le fu presso.
— Che ho? — ella proruppe. — Sono stanca, capisci? Non ne posso
più! Finirò per commettere una follia, se si continua così. Intanto
t’avverto che ho messo alla porta quella tua serva esemplare, ed era
tempo, per Dio!
— Tu l’hai messa alla porta...?
— E come! L’avessi sentita...! Che lingua! M’ha risposto in un tal
tono che per poco non m’ha spinta all’estremo di cacciarla a
ceffoni!.. E tutta la colpa è tua, perchè sei stato tu a non volere ch’io
me ne liberassi a Milano, prima di partire per la campagna.
— Ma infine, mamma: che è successo? Che cosa ha fatto costei?
— Ah, che cosa ha fatto?... Ha percosso a sangue il povero piccino
del guardiano...
— Non è vero, — asserì Aurelio con la stessa voce dolce, fissando
l’avola negli occhi.
Ella ebbe un sussulto repentino. Quasi per un prodigio, parve che il
suo corpo esanime ritornasse d’un tratto alla vita. Si levò ritta a
sedere e, affrontando violentemente lo sguardo di lui:
— Come, non è vero? — gli gridò con tutta la sua forza. — Oseresti
anche smentirmi per difendere quella sguajata?!
— Mamma, via, non arrabbiarti così, — Aurelio s’affrettò a
soggiungere in tono anche più blando, persuasivo: — non è proprio il
caso. Parliamo un poco con calma. Si tratta d’assodare un fatto; non
di discutere. Ora tu affermi, che Camilla ha battuto quel bambino. Lo
affermi forse perchè l’hai sentito piangere. Ebbene, credimi,
t’inganni: il guardiano stesso, ch’era presente, m’ha assicurato che
suo figlio è caduto mentre correva nel cortile. E nota che Camilla non
l’ha visto neanche cadere!
Donna Marta ascoltò queste parole, contenendo a stento l’ira che le
bolliva dentro. In verità, ella era così certa della sua supposizione
che ogni più valida prova negativa non sarebbe riuscita a insinuarle
la punta d’un dubbio. Abituata sin dai tempi di suo marito a un
imperio incontrastato su tutti quanti l’avvicinavano, resa anche più
irritabile dai nervi impoveriti di sangue, ella non poteva ormai
tollerare una contradizione, sotto qualunque forma le venisse rivolta;
e s’adombrava, e inviperiva, e perdeva, nello sdegno per l’offesa,
ogni senso d’equità e di misura. Quando poi l’opposizione contro di
lei partiva proprio da suo nipote, che ella considerava come un
vassallo per tema di dover sopportare come un padrone, la rivolta
del suo spirito indisciplinato era così folle e veemente che l’ultimo
bagliore di ragione andava nel tumulto miseramente perduto.
— Tu dunque l’hai vista? — ella disse, mordendosi le labbra. — Tu
hai parlato con lei?...
— Sì, mamma. Ho parlato anche con lei.
— Capisco. Hai voluto ricever l’imbeccata!... E, come sempre, hai
preferito credere a una serva che non a me...
— Oh, Dio, mamma... — esclamò Aurelio, che cominciava a
impazientirsi. — Se debbo parlarti schietto, ti dirò che non ho
creduto né all’una né all’altra. Si trattava di sapere se una cosa fosse
avvenuta o no. Capirai bene che non era il caso di far distinzioni di
grado o d’autorità o di merito tra le persone che contendevano. Ho
ricorso alle testimonianze e mi son persuaso che non era avvenuta.
Vuoi forse che ti affermi ora il contrario, per compiacerti?
Donna Marta ebbe un sogghigno, e disse con sarcasmo feroce,
sillabando quasi le parole:
— Peccato davvero che tu non abbia fatto l’avvocato.... ma non di
queste cause, s’intende!... All’enfasi che metti nel difendere la tua
protetta, si direbbe...
— Che cosa? — interruppe con forza Aurelio, guardandola
fissamente.
— Oh! Oh! Credi forse di farmi paura con quegli occhi?
— Ti prego di spiegarti, mamma. Che hai voluto dire?
Ella non rispose sùbito; alzò sdegnosamente le spalle, mentre il
sogghigno di prima le ritornava anche più mordente su le labbra. Il
giovine fece un passo avanti, e ridomandò quasi per violenza:
— Via, rispondi, mamma. Lo esigo! Che hai voluto dire?
— Ebbene: ho voluto dire che al tono, con cui tu ora mi parli, si
crederebbe che costei sia la tua amante!
Aurelio illividì. Benchè alla prima reticenza avesse già imaginato il
pensiero dell’avola, l’enunciazione aperta e brutale di questo lo colpì
atrocemente quasi un colpo di maglio nel mezzo del petto. Insulto
più grave non gli si sarebbe, no, potuto scagliare; egli, il puro, il
casto, l’insensibile era d’un tratto accusato d’amoreggiare
trivialmente con la propria cameriera. Il giovine non ebbe tempo per
riflettere; sentì il soffio ingiurioso passar su la fronte, e la vista gli si
ottenebrò.
— Come sei volgare! — disse sordamente, stringendo i pugni e
atteggiando il volto a un’espressione di profondo dispregio. Poi, per
non aggiungere altro, con un moto subitaneo volse le spalle a donna
Maria, e uscì correndo dalla stanza.
Udì dietro di sè un urlo soffocato, quindi un fiotto impetuoso di parole
aspre, terribili: «Infame! Infame! Egli osa anche insultarmi! A questo
si doveva giungere... Io vado via sùbito... Caschi il mondo, non mi
vedrà più...!» Attraversò in fretta il cortile, ascese rapidamente le
scale, entrò nella propria camera e vi si rinchiuse a due mandate di
chiave, come se la vecchia avesse potuto inseguirlo con le sue
minacce.
Poi che fu solo, sottratto alla presenza impositrice dell’avola, nel
luogo dedicato agli studii, la sua eccitazione, invece di scemare,
aumentò. Tutti i pensieri, che già durante la scena eran passati per
la sua mente, gli tornarono alla memoria; tutte le parole che per
prudenza o per rispetto aveva dovuto reprimere, tutte
incominciarono di nuovo a fluirgli alle labbra con insolita irruenza. Ed
egli, con una specie di amaro sorriso interiore, si piacque di
ricostruire il diverbio, aggiungendo quello che avrebbe voluto dire, i
ragionamenti e le objezioni e le proteste sdegnose, senza più
blandizie, senza più eufemismi, senza rispetto o prudenza alcuna.
Così rievocò l’intera scena, accompagnando le parole con una
mimica vivace, percorrendo la camera per il lungo e per il largo a
grandi passi. Quando però giunse all’ingiuria, che l’avola gli aveva
lanciata, ristette perplesso, come se ne avesse afferrato per la prima
volta il senso preciso; e la risposta violenta, che poc’anzi aveva
taciuta, non venne.
Un nuovo ordine di pensieri, più calmo ma non meno ingrato, si
svolse allora nel suo cervello: perchè sua nonna lo aveva tacciato di
essere l’amante di Camilla? Come, come aveva potuto imaginare
una simile assurdità? Non certo perchè egli, col suo contegno e
anche con le sue difese, le avesse mai dato un appiglio per
sospettarlo. Non certo perchè la possibilità di una siffatta tresca
fosse una sola volta balenata nella mente di lei che conosceva
troppo bene le sue idee in proposito e il suo rigido orgoglio e le sue
«abitudini d’orso», come celiando si compiaceva di chiamarle.
Doveva esser dunque un’altra intenzione nella calunnia sanguinosa.
Or quale poteva essere questa intenzione?... Era chiaro: ella lo
aveva voluto affliggere, offendere, umiliare, anche a prezzo d’una
bugìa. Inviperita contro il nipote, perchè era sorto in difesa altrui a
ribattere le sue accuse, ella aveva opportunamente usato di un
argomento ad hominem per liberarsi con un sol colpo del molesto
contradittore. Il fatto in sè non era grave, ma pur troppo non era
nuovo né raro: quasi ogni giorno, o per un motivo o per un altro, ella
trovava il modo di rivolgergli frasi consimili, in cui sempre l’identico
sprezzo insisteva, come una nota tenuta a fondamento d’accordi
diversi. Aurelio ne rammentava ora una serie innumerevole; anche
Aurelio rammentava che quelle frasi tendevan tutte a colpirlo dove
più delicata era la sua sensibilità: ne’ suoi ideali, nelle sue
predilezioni, nelle sue stesse virtù, nelle sue stesse rinunzie. Si
sarebbe detto ch’ella traesse dalle mortificazioni a lui inflitte, una
specie di strazio divinamente piacevole; o, meglio, che una volontà
superiore, in mano della quale ella non era se non lo strumento
doloroso, glie le suggerisse per uno scopo oscuro e fatale. Ma, quale
scopo?
«Ah, le donne! Le donne!» esclamò il giovine improvvisamente,
tratto come di consueto a generalizzare le sue considerazioni.
«Madri, sorelle, mogli, amanti, esse non si smentiscono mai, mai!
Che cosa sono per esse i nostri sogni, le nostre speranze, i nostri
sacrifici, la nostra coscienza, in somma tutta l’anima nostra? Nulla,
meno che nulla. Esse non comprendono che gli uomini comuni,
mediocri, normali, quegli uomini che lavorano indefessamente per
vivere, generano figliuoli, li allevano, e lasciano a questi il posto,
quando il loro malinconico cammino è giunto alla mèta. Gli altri tutti,
sono per le donne altrettanti mostri paurosi, che bisogna distruggere,
redimere o avvilire; ed esse li distruggono, li redimono o li
avviliscono, perchè tale è il loro dovere. Non hanno esse forse, nel
misterioso equilibrio della Natura, la missione di conservare le
tradizioni della razza? di mantenerla strettamente legata alle origini?
d’impedire che i caratterismi del tipo umano si perdano o si
trasformino? Non sono esse le sacre custodi della essenza prima di
nostra Specie? Vigilare affinchè questa non traligni, non strisci o non
voli: ecco il segreto potere della anima loro, ecco la base di tutta la
loro psicologia.» Egli soggiunse: «Liberi, liberi dunque bisogna
essere dalla tirannia di queste vilificatrici d’ogni personalità, di
queste nemiche implacabili d’ogni tendenza elevata e d’ogni slancio
sublime! Liberi bisogna essere, per divenire qualcuno e poter fare
qualche cosa — prima della morte!»
Egli si mosse, di nuovo; andò alla finestra, l’aperse, lasciò
ch’entrasse la trionfante luce del giorno.
Il giardino splendeva nel sole, con le sue bianche scalee, con le sue
statue bianche, come intagliate nel verde cupo della pineta. Il
poggio, sopra, aveva un chiarore metallico, come fosse tutto
cosperso d’una polvere d’oro.
Quella visione, dopo lo sfogo benefico, gli ricondusse lo spirito alta
calma, gli ridiede la coscienza piena di sè stesso. Valeva forse la
pena di crucciarsi per quelle futili questioni? Non aveva egli altro di
meglio e di più serio da pensare o da fare? Egli richiuse le persiane,
e venne a sedersi d’avanti alla scrivania. Molti fogli vi erano sparsi in
disordine, quasi tutti vergati, per intero o in parte, a caratteri grandi,
decisi, piuttosto oblunghi, un po’ inclinati da sinistra verso destra: le
cancellature frequenti e risolute mettevano sul nitor della carta vaste
ombre oscure. Tra quella moltitudine di fogli, dov’egli era solito
d’abbozzare i suoi lavori o di fermare le idee utili, emergevano qua e
là alcuni grossi libri aperti e le pagine fitte di qualche rivista nostrale
o forestiera. Sul piano del palchetto eran poi raccolti i frammenti
delle sue tre opere in corso: un enorme fascio di carte, chiuso in una
custodia di pergamena su cui si leggeva il titolo in inchiostro rosso:
L’avvenire delle società umane; un altro fascio meno voluminoso,
rattenuto da un semplice foglio piegato a mo’ di busta, sul quale era
scritto: La Morale dell’Evoluzionismo, critiche all’opera di Erberto
Spencer e conclusioni; e infine un terzo fascicolo, alquanto esiguo,
con la dizione: Socialismo e Cristianesimo.
Aurelio prese quest’ultimo dal palchetto della scrivania, e se lo pose
dinnanzi. Era uno studio sintetico e impressionante su le comuni
aspirazioni delle nuove idee sociali e della vecchia morale cristiana,
il quale tendeva a dimostrare come la fusione delle due teorie non
potesse esser lontana, e voleva mettere in guardia gli studiosi e i
pensatori contro le fatue lusinghe e i gravi conseguenti pericoli che
un siffatto connubio avrebbe portati con sè. L’Imberido s’era accinto
a scriverlo nell’ultimo mese passato a Milano, avendo intenzione di
pubblicarlo in diverse riprese su la sua Rivista; poi, siccome dal suo
arrivo a Cerro s’era immerso totalmente nella grande opera
L’avvenire delle società umane, lo aveva abbandonato, e, sebbene
fosse già presso a concludere, non s’era più dato pensiero per
ultimarlo. In quel momento, forse perchè ricordava le sollecitazioni
che lo Zaldini gli aveva fatte la mattina precedente, o perchè non si
sentiva di riprendere un lavoro troppo intenso e faticoso, Aurelio fu
spinto involontariamente a continuare il breve studio interrotto.
Egli sfogliò il fascicolo lentamente, scorrendo con lo sguardo su le
pagine, già fatte giallognole dal tempo, quasi volesse risvegliare la
memoria precisa di quanto aveva scritto. Come giunse alla
interruzione, indugiò alquanto per rileggere attentamente gli ultimi
periodi; e li rilesse a voce alta, ascoltandosi.
«E questi saranno gli estremi e i più fervidi adoratori di Cristo, non
forse molto dissimili da quelli che primi lo adorarono. Così le
Scritture saranno compite, e così la parabola terminerà com’era
incominciata.
«L’attacco sarà certo formidabile. Il fanatismo dà un coraggio che le
persone calme non hanno e non possono avere. Se dalla parte dei
Ribelli non ci sarà un soverchio equilibrio morale, ci sarà per
compenso il Genio nelle sue più acute manifestazioni. Uomini
grandi, uomini terribili sorgeranno in questa sollevazione disperata,
da questo ibrido connubio di misticismo e d’animalità: spiriti
tumultuosi, dotati d’un potere magnetico irresistibile, dominatori e
affascinatori delle masse, i quali troveranno vie insospettate per
trascinarvi perdutamente i cervelli e i cuori. E a questi s’uniranno con
entusiasmo tutti gli spostati dalle assurde e magiche idealità, e le
anime guaste dall’odio o dalla cupidigia, e i perpetui adolescenti, e i
perversi e i degenerati e i pazzi!
«Con queste bandiere, con queste reclute, con questi capitani, la
parte inferiore della Umanità insorgerà contro la superiore, tenterà lo
sforzo supremo per arrestare il fenomeno fatale della civiltà e
dell’evoluzione. Chi trionferà nel gigantesco cimento?»
Così il manoscritto bruscamente s’interrompeva.
Aurelio Imberido, dopo esser rimasto alcuni minuti pensieroso,
fissando lo spazio d’avanti a sè, prese con un atto improvviso la
penna, e continuò.
IV.
L’Albero del Bene e del Male.
Il dì successivo, Aurelio, avendo concluso l’articolo, discese in

giardino, e s’inoltrò nella pineta per cercare ombra e riposo.
Era un pomeriggio sereno, d’una serenità incandescente, caldo ma
temperato da qualche soffio d’aria. Per tutto quel giorno egli sapeva
che non avrebbe ripreso la penna, come sempre quando terminava
un lavoro o una determinata parte di lavoro; e, libero e sodisfatto di
sè, seguiva distrattamente i sentieri tortuosi sotto l’ampio padiglione
verde, guardandosi d’intorno, aspirando la diffusa fragranza delle
resine riscaldate dal sole, ascoltando rapito il fruscìo alterno del
vento tra le fronde o il susurro d’un ruscello nascosto.
Nella pineta era una luce pacata e raccolta, come in un tempio. Per il
denso intrico, che formavano i rami, premendosi, intrecciandosi,
confondendosi nella loro antica e tenace espansione, ogni lembo di
cielo veniva occultato. Una parete opaca si distendeva a similitudine
d’un velario sopra la terra; e solo, a traverso gli interstizii dei tronchi,
un chiarore aureo o rancio o verde, a fasci nettamente visibili,
s’insinuava, quel chiarore innaturale che lascian cadere nell’ombra le
finestre a vetri variopinti. Un sentimento mistico e solenne emanava
dal luogo, come da un santuario a pena illuminato, saturo di vapori
d’incenso.
Tra quei profumi, in quella pace, il giovine camminava a rilento,
senza un pensiero, abbandonandosi al fascino che gli veniva dalle
apparenze esteriori. Tutto assorto nella ottusa contemplazione, egli
si perdeva ad accompagnar con lo sguardo il volo d’un insetto
nell’aria o il viluppo appassionato dell’edera intorno a un fusto
impassibile: s’arrestava ogni tratto attonito per ammirare qualche
cespo di ciclamini o di violette sbucante come per prodigio dalle
cavità del tufo. Lo spettacolo d’un ragno in atto d’avvolgere la preda
nel suo sudario mortale lo tenne fermo lungo tempo, sospeso,
attratto, commosso quasi fosse al cospetto d’una rappresentazione
tragica. E il suo spirito si mantenne così semplice durante
l’osservazione del minuscolo conflitto per la Vita, ch’egli non sentì
altro impulso se non quello d’intervenire a favore del debole,
predestinato al sacrificio, contro il forte che pure esercitava il suo
pieno diritto all’esistenza.
D’improvviso una voce acuta risonò dietro le sue spalle.
— Buon giorno!
Egli si volse bruscamente. La bionda Luisa, che discendeva in corsa
sul medesimo sentiere con un gran mazzo di fiori in pugno, lo aveva
raggiunto senza ch’egli si fosse accorto della sua presenza.
— Buon giorno, signorina! — egli rispose, arrossendo un poco.
Ella s’era fermata vicino a lui, e lo fissava con quegli occhi
chiarissimi e ardenti, in cui la luce pareva concentrarsi come nel
fuoco d’una lente.
— Bella giornata, oggi, — ella disse sùbito, poi che Aurelio immobile
d’avanti a lei non accennava a continuare.
— Bella, davvero.
— E che delizioso rifugio è questa pineta! Io ci passerei la vita....
L’estate qui dentro è dolce come un autunno.
— Se non erro, ella è stata a raccolta, signorina....?
— Sì, di fiori, — interruppe Luisa con vivacità; — di fiori selvaggi,
come piacciono a me. Ma adesso bisogna che torni a casa e in
fretta, perchè l’ora del pianoforte è già scoccata e la zia è
severissima....
Sorrise lievemente, socchiudendo a pena le palpebre ma senza
distogliere gli sguardi dagli occhi del giovine. Poi, chinando il capo in
segno di saluto, con un atto assai leggiadro:
— Con permesso, — soggiunse; e riprese in corsa la sua strada.
Prima d’oltrepassare il gomito del sentiere, si volse ancora verso di
lui per gridargli:
— Se s’inoltra appena un po’ nella pineta, trova Flavia.... A rivederla!
E, così dicendo, la giovinetta scomparve.
Aurelio, che non aveva avuto il tempo di rispondere, era rimasto
fermo e attonito, con gli occhi inerti, alla svolta della viottola.
Quell’incontro gli era stato insolitamente gradito. Sorpreso dalla
comparsa subitanea della fanciulla, egli aveva prodigato a questa la
stessa benevolenza curiosa e quasi tenera, che gli abondava in quel
momento nello spirito e aveva espansa su le mute manifestazioni del
bosco. Le poche parole scambiate non avevan potuto certo
risvegliare in lui un’idea o un sentimento nuovo, diverso da quello
ond’era invaso. Avevan parlato della beltà del giorno, della pineta
ospitale, di fiori, delle cose miti e piacevoli, al cui incanto l’anima sua
dolcemente si concedeva. E la frase, che Luisa gli aveva gittata da
lontano, era giunta fino a lui senza che potesse afferrarne bene il
significato. Egli a pena l’intuì, ripensandoci. Ebbe un attimo di
perplessità: doveva seguitare e farsi incontro a Flavia? Doveva
retrocedere ed evitarla? Inconsciamente il suo pensiero rifuggì da
ogni indagine sul senso esatto della frase, si ribellò a qualunque
sforzo a fin di prendere una risoluzione. Egli proseguì per inerzia la
sua passeggiata contemplativa nel bosco, dove il silenzio era tornato
quasi più grave e più vasto che prima non fosse.
Passò la grotta artificiale, irta di stalattiti superbe, onde alcune gocce
perennemente cadevano su la terra fradicia; arrivò al crocicchio dei
due sentieri che tagliavan la pineta nelle due direzioni principali;
s’arrestò un poco d’avanti all’erma che dominava il luogo, un gran
busto nudo di donna su cui l’assidua carezza del tempo era passata,
corrodendo e levigando il sembiante, ma lasciando rigidi e intatti i
seni, come gonfii d’un desiderio immortale. Procedette poi a passo
più spedito verso l’altura, quasi lo chiamasse, da quell’ombra, il
vivido raggio di sole che illuminava a traverso un pertugio la sommità
del sentiere.
Flavia era là, sola nella luce. Saliva lentamente l’erta d’un prato
contiguo alla pineta. Al di là l’orto incominciava, tutto lussureggiante
di piante pallide, da cui si vedevan pendere i frutti ancora acerbi o
alcuni grappoli vermigli di ciliege. Sopra l’orto, il poggio coltivato a
vigneti s’elevava in una succession di scaglioni petrosi, intorno ai
quali le viti avevan disegnato come un greve merletto verde.
Ella saliva quella distesa inclinata su cui l’erba cresceva foltissima e
intonsa con una maravigliosa chioma di fioretti d’oro. La sua
persona, un po’ curva in avanti, appariva dal ginocchio in su tra la
verzura profonda, lasciando dietro di sè un mobile solco di fili
prosternati. A volte rimaneva per cogliere con la mano un fiore
sopreminente; a volte s’inchinava alquanto verso il suolo, e scrutava
assorta i misteri di quella selva minuta. Come più s’allontanava, ella
facevasi più lenta, indugiando a ogni passo sul pendìo lubrico ed
erto, arrestandosi, col capo levato in alto, per fissare l’orto o il poggio
solatìo, quasi fosser la mèta del suo cammino. Quando fu presso al
limite estremo, improvvisamente le forze le mancarono, ed ella,
mettendo un piccolo grido, si volse e s’abbandonò tutta quanta,
distesa su l’erba come su un letto.
— Lei, conte?! — esclamò Flavia turbata ma sorridente, poichè vide
il giovine fermo allo sbocco della viottola; e s’alzò di scatto a sedere.
Aurelio senz’aprir bocca la salutò, levandosi il cappello.
— È venuto a sorprendermi, eh?
— Confesserò — egli rispose — che senza volerlo sono stato
spettatore di tutta l’ascensione.
— Male, assai male! Doveva avvertirmi della sua presenza...
— L’avrei desiderato, ma come fare? Potevo prendermi la libertà di
chiamarla per nome?
Ella gridò, ridendo:
— Gran che!.... Del resto non occorreva: bastava tossire, tossire con
molta violenza.... Io, che ho buon cuore, mi sarei sùbito impensierita
per la sua salute e naturalmente, volgendomi, l’avrei scoperto....
— È vero! Mi scusi.. non ci ho pensato!
Risero entrambi. Ella così forte che un’eco lontana rispose; e agitò le
mani, e battè l’una contro l’altra palma in un fresco trasporto di
giocondità.
— Non è indiscrezione domandare dov’era mai diretta per sì mali
passi la signorina? — chiese Aurelio.
— Non so precisamente. Ero stanca di star là giù seduta a lavorare:
e m’è nata la cattiva ispirazione di salire verso l’orto a traverso
questo prato.
— Ah, ella vien fin qui a passare le ore calde della giornata?
— Sì, noi lavoriamo quasi sempre all’aria aperta. Si vuole avere il
gran cielo per testimonio che l’ozio non è tra le nostre abitudini...
Come può vedere, quello è appunto il nostro laboratorio, quando
almeno il tempo ce lo consente.
Il giovine si volse verso il punto che Flavia indicò. All’ombra degli
ultimi abeti del bosco, in una specie di nicchia verde, era disteso su
l’erba un ampio scialle a mo’ di tappeto, tutto coperto di scatole,
scatolette, astucci, astuccini, cestelli, e d’una infinità di gomitoli
colorati; due telaretti per ricamo e due sediuole portatili compivano
quell’improvvisato luogo di lavoro.
— È un rifugio da poeti, questo! — disse Aurelio, rivolgendosi a lei.
— Dove, per buona ventura, poesie non se ne fanno, e né pure se
ne leggono mai! Io odio cordialmente i versi e i verseggiatori.... Non
è per caso tra questi, signor Imberido?
— No, signorina, pur troppo!
— Pur troppo?...
— Sì, perché vorrei esser poeta.
— E a che pro?
— A che pro...?! — ripeté il giovine, fissandola, un po’ impacciato.
La domanda l’obbligava a una lunga esplicazione e non agevole.
Egli ammirava profondamente le opere estetiche: tra tutte le arti, la
poesia e la musica eran quelle che prediligeva come le più perfette
espressioni della bellezza ideale. Pensava anzi che l’arte fosse, con
la filosofia, l’eccelsa fioritura della mente umana, un privilegio degli
spiriti eletti, un titolo tra i più validi e più legittimi nelle nuove
aristocrazie intellettuali. Per lui l’artista era un uomo nobile, e uomo
nobile non poteva essere chi rimaneva estraneo e chiuso al fascino
del bello, alle pure ebrezze dell’intelligenza. Queste cose egli
avrebbe voluto esprimere, e le parole gli salirono spontaneamente
alle labbra. Ma invece rispose:
— Per celebrar le sue lodi, signorina!
Ella lo guardò, come se dalla pausa avesse indovinato i suoi pensieri
e dubitasse della sincerità di quella risposta. Quindi, per non
insistere su l’argomento in cui sentiva esser tra loro una discordia
d’opinioni, domandò:
— E lei, dove andava da queste parti?
— Io? Non so... Verso l’alto, come sempre... Perchè a me piace
salire, continuamente salire... La montagna m’attira con una
prodigiosa potenza. Quando mi metto per una via che tende in su,
non posso più fermarmi, proseguo come un automa sospinto da
un’energia ignota, accelero il passo man mano che l’erta si fa più
scoscesa, non rimango se non ho superato un culmine. Non so
perchè: questa strana sensazione d’ansia e di piacere, l’ho provata
dalla prima volta che ho visto la montagna, quando ero ancor
bambino.
Flavia ascoltò grave e attenta, or corrugando e ora spianando la
fronte, tenendo lo sguardo fisso su di lui, ma non ne’ suoi occhi. D’un

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Mechanics of Materials 9th Edition

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About the Authors ix 3. Torsion 273

*A star attached to a section number indicates a specialized and/or advanced topic.

Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that, along with statics,

• Expanded topic coverage—The following topics have been updated or have

Importance of example Problems

example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft

List the major steps in the Finalize step,

S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

Erian Armanios, University of Texas at Arlington

Aaron S. Budge, Minnesota State University, Mankato

Virginia Ferguson, University of Colorado, Boulder

James Giancaspro, University of Miami

Paul Heyliger, Colorado State University

Eric Kasper, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Richard Kunz, Mercer University

David Lattanzi, George Mason University

Gustavo Molina, Georgia Southern University

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Morteza A.M. Torkamani, University of Pittsburgh

I wish to also acknowledge my Structural Engineering and Mechanics

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n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

Tension, Compression, and Shear 1

1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

1.2 Problem-Solving Approach*

1.3 Statics Review

Reactive Forces and Support Conditions

Table 1-1 Display of restraint

support (friction force F 5 0

Horizontal roller support [(1.1),

Vertical roller restraints θ

(a) Two-dimensional pin support

(b) Three-dimensional pin

Hip prosthesis for hip

y (a) Two-dimensional sliding

A (a) Two-dimensional fixed support

direction kz with reaction force y

In 3D, add rotational flexural

Torsion springs are found in (b) Rotational spring ( kr ) in 2D

Rx is lateral constraint force, Ry z

Cross section through guide rail

Internal Forces (Stress Resultants)

θB = 40° 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a

θB = 40° method of joints. If only a few selected member forces are of

Member forces using method of joints: Begin by drawing free-body diagrams

FiguRE 1-9 Selected member forces using method of sections:

CD is not on the free-body diagram but is a con-

Left FBD Right FBD

MAx 17,000 lb-in. TBC 9000 lb-in. 5000 lb-in.

Left FBD Right FBD

MAx 17,000 lb-in. 9000 lb-in. 5000 lb-in.

Left FBD Right FBD