Civil Engineering Materials 1st Edition

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Civil Engineering Materials

Nagaratnam Sivakugan
James Cook University, Australia

Carthigesu T. Gnanendran
The University of New South Wales
at the Australian Defence Force
Academy, Australia

Rabin Tuladhar
James Cook University, Australia

M. Bobby Kannan
James Cook University, Australia

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Preface xiii
About the Authors xviii
Chapter 1 Engineering Behavior of Materials-
Some Fundamentals 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Stress-Strain Relations and Constitutive Models 3
1.2.1 Some Simple Material Models 4
1.2.2 Other Material Models 6
1.3 Types of Loadings 9
1.4 Special Loading Situations 10
1.4.l Generalized Stress-Strain Relationships 12
1.4.2 Plane Strain Loading 15
1.4.3 Plane Stress Loading 17
1.4.4 A xisymmetric Loading 18
1.5 Strain-Displacement Relations 18
1.6 Equations of Equilibrium 19
1. 7 Laboratory Measurements and Measuring Devices 20
1.8 Material Variability and Sample Statistics 22
1.9 Numerical Modeling 23
1.10 Standards, Uuits, and Safety 23
1.11 Sustainability 26
1.12 Summary 27
Exercises 27

Chapter 2 Chemistry of Materials 30

2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Atomic Structure and Bonding 30
2.2.1 Atomic Structure 31
2.2.2 Bonding 33

2.3 Arrangement of Atoms 36

2.4 Classification of Materials 44
2.5 Imperfection in Materials 45
2.6 Strengthening in Materials 48
2. 7 Characterization of Materials 50
iii
iv Cont ents

2.7.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 50

2. 7.2 Optical Microscope 50
2.7.3 Electron Microscopes 52
2.7.4 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 54
2.8 Summary 55
Exercises 56
References 57

Chapter 3 Soils 58
3. 1 Introduction 58
3.2 Civil Engineering Applications 58
3.2.1 Traditional Geotechnical Applications 59
3.2.2 Backfilling Underground Mines 59
3.2.3 Land Reclamation Using Dredge Spoils 60
3.3 Formation of Soils 61
3.3.1 Elements of Earth 61
3.3.2 Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks 63
3.3.3 Residual and Transported Soils 65
3.4 Soils versus Other Engineering Materials 66
3.5 Soil Classification 66
3.6 Compaction and Earthworks 69
3.6.1 Moisture-Density Relationships 69
3.6.2 Laboratory Tests 71
3.6.3 Field Compaction, Specifications, and Control 72
3.7 Permeability 73
3. 7.1 Darcy's Law 73
3. 7.2 Typical Values 74
3. 7.3 Laboratory and Field Tests 74
3.8 Strength and Stiffness 74
3.8.1 Failure in Soils 75
3.8.2 Deformations in Soils 76
3.8.3 Effective Stress Theory
and Drained/Undrained Loading 76
3.8.4 Laboratory and Field Measurements 77
3.9 Measurements of Soil Properties 78
3.9.1 Laboratory Tests 79
3.9.2 In Situ Tests 79
3.9.3 Instrumentation 80
3.10 New Materials 80
3.11 Summary 82
Exercises 83
References 85
 Contents V

Chapter 4 Rocks 86
4.1 Introduction 86
4.2 Rock Engineering Applications 87
4.2.1 Rocks as Construction Materials 87
4.2.2 Other Civil Engineering A pplications, using Rocks 89
4.3 Common Rocks in Construction 90
4.4 Rock Mass and Intact Rock 91
4.5 Strength and Stiffness of Intact Rocks 92
4.5.1 Rock Cores and RQD 93
4.5.2 Strength and Stiffness Parameters 95
4.6 Laboratory Tests for Intact Rocks 101
4.7 Field Tests for Rocks 105
4.8 Rock Mass Classification 108
4.9 Rockfills 108
4.10 Summary 109
Exercises 110
References 112

Chapter 5 Aggregates 114

5.1 Introduction 114
5.2 Origin, Geology and Classification of Parent Rocks 115
5.3 Properties and Testing of Aggregates 117
5.3.1 Particle Size and Grading 118
5.3.2 Types of Grading and Relationship with Density 120
5.3.3 Shape and Su,face Texture 128
5.3.4 Strength and Stiffness 132
5.3.5 Hardness, Toughness, and A brasion Resistance 133
5.3.6 Soundness and Durability 136
5.3. 7 Chemical Stability ofA ggregate in PCC 137
5.3.8 Cleanness and Deleterious Substances 138
5.3.9 Affinity for Asphalt Cement 138
5.3.10 Moisture and A sphalt Binder Absorption 139
5.3.11 Relative Density (or Specific Gravity) and Bulk
Density 140

5.4 Uses of Aggregates 143

5.5 Lightweight and Heavyweight Aggregates 146
5.6 Aggregates from Industrial By-Products and Waste 147
5. 7 Handling, Transportation, and Storage of Aggregates 149
5.8 Summary 150
vi Contents

Exercises 151
References 153

Chapter 6 Geosynthetics 154

6.1 Introduction 154
6.2 Types of Geosynthetics, Polymers Used,
Manufacture, and Common U se 155
6.2.1 Types of Geosynthetics 155
6.2.2 Polymers Used in Geosynthetics 155
6.2.3 Geotextiles 157
6.2.4 Geogrids 160
6.2.5 Geonets 161
6.2.6 Geomembranes 162
6.2. 7 Geocells 164
6.2.8 Geomats 164
6.2.9 Geocomposites- Geosynthetic Clay L iners
(GCL s), Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs),
Geopipes, Geofoams, and Others 164

6.3 Properties and Testing of Geosynthetics 166

6.3.1 Tensile Properties and Testing 168
6.3.2 Fill-Soil Inte1face Shear Properties and Testing 171
6.3.3 H ydraulic- or Flow-Related Properties and Testing 174
6.3.4 Endurance, Integrity, D urability and Long-
Term Performance-Related Properties and Testing 179

6.4 Functions, Mechanisms

and Engineering Applications 183
6.4.1 Reinforcement 183
6.4.2 Separation 188
6.4.3 Filtration 189
6.4.4 D rainage 191
6.4.5 Containment 192
6.4.6 Erosion Control 193
6.4. 7 Typical Examples of Geosythetics Use in the Field 193

6.5 Selection of Geosynthetics 194

6.5.1 Available versus Required Property 197
6.5.2 Selection of a Geosynthetic 201

6.6 Summary 203

Exercises 204
References 207

Chapter 7 Asphalt Cement and Hot Mix

Asphalt Concrete 208
7.1 Introduction 208
7.2 Types of Asphalt Cements
or Bituminous Materials 209
 Contents vii

7 .3 Common Asphalt Cement Products and

Their Grading 211
7.3.1 Standard Penetration Grading 211
7.3.2 Viscosity Grading 211
7.3.3 Aged R esidue Grading 214
7.3.4 Pe,formance Grading 215
7.3.5 Other Asphalt Products 215

7.4 Typical Uses of Asphaltic Materials 218

7.5 Properties and Testing
of Asphalt Cement 218
7.5.1 Consistency and Rate of Curing of Asphalt
Cement 220
7.5.2 Durability and Other Properties of Asphalt
Materials 223

7 .6 Overview of Pavements 228

7.7 Bituminous Surfacing Treatments
and Sealing in Pavements 229
7 .8 Asphalt Concrete 233
7.8.1 HMA Design 234
7.8.2 Density and Voids Analysis of HMA 235
7.8.3 Marshall Method 241
7.8.4 Superpave Mix Design 243
7.8.5 HMA Production 245
7.8.6 Characterization of HMA for Pavement Design 247

7.9 Use of Additives and Recycling 250

7.10 Summary 250
Exercises 251
References 252

Chapter 8 Cement and Concrete 254

8.1 Introduction 254
8.1.1 History of Concrete 254
8.1.2 Advantages of Concrete 255
8.1.3 Limitations of Concrete 256
8.2 Constituents of Concrete 257
8.2.1 Portland Cement 257
8.2.2 Supplementary Cementitious Material 263
8.2.3 Water 266
8.2.4 Aggregates 267
8.2.5 Admixture 272
8.3 Different Stages of Concrete 274
8.3.1 Plastic State 274
8.3.2 Setting State 275
8.3.3 Hardening State 275
viii Conte nts

8.4 Properties of Fresh Concrete 275

8.4.1 Workability 275
8.4.2 Consistency 276
8.4.3 Cohesiveness 278
8.4.4 Early-Age Pe,formance of Concrete 278
8.5 Site Practice of Concrete 282
8.5.1 Compaction 282
8.5.2 Finishing 283
8.5.3 Curing 284
8.6 Properties of Hardened Concrete 284
8.6.1 Compressive Strength 285
8.6.2 Tensile Strength of Concrete 287
8.6.3 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete 289
8.6.4 Poisson's Ratio 289
8.6.5 Creep in Concrete 289
8.6.6 Shrinkage in Concrete 290
8.6.7 Durability of Concrete 291
8.7 Concrete Mix Design 294
8. 7.1 Mix Design Procedure 294
8.8 Summary 302
Exercises 303
References 307

Chapter 9 Metals and Alloys 309

9.1 Introduction 309
9.2 Ferrous Alloys 309
9.2.1 Iron-Carbon Diagram 310
9.2.2 Steels 311
9.2.3 Cast Irons 314
9.2.4 Stainless Steels 314
9.2.5 Heat-Treatment Techniques 315
9.3 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys 316
9.3.1 Copper 316
9.3.2 Aluminum 317
9.3.3 Magnesium 317
9.4 Types of Failures 318
9.4.1 Fracture 318
9.4.2 Fatigue 321
9.4.3 Creep 323
9.4.4 Corrosion 324
9.5 Summary 330
Exercises 330
References 331
 Cont ents ix

Chapter 10 Steel 332

10.1 Introduction 332
10.2 Advantages of Steel 332
10.3 Limitations of Steel 333
10.4 Iron- and Steel-making 334
10.4.1 Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) 335
10.4.2 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) 336
10.5 Wrought Iron 337
10.6 Cast Iron 338
10.7 Carbon Steel 338
10.8 Structural Steel 340
10.8.1 Hot-Rolled Steel 342
10.8.2 Cold-formed Steel 344
10.8.3 Reinforcing bars 345
10.9 Heat Treatment of Steel 347
10.9.1 Quenching 347
10.9.2 Tempering 347
10.9.3 Annealing 348
10.10 Mechanical Properties of Steel 348
10.10.1 Tension test 348
10.10.2 Poisson's Ratio (v) 351
10.10.3 Shear Modulus of Elasticity (G) 351
10.11 Summary 352
Exercises 353
References 355

Chapter 11 Polymers, Ceramics, and Composites 357

11.1 Introduction 357
11.2 Polymers 357
11.2.1 Chemistry 359
11.2.2 Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Polymers 361
11.2.3 Mechanical Properties 362
11.2.4 Degradation 362
11.3 Ceramics 363
11.3.1 Chemistry 364
11.3.2 Mechanical Properties 365
11.3.3 Glass-Ceramics 366
11.4 Composites 367
11.4.1 Fiber-Reinforced Plastics 367
11.4.2 Metal Matrix Composites 370
X Contents

11.4.3 Ceramic Matrix Composites 371

11.4.4 Failure 371
11.4.5 Applications 371
11.5 Summary 372
Exercises 372
References 373

Chapter 12 Wood 374

12.1 Introduction 374
12.2 Advantages of Lumber 376
12.3 Limitations of Wood 376
12.4 Structure of Wood 377
12.5 Types of Wood 378
12.6 Chemical Composition of Wood 380
12.7 Anisotropic Behavior of Wood 380
12.8 Conversion and Processing of Wood 381
12.8.1 Flat or Plain Sawing 382
12.8.2 Quarter Sawing 382
12.8.3 Rift sawing 382
12.9 Seasoning of Wood 382
12.10 Defects in Wood 383
12.11 Degradation of Wood and Preservative
Treatment 385
12.11.1 Degradation of wood 386
12.11.2 Protective Coatings and Preservative
Treatments 386
12.12 Physical Properties of Wood 387
12.12.1 Density and Specific Gravity 387
12.11.1 Moisture Content 387
12.13 Mechanical Properties of Lumber 388
12.13.1 Modulus of Elasticity 389
12.13.2 Compressive Strength 389
12.13.3 Modulus of Rupture 389
12.13.4 Tensile Strength 389
12.13.5 Creep 390
12.13.6 Determination of Mechanical Properties 390
12.14 Engineered Lumber Products 390
12.14.1 Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) 391
12.14.2 Glued Laminated Lumber (Glulam) 392
12.14.3 Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) 392
 Contents xi

12.14.4 ]-Beams 392

12.14.5 Plywood 392
12.15 Summary 393
Exercises 393
References 395

Chapter 13 Sustainability of Construction Materials 396

13.1 Introduction 396
13.2 Sustainable Development 396
13.2.1 Embodied Energy and Operational Energy 398
13.2.2 Life-Cycle Assessment ( LCA) 400
13.3 Sustainability of Construction Materials 402
13.3.1 Cement and Concrete 403
13.3.2 Steel 406
13.3.3 Wood 406
13.3.4 Soils, Rocks, and Aggregates 407
13.3.5 Asphalt Concrete 408
13.4 Summary 409
Exercises 410
References 411

Appendix A Unit Conversions 413

Index 415
0
Materials science and engineering is a multidisciplinary area that is offered in under-
graduate and graduate programs at many leading universities. It covers all engineering
materials such as metals, ceramics, plastics, composites, and nanomaterials. When it
comes to traditional engineering undergraduate programs such as civil, mechanical,
electrical, or chemical engineering, their specific materials science educational needs
are quite different. While civil engineers deal mostly with steel, concrete, timber, and
soils, their mechanical engineering counterparts are interested in different alloys and
composite materials. With rapid economic development and the scarcity of natural
resources, the use of synthetic materials (e.g., polymers, composites), industrial by-
products (e.g., slag, fly ash), recycled materials and their combinations with tradi-
tional materials (e.g. , concrete and soils) has recently become more prevalent in civil
engineering projects. Hence, there is a growing need for civil engineers to learn more
about these advanced materials in addition to traditional materials.
Civil engineering mainly deals with the design and construction of civil infra-
structure (e.g., dams, embankments, roads, buildings and bridges) and the provision
of services such as water supply and sewerage. Civil engineering projects involve
the use of various materials for design and construction. It is commonly expected
that civil engineers have an in-depth knowledge of these conventional and advanced
materials to select the materials sensibly, determine the material properties, and
effectively carry out the design and construction.
Civil Engineering Materials covers all major traditional civil engineering materi-
als through separate chapters. Sustainability is an important consideration these days
among civil and construction engineering professionals. It is and will be a critical
element in the material selection process. Chapter 13 discusses the sustainability, life
cycle analysis, and other important issues relevant to civil and construction materials.
The civil engineering materials course is almost always taught in a broad-brush
approach rather than providing comprehensive coverage. Generally, students learn
the subject in the early years of a civil engineering program, and with the content
covering a wide range of rather independent topics, it is necessary to provide a
broad-brush treatment without relying on too many prerequisites. The students sub-
sequently take more detailed courses in soils, rocks, concrete, steel, etc. that offer
higher-level coverage.
All four co-authors are passionate about what we do in our respective areas,
with excellent track records in teaching and learning. We are also active researchers
who are up-to-date with the recent developments. Being young or young at heart, we
have a good blend of experience; the young ones are eager to provide good taste and
layout that is appealing to the new generation, and the senior ones take charge and
contribute through their experiences. Having four co-authors with different back-
grounds is one of the strengths here. This has enabled us to develop the chapters with
genuine expertise in areas that we have been teaching for years.

xiii
xiv Preface

Organization
Each chapter covers a single topic thoroughly, so that instructors can change the
sequence and select chapters for their teaching needs.
Chapter 1 Engineering Behavior of Materials- Some Fundamentals introduces
the study of civil engineering materials and covers some basic concepts such as
loads, stress, strain , constitutive models, and measurements.
Chapter 2 Chemistry of Materials provides an overview of the fundamental
chemical aspects of materials at an atomic level. It also explains how materials
are classified based off of their chemical structure.
Chapters 3 through 12 describe the properties and uses of various materials,
including relevant information specific to each material. The following materials
are presented:
Chapter 3 Soils
Chapter 4 Rocks
Chapter 5 Aggregates
Chapter 6 Geosynthetics
Chapter 7 Asphalt Cement and Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete
Chapter 8 Cement and Concrete
Chapter 9 Metals and Alloys
Chapter 10 Steel
Chapter 11 Polymers, Ceramics, and Composites
Chapter 12 Wood
Chapter 13 Sustainability of Construction Materials takes a look at issues of
sustainability in the context of civil engineering, discussing the importance of
material selection, conducting life cycle analyses, and other practices necessary
to consider for present and future engineering challenges.

Key Features
Simple explanations and clarity of approach are main strengths of this book,
making it very reader friendly. A wealth of worked examples and end-of-chapter
exercises cover different difficulty levels. The content is covered in an applied
manner, relating to real-world engineering issues, the book provides adequate
theoretical background in every chapter. With the focus on materials and their
applications, the visuals in the book are in full-color to help students see and
understand how these materials work.
The organization of the book lends itself to easy course customization. Most
of the chapters on individual materials are independent which gives the instructor
freedom to change the order and even omit a chapter or two as appropriate to their
subject/course outline. This also allows students using it as a reference to easily find
the information they need on each topic.
Coverage of sustainability is one of the highlights of this book. There is an in-
creased emphasis placed in civil engineering practice on sustainability in material
selection in the designs and construction. Starting to think about sustainability early
during the first years of their civil engineering training helps students lay the ground-
work as their studies and work continues.
 Preface xv

Supplements
A detailed Instructor's Solutions Manual, containing solutions to all problems from
the text, and Lecture Note Power Point Slides are available via a secure, password-
protected Instructor Resource Center at http://login.cengage.com.

MindTap Online Course

Civil Engineering Materials is also available through MindTap, Cengage Learning's
digital course platform. The carefully crafted pedagogy and exercises in this text-
book are made even more effective by an interactive, customizable eBook, auto-
matically graded assessments, and a full suite of study tools.
As an instructor using MindTap, you have at your fingertips the full text and a
unique set of tools, all in an interface designed to save you time. MindTap makes it
easy for instructors to build and customize their course, so you can focus on the most
relevant material while also lowering costs for your students. Stay connected and
informed through real-time student tracking that provides the opportunity to adjust
your course as needed based on analytics of interactivity and performance. End-of-
chapter assessments test students' knowledge of topics in each chapter. A curated
collection of civil engineering images helps students better understand key concepts
as they progress through the course.

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~ Chapter 5 Quiz
Afteryou·ve read Chapter S. answer the question~ In the Quiz.

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~ Chapter 5 Drop Box

Use this drop box to !.ubmlt any othl!r dss,gnments your h\SUutto, h1Js asslgn~d to you.

How does MindTap benefit instructors?

• You can build and personalize your course by integrating your own content into
the MindTap Reader (like lecture notes or problem sets to download) or pull
from sources such as RSS feeds, YouTube videos, websites, and more. Control
what content students see with a built-in learning path that can be customized to
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• MindTap saves you time by providing you and your students with automatically
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back, so students know exactly where they need more practice.
xvi Preface

OUTLINE • The Message Center helps

you to quickly and easily con-
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tact students directly from
MindTap. Messages are com-

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dent via the communication
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or even text message) desig-
nated by the student.
• StudyHub is a valuable
studying tool that allows you
to deliver important information and empowers your students to personalize their
experience. Instructors can choose to annotate the text with notes and highlights,
share content from the MindTap Reader, and create flashcards to help their stu-
dents focus and succeed.
• The Progress App lets you know exactly how your students are doing (and where
they might be struggling) with live analytics. You can see overall class engagement
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How does MindTap benefit your students?

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while also providing them with on-the-go study tools like Flashcards and quizzing,
helping them manage their time efficiently.
• Flashcards are pre-populated to provide a jump start on studying, and students
and instructors can also create customized cards as they move through the course.
• The Progress App allows students to monitor their individual grades, as well as
their level compared to the class average. This not only helps them stay on track
in the course but also motivates them to do more, and ultimately to do better.
• The unique Study Hub is a powerful single-destination studying tool that empow-
ers students to personalize their experience. They can quickly and easily access all
notes and highlights marked in the MindTap Reader, locate bookmarked pages,
review notes and Flashcards shared by their instructor, and create custom study
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For more information about MindTap for Engineering, or to schedule a dem-
onstration, please call (800) 354-9706 or email higheredcs@cengage.com. For those
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to locate your regional office.
n Preface xvii

Acknowledgments
We wish to acknowledge and thank our Global Engineering team at Cengage
Learning for their dedication to this new book:
Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Ashley Kaupert, Associate Media Con-
tent Developer; Megan Guiliani, Content Project Manager; Kristin Stine, Marketing
Manager; Elizabeth Brown and Brittany Burden, Learning Solutions Specialists;
Teresa Versaggi, Product Assistant; and Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services, Inc.
They have skilfully guided every aspect of this text's development and production
to successful completion.
Many thanks to the following reviewers for their helpful suggestions used while
developing this text:
Fouad M. Bayomy, University of Idaho
Samer D essouky, University of Texas-San Antonio
Dennis Filler, University of Central Florida
Pratanu Ghosh, California State University, Fullerton
Dirnitrios Goulias, University of Maryland
Micah Hale, University ofArkansas
Philip W. Johnson, University ofAlabama
Roger W. Meier, University of Memphis
David Naish, California State University - Fullerton
Jose A. Pena, Purdue University- Calumet
Pedro Romero, University of Utah
Brett Tempest, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
W. James Wilde, Minnesota State University-Mankato

Nagaratnam Sivakugan
Carthigesu T. Gnanendran
Rabin Tuladhar
Bobby Kannan Mathan
 Dr. Sivakugan received his Bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering from University
of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, with First Class Honors. He earned his MSCE and PhD
from Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. Dr. Sivakugan's writings include
six books, 130 international journal papers, 90 international conference papers,
and more than 100 consulting reports. As a registered professional engineer of
Queensland and a chartered professional engineer, Dr. Sivakugan does substantial
consulting work for the geotechnical and mining industry in Australia and around
the the world, including the World Bank. H e is a Fellow of the American Society
of Civil Engineers and Engineers Australia. He has supervised 13 PhD students to
completion at James Cook University, Queensland,Australia, where he was the Head
of Civil Engineering from 2003 to 2014. He is the Associate Editor of International
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering and International Journal of Geosynthetics and
Ground Engineering, and an editorial board member of Canadian Geotechnical
Journal and Indian Geotechnical Journal.
Dr. Gnanendran received his Bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering from Uni-
versity of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka; an MEng from Carleton University, Canada; and a
PhD from The University of Western Ontario, Canada. He has published over 100
scholarly articles in journals and international conferences and over 50 of them were
in high-impact peer reviewed journals. He is an Associate Editor of the Canadian
Geo technical Journal and a member of the editorial board member of the Geotextiles
and Geomembranes Journal. He has extensive industrial and high-level consulting
experience for over 20 years and is a Fellow of Engineers Australia and a Chartered
Professional Engineer in Australia. He has supervised 14 PhD students and 4 ME
(research) students to successful completion.
Dr. Tuladhar received his Bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering from Regional
Engineering College Silchar, India, with First Class Honors. H e finished his Masters
in Structural Engineering from Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand and PhD
in Structural Engineering from Saitama University, Japan. He is currently a Senior
Lecturer and Associate Dean Learning and Teaching at the College of Science and
Engineering, James Cook University. He was awarded Australian Learning and
Teaching Citation Award in 2011 for the outstanding contribution to student learn-
ing. He is also the winner of the Australian Innovation Challenge 2015 under Manu-
facturing, Construction and Infrastructure category for the development of recycled
plastic fiber to reinforce concrete.
Dr. Mathan received his PhD in Materials Engineering from the Indian Insti-
tute of Technology Bombay (IITB) in India. He is currently an Associate Professor
at James Cook University (JCU). He was the Head of the Chemical Engineering
Department at JCU from 2010 to 2014. He has published over 90 scientific articles,
including seven book chapters in the field of materials engineering. He is a Key
Reader for Metallurgical and Materials Transactions (Springer), an editorial board
member for two international journals, and an ad hoc reviewer for over 30 interna-
tional journals.

xviii
 Civil engineering materials have been used since the ancient times. Several materials
were used to build the Colosseum including travertine (a type of limestone), tuff
(a porous rock made of volcanic ash), and concrete. Courtesy of N. SMJkugan,Jomes Cook University. Ausrralia
----------- ----------------

1.1 Introduction
Civil engineers design and construct buildings, bridges, dams, tunnels, highways, air-
ports, canals, and play key roles in all infrastructure developments. Their work is
not just limited to land; there is substantial offshore work going on worldwide. They
also contribute in the mining industry, where the ore is removed from underground
and minerals are extracted. Yes, they make their mark above the ground, below the
ground, and out into the sea!
Civil engineers deal with a wide range of materials including, concrete, steel,
soils, rocks, aggregates, timber, metals, and plastics. All structures have to be founded
on the ground, and this requires a good understanding of soils, rocks, and aggregates.
Concrete and steel are the two of the most used materials in civil engineering for
construction of buildings and bridges. In spite of its lower load-carrying capacity
compared to steel or concrete and shrinking supplies worldwide, timber is still being
used as a building material, especially in housing where the loadings are relatively
small in magnitude. Aggregates, asphalt and bitumen are used widely in roadwork.
Geosynthetics are becoming increasingly popular in roadwork and slopes, and new
products are coming into the market every year. Metals, polymers, and composites
also have their place in civil engineering construction.
Engineering materials, or specifically civil engineering materials, is presented
early in most curriculums at the university level. This is followed by subjects that
cover certain materials (e.g., soils, concrete) to a much greater depth. Some materi-
als, such as geosynthetics or rocks, may be covered more under electives, and some
(e.g., metals, alloys, polymers) are covered only in civil engineering materials courses.
Mechanical engineers may focus on metals and alloys more than concrete, soil, or
timber. A good understanding of material behavior enables us to make the best use
of them in designs and construction.
2 Chapter 1 Engineering Behavior of Materials-Some Fundamentals

Figure 1.1 Loads-stresses-strains-displacements sequence

External
loading

/
Displacements Internal loads
and moments

L
Strains
TStresses

Very often, the site conditions, the loadings, and the materials are so complex that
it is necessary to simplify the problem into something that is solvable. This requires
certain assumptions and simplifications. D etermining the design parameters, includ-
ing the loadings and the material characteristics, is not always straightforward. Some
simple material models, also known as constitutive models, commonly used to describe
civil engineering materials, are described in the next section. They are often approxi-
mations of the actual material behavior but greatly simplify the problem without
compromising too much on the results.
In general, the external forces (e.g., wind loads, live loads) produce internal forces
and moments within the material, which in turn induce internal stresses. These inter-
nal stresses produce strains within the material, which result in displacements. This
sequence is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
All civil engineering projects have a client, consultant, and a contractor. These
three can be government organizations, private enterprises, or individuals. The client
is the one who requires the development of a facility such as a building, bridge, or
dam, has the funds to pay all associated costs, and owns the finished product. Con-
sultan ts are professional engineers who the client hires to provide advisory service
throughout the project, including analyses, designs, and specifications that constitute
the basis of the construction contract. Contractors are the ones who undertake the
real construction, based on the given designs and specifications. They need to commit
on time frames, and there can be hefty penalties for delays.
Of late, this traditional tripartite relationship has been undergoing considerable
change as many new forms of relationships are being considered, including alliance
projects, design-and-build projects, turnkey projects, and so forth, where the consul-
tant and contractor form an alliance with close collaboration in design and construc-
tion stages. Terms of engagement are also significantly different in such contracts.
The contract documents clearly specify the roles and obligations of all parties
concerned, the method of assuring the quality of the work, the time frames and mile-
stones, and points at which partial payments are made. In ensuring that the structure
or facility meets its intended purpose, every component has to meet certain perfor-
mance criteria. To this end, one of the key requirements is to ensure that the materials
used in the project meet the specifications.
 1.2 Stress-Strain Relations and Constitutive Models 3

1.2 Stress-Strain Relations and Constitutive

Models
A successful civil engineer must have a good understanding of statics, which enables
one to isolate a certain section of the problem, examine the free-body diagram, apply
equilibrium equations, and determine the unknown forces. In addition, it is neces-
sary to have a good understanding of how the different materials behave under a
wide range of loading conditions (e.g., tension, compression, and shear). These are
discussed more in the engineering strength of materials course. A constitutive model
is simply a material model that describes mathematically how the stresses and strains
are related. Under the same loadings, the strains and displacements can be quite
different, depending on the material (i.e., constitutive model). Before attempting to
carry out any computations of strains or deformations, it is necessary to define the
constitutive model for the material.
Figure 1.2 shows a simply supported beam subjected to a point load P. The reac-
tions at the support R 1 and R2 can be determined from equilibrium considerations as

R1=-..!..!:::._ (1.1)
l1 + l2

R2 = __!____i_ (1.2)
l1 + l2

No consideration is given to the material properties in computing the reactions R 1

and R2 . They would have been the same irrespective of whether the beam was made
of steel, concrete, or timber. This is true for bending moments and shear forces, too.
However, if the deflections are required, the material properties will come into play.
Figure 1.3 shows the stress-strain diagram of a cylindrical specimen of length l
and cross-sectional area A, subjected to a tensile axial load P. Here, the axial stress
r.r and strain e are given by
p
(J" =- (1.3)
A
and
!JI
e= - (1.4)
l

L..IA_s_im_p;....l~y_s_u;....pp;....o_rt_ed_b_e_am_s_u_b;..je_c_te_d_t_o_a....;...p_o_in_t_lo_a_d_P
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.....JH Figu re 1.2

)
r
- - - - - 1 1 - -- - - - - - 1 2- -_...,
4 Chapter 1 Engineering Behavior of Materials-Some Fundamentals

Figure 1.3 Stress-strain behavior of a material

C
A

p
Axial strain, &

where t:.l is the elongation under the load P. In the segment OB of the stress-strain
(a-e) diagram, the axial stress is proportional to the axial strain, where the mate-
rial is behaving as a linear elastic material, following Hooke's law. At B, when the
normal stress exceeds u y, the material loses the linearity where the yielding takes
place, and the material undergoes some irrecoverable plastic strains. The value Oj,
is known as the yield stress of the material, which is a unique property of the mate-
rial that does not depend on the specimen dimensions. The ultimate stress u,, is the
maximum axial stress the material can withstand , which is reached at C. Beyond
C, lesser load is required to deform the material, which exhibits strain-softening
behavior and fails at D.

1.2.1 Some Simple Material Models

The simplest of all material models is the linear elastic model, proposed by the English
scientist Robert Hooke (1635-1703), and hence is known as Hooke's law. Here, the
stress-strain diagram, as shown in Figure 1.4a is a straight line. At any stage of load-
ing, if the load is removed, the object returns to its original state, following the same
loading path in the a-e diagram without any sign of permanent deformation. This is
known as elastic behavior. The slope of the a -e plot (see Figure 1.4a) is known as the
modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus, named after the English scientist Thomas
Young (1773-1829). The Young's modulus can be in a very wide range, depending on
the material. The softer the material, the lower the modulus is. It is a measure of the
material's resistance to deformation. Table 1.1 summarizes the Young's modulus of
some typical civil engineering materials.
At any stage of loading, the stress and strain are related by the following expres-
sion in a linear elastic material.

u =Ee (1.5)

Any changes in the longitudinal stress and strain, denoted here as ~a and ~e, respec-
tively, are related by

(1.6)
 1.2 Stress-Strain Relations and Constitutive Models 5

Some simple constitutive models: (a) linear elastic, (b) nonlinear elastic, Figure 1.4
(c) elastic-plastic, and (d) rigid plastic

0
Axial strain, e. Axial strain, f.
(a) (b)

b
V,

i O'y
A
/
/
/
B

7,j

~ /
/'
/

0 C 0
1-f.P-+-i
Axial strain, e. Axial strain, e.
(c) (d)

The lateral normal strain and the longitudinal (i.e., axial) normal strain are
related by
lateral normal strain
v=- (1.7)
axial normal strain

Young's modulus of typical civil engineering materials -

Material Young's modulus, E (GPa and kip/ft2) Poisson's ratio, v
Soils 0.01-0.1 (210-2100) 0.1-0.5
1-3 (21- 63 10 3) 0.4
Plastics X
3
Wood 10- 15 (210-313 X 10 ) NA*
Concrete 20-30(420-630 X 10 3 ) 0. 1- 0.2
Rocks 10-100 (210-2100 X 103 ) 0.2-0.3
3 0.33
A luminum alloys 73 (1525 X 10 )

Brass 100 (2100 X 103 ) 0.34

Copper and copper alloys 110-120 (2300- 2500 X 103 ) 0.33- 0.36
Cast iron 80-170 (1670- 3550 X 10 3
) 0.2-0.3
3 0.27-0.30
Steel 200(4180 X 10 )

* Variable depending on the direction of loading and other parameters.

Note: kip/ft 2 in parentheses.
6 Chapter 1 Engineering Behavior of Materials-Some Fundament als

where v is known as the Poisson's ratio, named after Simeon D enis Poisson
(1781- 1840), which is constant to a specific material. It is denoted by the Greek
symbol v (nu) or sometimes µ, (mu). Poisson's ratio lies in the range of 0-0.5, and
for most materials it is in the range of 0.25-0.35. Typical values for the common civil
engineering materials are given in Table 1.1.
At low stress levels, many materials behave elastically, and the linear elastic
model is adequate to describe their stress-strain behavior. A slightly superior but
more complex model is a nonlinear elastic model shown in Figure 1.4b. At any stage
of loading, if the load is removed, the material returns to its original shape without
undergoing any permanent or plastic deformation, following the same nonlinear path
in the a-e diagram. One of the simplest nonlinear elastic models can be described by
the following expression.

e
(T = -- - (1.8)
a+ be

where 1/a is the slope of the a-e diagram at zero strain, and l ib is the ultimate
stress, which is reached at a very large strain (see Figure 1.4b). Known as hyperbolic
nonlinear elastic stress-strain model, this is one of the popular constitutive models
used in numerical modeling work.
Figure 1.4c shows an elastic-plastic model, where the material is linear elastic in
the segment OA and perfectly plastic beyond A. In the segment OA, the strains are
elastic and recoverable. Any unloading will bring the material back to its original
state. The material yields at A and behaves as a perfectly plastic material from there.
Any further deformation or strain beyond A is entirely plastic, which is irrecoverable.
When the material is unloaded from B, it follows a path BC parallel to the elastic
segment OA. When fully unloaded to C, the material has undergone a permanent,
irrecoverable plastic strain, denoted by eP. When reloaded, the material behaves lin-
ear elastically, following the same straight-line path until it reaches the new yield
point B, at the same yield stress er,..
Figure 1.4d shows a rigid plastic model, where the material remains rigid without
any strains or deformations until the yield stress is reached. On reaching the yield
stress, the material behaves plastically and undergoes very large deformation.

1.2.2 Other Material Models

In reality, no materials would strictly follow any of the models discussed in
Section 1.2.1. Nevertheless, these models are relatively easier to implement in
computing the strains and deformations. Figure 1.5 shows strain-hardening and
strain-softening models where the material behaves elastically until it reaches the
yield stress er,. at B. When the material is unloaded at D, it follows the straight-line
path DE. When reloaded from E , it follows the same path ED and then continues
along the original a-e curve. In the case of a strain-hardening material (Figure 1.5a),
the yield stress has increased by loading beyond the original yield stress and unload-
ing. In strain-softening model shown in Figure 1.5b, the yield stress is reduced by
straining further.
Generally, elastic and plastic strains occur simultaneously in most materials, and
these models are known as elasto-plastic models, which are different from the simpler
elastic-plastic model described in Figure 1.4c. In the strain-hardening model shown
in Figure 1.5a, the axial strain e at D consists of elastic and plastic components e' and
eP, respectively such that e = e' + eP.
 1.2 Stress-Strain Relations and Constitutive Models 7

IOther stress-strain diagrams: (a) strain hardening, and (b) strain softening H Figure 1.5
C
b
.,li Oj,
ti
-;;;
-~

0 E

Axial strain, e Axial strain, e

(a) (b)

Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager are two of the commonly used elasto-plastic

models. There are other material models that suit specific material under specific
loading conditions.

EXAMPLE 1.1

The stress-strain plot of a material is shown in Figure 1.6, where segment OA is linear elastic.
It can be assumed that unloading (and reloading) anywhere in segment AB will take place
along a path parallel to OA.
a. Determine the Young's modulus of the material.
b. Find the elastic and plastic strains at B where the total axial strain is 0.035 (or 3.5%) and
the axial stress is 150 MPa.
c. What is the elastic strain during deformation from A to B?

....I s_t_re_s_s_-s_tr_a_in_d_ia_g_r_a_m_f_o_r_E_x_a_m_p_le_1_.1________________.H Figure 1.6

150 B

125

i
6 100
b
li
~ 75
<I)

-;;;
'R
-.:t: 50

25

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Axial strain, e
8 Chapter 1 Engineering Behavior of Materials-Some Fundament als

Solution:
a. In segment OA, the Young's modulus is given by the slope of the line. Hence,
100
E = - MPa = lOGPa
0.01
b.

Figure 1.7 Calculation of elastic and plastic strains in Example 1.1

150 B

125
-----
"'
ib
100

.,1 75
ti
.;
/ / } - 10 GPa
~ 50

/ 1
25 I
I
I
c/
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Axial strain, e

When the material is unloaded from B to C, the elastic strain is fully recovered. This elas-
tic strain is given by

150
e' = - - = 0.015
10,000

The total longitudinal strain eat B = 0.035. Therefore the plastic strain eP is given by
eP =e - ee = 0.035 - 0.015 = 0.020
c. In segment AB, the longitudinal stress is increased by 50 MPa. Therefore, the elastic strain
during this segment is given by

50
e' = - - = 0.005
10,000
 1.3 Types of Loadings 9

1.3 Types of Loadings

The loadings on a system (e.g., a building) can include forces, pressures, stresses,
moments, and torques. The forces can be compressive, tensile, or shear and are usually
denoted by uppercase letters such as F, P, Q, R, S, and T, with units of N, kN or MN (lb,
kip or ton). The stresses can be compressive, tensile, or shear. Tensile and compres-
sive stresses act normal to the surface and are often denoted by the Greek symbol
u- (sigma), and the shear stresses act along the surface and are denoted by the Greek
symbol T (tau). Common units for stresses are N/m 2 ( or pascal, written as Pa),kN/m 2 ,
or MN/m 2 ( or lb/ft 2 , lb/in 2 , kip/ft2, ton/ft2 ). Very often the forces would be acting at an
angle to the surface that can be resolved into a normal and shear loads, producing a
normal stresses and shear stresses. Pressure is a normal stress, and examples include
atmospheric pressure, air pressure, hydrostatic pressure in water, and so forth.
When a beam is subjected to loads in the transverse direction (i.e., normal to the
longitudinal axis) as shown in Figure 1.2, it bends and produces bending moments
which induce bending stresses throughout the beam. When a tall building or a trans-
mission tower is subjected to lateral wind loads, large moments are induced. The
axis of the moment is perpendicular to the plane of bending. The bending moment
is the product of force and distance, and hence has the unit of N·m, kN·m or MN·m
(lb-ft, kip-ft or ton ·ft) . The bending stress u- at distance y from the neutral axis can
be determined by
M
er= - y (1.9)
I

where M = moment at the section, and I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis.
The shear stress Tat any location on the cross section is given by
VQ
7=- (1.10)
lt

where V = shear force at the section, Q = first moment of the cross sectional area
above the level at which shear stress is being determined, and t = thickness of the section
at the level where the shear stress is being determined.
Torque is a twisting moment applied to a longitudinal bar in an attempt to rotate
the bar about its longitudinal axis. It is similar to moment, but the axis of the torque
is longitudinal. The units are the same as for moments. A torque T applied to a shaft
produces shear stresses which can be determined by
Tp
T=- (1.11)
[p

where p = distance from the center where the shear stress is being determined,
and I" = polar moment of inertia of the cross section. Eqs. 1.9 to 1.11 are generally
discussed in detail in strength of materials subject.
10 Chapter 1 Engineering Behavior of Materials-Some Fundamentals

1.4 Special Loading Situations

All design problems, including buildings, bridges, dams, and foundations, are three-
dimensional in nature. The loads and deformations, and the resulting stresses and
strains, can be in any direction in a three-dimensional space. Sometimes, for the sake
of simplicity, the stresses and/or strains in the third dimension are ignored in the
analysis, and the problems are assumed to be two-dimensional. Some of these special
cases include axisymmetric, plane strain, and plane stress loadings. They are discussed
in this section.

Sign Convention
The right hand Cartesian coordinate system is the most commonly used mnemonic for
defining the directions of x ,y, and z axes in three dimensions. When the index finger,
thumb, and the middle finger of the right hand are held perpendicular to each other,
they can define the relative directions of the three mutually perpendicular axes of a
coordinate system. If the thumb points along the x-axis and the index finger points
along the y-axis, the middle finger points along the z-axis.
As shown in Figure 1.8a, the positive x-plane is the plane where the normal to
the plane points along the positive x-axis. The negative x-plane is the one where the
normal to the plane points in the opposite direction of the x-axis. This applies to all
three directions. The sign convention commonly used in applying the equilibrium
equations relating to stresses at a point is as follows:
• The shear or normal stress is positive when it acts on a positive plane and points
in the positive direction, or when it acts on a negative plane and points in the
negative direction.
• The shear or normal stress is negative when it acts on a positive plane and points
in the negative direction, or when it acts on a negative plane and points in the
positive direction.

I Figure 1.8 r- Sign convention in the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system:

(a) positive directions and planes, and (b) shear and normal stresses at
a point

Positive
x-plane

Negative
x-plane
X X

Positive
z
z-plane
(a) (b)
 1.4 Special Loading Situations 11

Figure 1.8b shows the shear and normal stresses acting on the six sides of an
infinitesimally small element, representing a point. The body forces (e.g., self-
weight) are neglected here. It is worth noting that all the normal and shear forces
marked here are positive (based on the sign convention). The first subscript after
the symbols u and T defines the plane on which the stress is acting, and the second
subscript indicates the direction of the stress. For example, T xy is the shear stress act-
ing on x-plane in y-direction. From equilibrium considerations, Txy = T yx, T y, = T,y,
and Tzx = T xz,
It is important to have a good grasp of the sign convention when interpreting
the directions of stresses determined from equations that were developed from the
above and computer program output files.
When the problem is approximated as a two-dimensional problem , it can be
represented in Cartesian or cylindrical polar coordinate system. Figure 1.9 shows
the stresses on an infinitesimal element, in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system. As before, T xy = T yx · The second subscript is often omitted for the normal
stresses, which are simply denoted by u . u y, and u ,.
0

Stress Transformation and Principal Stresses

It is worth emphasizing that the state of stress represented by the element
in Figure 1.9 (also in Figure 1.8) refers to a point. Using two-dimensional
stress-transformation equations or Mohr circles introduced in a strength of mate-
rials course, the stresses in any other direction can be determined by rotating the
element appropriately.
Principal stresses are the values of normal stresses when the shear stresses
acting on the planes are zero. The corresponding planes are known as principal
planes. The largest and the smallest values of the principal stresses are known as
major principal stress u 1 and minor principal stress u 3, respectively. The notation u 2
is reserved for the intermediate principal stress that acts in the direction perpen-
dicular to the plane containing u 1 and u 3. Similarly, there are also principal strains
e1, e2, and e3.

Stresses on a two-dimensional element Figure 1.9

y
y
Positive
y-plane

Positive
x-plane

X X
Negative
y-plane
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rice-pudding, 419, 420
turnip radishes, 318
breast of veal, 218
fillet of veal, 217
knuckle of veal, 221
loin of veal, 218
Boiling, general directions for, 167
scientific, Baron Liebig’s directions for, 168
Bonbons, palace, 567
Bone, to, calf’s head for brawn, 24, 215
calf’s head, the cook’s receipt, 211
calf’s head for mock turtle soup, 24
a fowl or turkey without opening it, 265
a fowl or turkey, another mode, 265
fowls, for fricassees, curries, and pies, 266
 a hare, 285
a leg of mutton, 236
a loin of mutton for pies, 355
a breast of veal, 618
a shoulder of veal or mutton, 219
neck of venison for pies, 352
Boning, general directions for, 182
Bottle Jack, 170
Bottled fruits, for winter use,
gooseberries,
tomatas, or tomata-catsup, 151
Boudin, à la Richelieu, 288
Boudinettes of lobsters, &c., 92
Boulettes, potato, 314
Bouilli, French receipt for hashed, 206
Bouillon, observations on, 9
Brain cakes, 162
another receipt for, 162
Braise, to burn, 180
Braised fillet of beef, 180
leg of mutton, 236
Braising, directions for, 180
Brandy, cherry (Tappington Everard receipt), 579
lemon, for flavouring sweet dishes, 153
peaches preserved in, 571
trifle, or tipsy cake, 274
Brandied morella cherries, 571
Brawn Brack, cake (Irish), 546
good, light, 554
Brawn, calf’s head (author’s receipt), 215
 Tenbridge, 260
Bread, Bordyke receipt for, 597
to know when baked, 604
Bavarian brown, Liebig’s, 599
brown, English, 599
crumbs, fried, 131
crumbs, to prepare for frying fish, 131
dairy, without yeast, 602
to freshen stale, 603
to fry for garnishing, 131
to fry for soups, 5
with German yeast, 598
home-made, remarks on, 594
household, 596
to keep, 603
partridges served with, 279
patties, 387
potato, 600
puddings, 418, 430
and butter puddings, 428, 429
rules to be observed in making, 596
sauce, 112
sauce with onion, 113
unfermented, 599
to purify yeast for, 595
Bream, sea, to dress, 75
Brioche paste, 349
Brill, to boil, 58
Broccoli, 326
Broiled beef steak, 187
bacon, 259
cutlets, mutton, 241
cutlets, pork, 251
eels with sage (German), 617
 fowl, 274
mackerel, 71
red mullet, 76
partridge, 290
partridge (French receipt), 290
Broiling, general directions for, 175
Broil, the Cavalier’s, 240
Broth, or bouillon, 6
veal, or mutton, 44
Browned flour for thickening soups and sauces, 131
Browning, with salamander, 183
Brown, rich, English gravy, 99
apple sauce, 125
caper sauce, 121
chestnut sauce, 129
mushroom sauce, 123
onion sauce, 125
rabbit soup, 31
Brown to, with salamander, 183
Brussels sprouts, 340
Buns, light, of different kinds, 559
Exeter, 559
excellent soda, 561
Geneva, 601
Burdwan, an Indian, 612
Burlington Whimsey, 212
Burnt coffee, or gloria, 592
Buttered apples, 488
cherries, 490
Butter, anchovy, 138
burnt, or browned, 109
 clarified, for storing and for immediate use, 110
to cool for crust, 345
creamed, and otherwise prepared for cakes, 543
lobster, 138
melted, good common, 108
melted, French, 109
melted, rich, 108
melted, rich, without flour, 109
melted, white, 109
loin of lamb stewed in, 246
truffled, 139
Buttermilk, for bread, 602
Cabbage, to boil, 332
stewed, 333
red, to stew (Flemish receipt), 340
red, to pickle, 539
Café noir, 592
Cake, fine almond, 545
apple, 362
beef or mutton, 190
breakfast, French, 549
a cheap common, 555
cream cake, 554
thick, light gingerbread, 551
a good light luncheon cake, 554
cheap nursery, 555
a good Madeira, 548
pound, 546
rice, 546
sausage-meat, or pain de porc frais, 261
a good soda, 556
a good sponge, 547
a smaller sponge, 547
tipsy, 474
veal, 222
 veal, good (Bordyke receipt for), 222
Venetian or Neapolitan (super-excellent), 547
white, 546
Cakes, Banbury, 549
to colour sugar candy for, 542
flead, or fleed, 558
cocoa-nut gingerbread, 552
common gingerbread, 553
richer gingerbread, 553
queen, 556
general remarks on, 540
very good small rich, 558
to prepare butter for rich, 543
to whisk eggs for light rich, 543
small, sugar, various, 558
small Venetian, 548
Calf’s head, à la Maître d’Hôtel, 214
boiled, 210
brawn (author’s receipt), 215
to clear the hair from, 210
cutlets of, 213
hashed, 213
a cheap hash of, 213
prepared, the cook’s receipt, 211
soup, 27
The Warder’s way, 211
Calf’s feet jelly (entremets), 461
another receipt for, 462
jelly, apple, 464
jelly, orange, 464
modern varieties of, 463
to prepare for stock, 453
stewed, 228
stock, 453
stock, to clarify, 454
Calf’s liver, stoved or stewed, 228
roast, 229
sweetbreads, 227
Cambridge milk punch, 581
Candy, cocoa-nut, 566
ginger, 565
orange-flower, 565
orange-flower (another receipt for), 566
Canellon de bœuf, 201
Canellons, filled with apricot or peach marmalade, 385
of brioche paste, 385
Caper sauce, 121
sauce for fish, 121
Capillaire in punch, 580
Caramel, to boil sugar to, 563
the quickest way, 563
Carp, to stew, 82
Carrots, au beurre, 336
to boil, 335
in their own juice 337
mashed, or buttered (Dutch), 336
in plum pudding, 417
sweet, for second course, 336
the Windsor receipt (Entrée), 335
Carrot, soup, common, 20
soup, a finer, 20
Casserole of rice, savoury, 351
of rice, sweet, 438
Catsup, the cook’s, or compound, 149
lemon, 150
mushroom, 146,148
mushroom, double, 148
 pontac, for fish, 150
tomato, 151
walnut, 149, 150
Cauliflowers, to boil, 325
French receipt for, 325
à la Française, 326
with Parmesan cheese, 325
Cavalier’s, the, broil, 240
Cayenne, vinegar, 153
Celery, boiled, 341
salad, to serve with pheasants, 341
sauce, 128
stewed, 341
Chantilly baskets, 474
Charlotte de pommes, or apple Charlotte, 486
à la Parisienne, 487
Chatnies (Mauritian), 144, 610
Cheese, damson, 520
in fondu, 379
Italian pork, 260
with maccaroni, 392
with maccaroni, à la Reine, 393
in ramakins, 375
to serve with white and maccaroni soup, 13
cheese-cakes, cocoa-nut (Jamaica receipt), 371
Madame Werner’s Rosenvik, 372
Cherries, brandied, morella, 571
Cherries, compote of Kentish, 458
compote of morella, 458
morella, to dry, 504
dried with sugar, 502
dried without, 503
 dried, superior receipt, 503
to pickle, 532
brandy, 579
cherry, cheese, 504
cherry, paste, 504
Chestnuts, boiled, 574
roasted, 574
stewed, 342
Chestnut forcemeat, No. 15, 162
sauce, brown, 129
sauce, white, 129
soups, 19
Chetney, various ways of making, 144
Chicken, broiled, 274
cutlets, 275, 276
fried, à la Malabar, 276
patties (good), 359
potato pasty, 350
Chicken pie (common), 353
modern pie, 353
Chickens, boiled, 273
fricasseed, 275
in soup, 29
China chilo of mutton, 241
Chocolate, almonds, 568
drops, 567
to make, 592
Spanish receipt for making, 592
Chops, lamb or mutton, broiled, 241
mutton, stewed in their own gravy (good), 240
pork, 251
Chorissa, or Jewish sausage, with rice, 607
Christopher North’s own sauce for many meats, 119
Cocoa, to make, 593
Cocoa-nut candy, 566
cheese-cakes, 371
in curries, 296
Doce, 490
gingerbread, 553
macaroons, 545
puddings, 424
soup, 19
Cod fish, to boil, 61
slices of, fried, 61
stewed, 62
stewed in brown sauce, 62
Cod’s sounds, to boil, 63
to fry in batter, 63
Coffee, to boil, 591
breakfast, French, 590
burnt, or coffee à la Militaire, vulgarly called Glosia, 592
to filter, 590
directions for making, 589
strong, clear, to serve after dinner, called café noir, 592
remarks on, 587
to roast, 588
roaster, 588
Cold, calf’s head, to re-dress, 214
Cold, fowls, ditto, 276, 277
leg of mutton, ditto, 207
Maître d’Hôtel, sauce, 133
meat, excellent sauces to serve with, 133, 134, 136
salmon, to dress, 59
turbot, ditto, 59
Collops minced, au naturel, 201
savoury minced, 201
 sauté-pan for frying, 176
Scotch, 226
Scotch minced, 202
Compote of apples, baked (our little Lady’s receipt), 572
of green apricots, 457
of bullaces, 458
of cherries, 458
of Kentish cherries, 458
of Morella cherries, 458
of green currants, 457
of red currants, 457
of damsons, 458
of figs, 492
of green gooseberries, 457
of magnum bonum, or other large plums, 458
of peaches, 459
of peaches, another receipt, 459
Compote de pigeons, 619
Compote de pigeons aux petits pois, 619
of Siberian crabs, 458
of spring fruit (rhubarb), 457
Confectionary, 562
Conjurer, a, its uses, 175
Consommé, 10
Constantia jelly, 467
Cookery (English), common causes of its failure, 167
Cool cup, a, 582
Corn, Indian green, to boil, 329
Counsellor’s cup, 585
Crab, cold, dressed, 88
hot, 89
Creamed tartlets, 375
spring fruit, or rhubarb trifle, 486
Cream, Chantilly basket filled with, 474
Cream cake, delicious, 554
crust, 347
Devonshire, or clotted, 451
jelly, filled with, 469
lemon, made without cream, 475
Nesselróde, 471
remarks on, 450
Swiss, 473
in soups, 19, 22, 29, 30
Creams, lemon (very good), 475
fruit, 475
Italian, 475
Crême à la Comtesse, or the Countess’s cream, 272
Crême, Parisienne, 479
patissiere, 373
Crisped potatoes, or potato-ribbons, to serve with cheese, 313
Croquettes of rice (entremets), 385
of rice, filled with preserve,
of rice, savoury, 386
Croustades, or Dresden patties, 387
of various kinds, 387
small, dressed in marrow, 388
small, à la bonne maman, 389
to prepare marrow for frying, 388
Croûte aux-champignons, or mushroom-toast, 330
Crust butter, for puddings, 398
cream, 347
flead, 347
French, for hot or cold meat pies, 347
excellent short, 349
 rich short, for tarts, 349
Crust, common suet for pies, 348
very superior suet, for pies, 348
suet, for puddings, 398
Crusts, to serve with cheese, 398
Cucumber (author’s receipt), to dress, 323
soup, 38
vinegar, 152
Cucumbers à la Crème, 324
à la Poulette, 324
dressed, 323
fried, 324
stewed, 323
Curds and whey, 451
Currants, to clean for puddings and cakes, 397
green, stewed, 457
red, stewed, 457
Currant, blamange, 479
custard, 482
dumplings, 421
jam, red (delicious), 509
jam, white, 510
jelly, fine black, 511
jelly, French, 509
jelly, superlative red, 509
jelly, white, very fine, 510
jelly, tartlets, 375
paste, 510
pudding, 408
syrup, or sirop de groseilles, 579
Curried eggs 301
gravy, 302
maccaroni, 300
oysters, 302
 toasts, with anchovies, 389
sweetbreads, 301
Currie, Mr. Arnott’s, 297
a Bengal, 298
a dry, 298
common Indian, 299
Currie powder, Mr. Arnott’s, 297
Curries, remarks on, 296
Selim’s (Capt. White’s), 300
Custard, baked, common, 483
a finer 483
currant, 482
the Duke’s, 482
the Queen’s, 481
veal, or a Sefton, 362
Custards, boiled, good, old-fashioned, 481
boiled, rich, 481
chocolate, 483
French, 484
quince, or apple, 482
Cutlets of calf’s head, 213
Chicken, English, 275
of fowls, partridges, or pigeons (Entrée), 276
lamb, in their own gravy, stewed, 246
lamb, or mutton, with Soubise sauce, 246
mutton, broiled, 241
of cold mutton, 243
mutton, in their own gravy, stewed, 240
pork, 251
veal à la Française, 226
veal à l’Indienne, or Indian fashion, 225
veal à la mode de Londres, or London fashion, 226
veal, plain, 225
of sweetbreads, 227
Damson, cheese, 520
jam, 519
jelly, 519
solid, 519
pudding, 408
Des Cerneaux, or walnut salad, 141
Devonshire junket, 452
Dough nuts, Isle of Wight, receipt for, 556
Dresden patties, or croustades, 387
Dried apples, to stew, 572
apricots, French receipt, 517
cherries, with sugar, 502, 503
cherries, without sugar, 503
gooseberries, with and without sugar, 501
mushrooms, 153
plums (Pruneaux de Tours), to stew, 573
Dry, to apricots, a quick and easy method, 517
Imperatrice plums, 521
Mogul plums, 515
peaches or nectarines, 518
Duck, stewed, 279
Ducks, to roast, 279
stuffing for, No. 9, 160
wild, to roast, 294
Dumplings, apple (fashionable) 420
currant, light, 421
lemon, 421
Norfolk, 421
Suffolk, or hard, 421
Dutch, or hung beef, 197
custard, 438
flummery, 477
Eels, boiled, German receipt, 83
Cornish receipt, 84
to fry, 83
Egg balls, 162
sauce, for calf’s head, 111
sauce, common, 110
sauce, good, 110
a swan’s, to boil hard, 448
swan’s, en salade, 448
Eggs, to boil in the shell, 445
to cook in the shell, without boiling, 445
continental mode of dressing, or œufs au plat, 450
Eggs, to dress Guinea fowls or Bantams, 416
to dress turkeys, 417
curried, 301
forced turkey’s or swan’s, 447
forced, for salad, 137
to preserve for many weeks, 444
poached, with gravy, 449
to poach, 449
to whisk, for cakes, 543
Elderberry wine, 584
Elegant, the Economist’s, pudding, 415, 428
lobster salad, 142
English, brioche, 349
brown gravy, 99
game pie, 352
puff paste, 346
stew, 191
Entrées, beef cake, 190
beef collops, 201
beef palates, 194, 195
beef roll, or canellon de bœuf, 201
beef steaks à la Française, 188, 189
beef tongues, 202
Bengal currie, 298
blanquette of sucking pig, 250
blanquette of veal or lamb, with mushrooms, 229
broiled mutton cutlets, 241
broiled ox-tail, 195
boudinettes of lobsters, shrimps, &c., 92
calf’s head à la Maître d’Hôtel, 214
calf’s head, the Warder’s way, 211
calf’s liver, stewed, 228
casserole of rice, 351
chicken cutlets, 275
chicken patties, 359
compote de pigeons, 299
curries, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 615
croquettes of savoury, of rice, 386
croustades filled with mince, 387
cutlets of calf’s head, 213
cutlets of fowls, partridges, or pigeons, 275
Dresden patties, 387
fillets of mackerel, 71
fillets of mackerel in wine, 72
fillets of soles, 65
fillets of whitings, 68[194]
fowls, à la Carlsfors, 273
fricandeau of veal, 223
fricasseed fowls or chickens, 274
fried chicken à la Malabar, 275
hashed fowl, 276
lamb cutlets in their own gravy, 246
lamb or mutton cutlets, with soubise sauce, 246
lobster cutlets, 91
lobsters fricasseed, 89
loin of lamb stewed in butter, 216
minced fowl, 276
minced veal with oysters, 231
mutton cutlets in their own gravy, 210