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 Feng Zhang · Jidong Zhai
Marc Snir · Hai Jin
Hironori Kasahara · Mateo Valero (Eds.)
LNCS 11276

Network and
Parallel Computing
15th IFIP WG 10.3 International Conference, NPC 2018
Muroran, Japan, November 29 – December 1, 2018
Proceedings

123
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 11276
Commenced Publication in 1973
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University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7407
Feng Zhang Jidong Zhai
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Marc Snir Hai Jin

•

Hironori Kasahara Mateo Valero (Eds.)

•

Network and
Parallel Computing
15th IFIP WG 10.3 International Conference, NPC 2018
Muroran, Japan, November 29 – December 1, 2018
Proceedings

123
Editors
Feng Zhang Hai Jin
Renmin University of China Huazhong University of Science
Beijing, China and Technology
Wuhan, China
Jidong Zhai
Tsinghua University Hironori Kasahara
Beijing, China Waseda University
Shinjuku-ku, Japan
Marc Snir
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Mateo Valero
Urbana, IL, USA Barcelona Supercomputing Center
Barcelona, Spain

ISSN 0302-9743 ISSN 1611-3349 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Computer Science
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 Preface

These proceedings contain the papers presented at the 2018 IFIP International Con-
ference on Network and Parallel Computing (NPC 2018), held in Muroran, Hokkaido,
Japan, from November 29 to December 1, 2018. The goal of the conference is to
establish an international forum for engineers and scientists to present their ideas and
experiences in network and parallel computing.
A total of 72 submissions were received in response to our Call for Papers. These
papers originate from Australia, Asia (China, Japan), Europe, and North America
(USA). Each submission was sent to at least three reviewers. Each paper was judged
according to its originality, innovation, readability, and relevance to the expected
audience. Based on the reviews received, 22 full papers (about 30%), including 12
papers published as Special Issue papers of the International Journal of Parallel
Programming, and ten papers published as LNCS proceedings were retained. A num-
ber of strong papers that could not be accepted to the full-paper track were considered
for the short-paper tracks. Finally, we selected 12 short papers. These papers cover
traditional areas of network and parallel computing, including parallel applications,
distributed algorithms, parallel architectures, software environments, and distributed
tools.
We share the view that, during the past decade, the tools and cultures of
high-performance computing and big data analytics are diverging to the detriment of
both, and the international community should find a unified path that can best serve the
need of a broad spectrum of major application areas. Unlike other tools, which are
limited to particular scientific domains, computational modeling and data analytics are
applicable to all areas of science and engineering, as they breathe life into the
underlying mathematics of scientific models.
We sincerely appreciate the work and effort of the authors in preparing their sub-
missions for review, and addressing the reviewers’ comments before submitting the
camera-ready copies of their accepted papers, and attending the conference to present
and discuss their work. We also want to thank every member of the NPC 2018
Organizing Committee and Steering Committee for their help in putting together such
an exciting program. Finally, we thank all the attendees.

August 2018 Feng Zhang

Jidong Zhai
Marc Snir
Hai Jin
Hironori Kasahara
Mateo Valero
 Organization

Organizing Committee
General Co-chairs
Hai Jin Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China
Hironori Kasahara Waseda University, Japan
Mateo Valero Barcelona Supercomputing Center, Spain

Program Co-chairs
Marc Snir University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Jidong Zhai Tsinghua University, China

Publications Chair
Feng Zhang Renmin University of China, China

Local Arrangements Co-chairs

Mianxiong Dong Muroran Institute of Technology, Japan
He Li Muroran Institute of Technology, Japan

Publicity Chairs
Bingsheng He National University of Singapore, Singapore
Keiji Kimura Waseda University, Japan
Shuaiwen Leon Song Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, USA
Yunquan Zhang Institute of Computing Technology, China
Stéphane Zuckerman University of Cergy-Pontoise, France

Web Chair
Yuyang Jin Tsinghua University, China

Advisory Committee
Steering Committee
Kemal Ebcioglu Global Supercomputing, USA
(Chair)
Hai Jin (Vice Chair) Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China
Chen Ding University of Rochester, USA
Jack Dongarra University of Tennessee, USA
Guang R. Gao University of Delaware, USA
Jean-Luc Gaudiot University of California, Irvine, USA
Tony Hey Science and Technology Facilities Council, UK
VIII Organization

Guojie Li Institute of Computing Technology, China

Yoichi Muraoka Waseda University, Japan
Viktor Prasanna University of Southern California, USA
Daniel Reed University of Iowa, USA
Weisong Shi Wayne State University, USA
Ninghui Sun Institute of Computing Technology, China
Zhiwei Xu Institute of Computing Technology, China

Program Committee
Yungang Bao Institute of Computing Technology
Dehao Chen Google
Wenguang Chen Tsinghua University, China
Guoyang Chen Alibaba Group US Inc., USA
Huimin Cui Institute of Computing Technology
Yufei Ding University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
Zhihui Du Tsinghua University, China
Masato Edahiro Nagoya University, Japan
Keiji Kimura Waseda University, Japan
Ang Li Pacific Northwest National Lab
Chao Li Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Dong Li University of California, Merced, USA
Yun Liang Peking University, China
Weifeng Liu Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Yingwei Luo Peking University, China
Xiaosong Ma Qatar Computing Research Institute, Qatar
Daniel A. Orozco Google
Antoniu Pop University of Manchester, UK
Xuehai Qian University of Southern California, USA
Lawrence Texas A&M University, USA
Rauchwerger
Bin Ren College of William and Mary, USA
Jinglei Ren Microsoft
Larry Rudolph Two Sigma Investments
Li Shen National University of Defense Technology, China
Xuanhua Shi Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China
Yao Shi Futurewei Technologies
GuangZhong Sun University of Science and Technology of China, China
Shanjiang Tang Tianjin University, China
Dingwen Tao The University of Alabama, USA
Parimala University of Manitoba, Canada
Thulasiraman
Lei Wang National University of Defense Technology, China
Zhaoguo Wang Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Zheng Wang Lancaster University, UK
Bo Wu Colorado School of Mines, USA
 Organization IX

Zhibin Yu Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese

Academy of Science, China
Weihua Zhang Fudan University, China
Zhijia Zhao University of California Riverside, USA
Amelie Chi Zhou Shenzhen University, China
Stéphane Zuckerman University of Cergy-Pontoise, France
 Contents

CNLoc: Channel State Information Assisted Indoor WLAN Localization

Using Nomadic Access Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jiang Xiao, Huichuwu Li, He Li, and Hai Jin

ALOR: Adaptive Layout Optimization of Raft Groups for Heterogeneous

Distributed Key-Value Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Yangyang Wang, Yunpeng Chai, and Xin Wang

STrieGD: A Sampling Trie Indexed Compression Algorithm

for Large-Scale Gene Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Yanzhen Gao, Xiaozhen Bao, Jing Xing, Zheng Wei, Jie Ma,
and Peiheng Zhang

On Retargeting the AI Programming Framework to New Hardwares . . . . . . . 39

Jiacheng Zhao, Yisong Chang, Denghui Li, Chunwei Xia, Huimin Cui,
Ke Zhang, and Xiaobing Feng

An Efficient Method for Determining Full Point-to-Point Latency

of Arbitrary Indirect HPC Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chengchun Liu, Zhang Yang, Limin Xiao, Baicheng Yan, Zhihao Wang,
and Hongyun Tian

KT-Store: A Key-Order and Write-Order Hybrid Key-Value Store

with High Write and Range-Query Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Haobo Wang, Yinliang Yue, Shuibing He, and Weiping Wang

GRAM: A GPU-Based Property Graph Traversal and Query for HPC Rich
Metadata Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Wenke Li, Xuanhua Shi, Hong Huang, Peng Zhao, Hai Jin,
Dong Dai, and Yong Chen

GPU-Accelerated Clique Tree Propagation for Pouch Latent Tree Models . . . 90

Leonard K. M. Poon

HPC-SFI: System-Level Fault Injection for High Performance

Computing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Yanqi Wang, Qi Zhang, Yi Liu, and Depei Qian

Data Fine-Pruning: A Simple Way to Accelerate Neural Network Training. . . 114

Junyu Li, Ligang He, Shenyuan Ren, and Rui Mao
XII Contents

Balancing the QOS and Security in Dijkstra Algorithm

by SDN Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Zhao JinJing, Ling Pang, Xiaohui Kuang, and Rong Jin

Labeled Network Stack: A Co-designed Stack for Low Tail-Latency

and High Concurrency in Datacenter Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Wenli Zhang, Ke Liu, Hui Song, Lan Yu, and Mingyu Chen

A Deep Learning Approach for Network Anomaly Detection Based

on AMF-LSTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Mingyi Zhu, Kejiang Ye, Yang Wang, and Cheng-Zhong Xu

FSObserver: A Performance Measurement and Monitoring Tool

for Distributed Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Xiao Zhang, Lanxin Kong, Shunyi Zhu, Zhanhuai Li, and Xiaonan Zhao

vGrouper: Optimizing the Performance of Parallel Jobs in Xen by

Increasing Synchronous Execution of Virtual Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Peng Jiang, Ligang He, Shenyuan Ren, Junyu Li, and Yuhua Cui

Systolic Array Based Accelerator and Algorithm Mapping for Deep

Learning Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Zhijie Yang, Lei Wang, Dong Ding, Xiangyu Zhang, Yu Deng,
Shiming Li, and Qiang Dou

A Fine-Grained Performance Bottleneck Analysis Method for HDFS. . . . . . . 159

Yi Liu, Yunchun Li, Honggang Zhou, Jingyi Zhang, Hailong Yang,
and Wei Li

Mimir+: An Optimized Framework of MapReduce on Heterogeneous

High-Performance Computing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Nan Hu, Zhiguang Chen, Yunfei Du, and Yutong Lu

DLIR: An Intermediate Representation for Deep Learning Processors . . . . . . 169

Huiying Lan and Zidong Du

GPU Memory Management Solution Supporting Incomplete Pages . . . . . . . . 174

Li Shen, Shiqing Zhang, Yaohua Yang, and Zhiying Wang

Leveraging Subgraph Extraction for Performance Portable Programming

Frameworks on DL Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Xiao Zhang, Huiying Lan, and Tian Zhi

An Intelligent Parking Scheduling Algorithm Based on Traffic and Driver

Behavior Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Jiazao Lin, Shi-Yong Chen, Chih-Yung Chang, and Guilin Chen

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

 CNLoc: Channel State Information
Assisted Indoor WLAN Localization
Using Nomadic Access Points

Jiang Xiao1(B) , Huichuwu Li1 , He Li2 , and Hai Jin1

1
Services Computing Technology and System Lab,
Cluster and Grid Computing Lab, School of Computer Science and Technology,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
jiangxiao@hust.edu.cn
2
Department of Information and Electronic Engineering,
Muroran Institute of Technology, Muroran, Hokkaido, Japan

Abstract. Wireless local area network (WLAN) based indoor localiza-

tion is expanding its fast-paced adoption to facilitate a variety of indoor
location-based services (ILBS). Unfortunately, the performance of cur-
rent WLAN localization systems relying on fixed access points (APs)
deployment is constrained by the spatial localizability variance (SLV)
problem that different locations may exhibit significantly distinct local-
ization resolution. Prior approaches tackle this problem through nomadic
APs with favorable mobility to dynamically adjust the network topol-
ogy. However, the lack of prior knowledge of nomadic AP’s position has
been a challenge for location distinction and will lead to prohibitive per-
formance degradation. In this paper, we propose and develop CNLoc,
a novel CSI-based (Channel State Information) indoor WLAN localiza-
tion framework to overcome the location uncertainty of nomadic APs.
Our implementation and evaluation show that CNLoc can improve the
accuracy with unknown location information of nomadic APs. We also
discuss some open issues and new possibilities in future nomadic AP
based indoor localization.

Keywords: WLAN · CSI · RSS · Mobility

1 Introduction

The rapid proliferation of indoor location-based services (ILBS) has spurred the
indoor location market [9], leading to a rash of proposals for developing new
localization systems [21]. WLAN-based indoor localization is one of the most
efficient methodologies, which applies general WiFi devices in position analysis.
Owing to the high availability of infrastructure and low cost, WLAN has become
an increasingly attractive choice, ranging from research community [6,8,22] to
industry (e.g., Google, Apple, Microsoft, etc.).
c IFIP International Federation for Information Processing 2018
Published by Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018
F. Zhang et al. (Eds.): NPC 2018, LNCS 11276, pp. 1–12, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05677-3_1
2 J. Xiao et al.

In the deployment of WLAN-based indoor localization services, there are

some issues which affect the localization accuracy. An important issue is the
placement of WLAN access points (APs), which is also very difficult since most
APs are deployed for wireless communications. Nomadic APs are those mobile
devices that can provide localization services, which brings an opportunity for
deployment of WLAN-based indoor localization. In our previous work, we have
proposed an indoor localization method based on the nomadic APs, which shows
good efficiency in providing localization services.
However, a challenge in the nomadic AP based indoor localization is the
location uncertainty of the nomadic APs. In the previous work, we need to know
the position of each nomadic AP to estimate the final location. Since the accuracy
of the nomadic APs is not always enough and determined, the accumulated
error of the estimated location will affect the quality of localization. There are
several ways to solve this problem. The first way is to apply some other devices
such as microphones or cameras for assistance. Although additional environment
information can improve the localization accuracy, the special devices will bring
more cost and energy consumption to nomadic APs.
Channel state information (CSI) is another opportunity that improves the
localization accuracy by distinguishing the status of different nomadic APs. In
the nomadic AP based indoor localization, the location uncertainty is usually
brought by moving nomadic APs. Since the mobility of nomadic APs will affect
the CSI in WLAN communications, it is possible to distinct static APs and
moving APs by analyzing CSI data.
Therefore, in this paper, we propose a new design of CNLoc, to tackle the
challenges brought by nomadic APs in indoor WLAN localization. CNLoc lever-
ages the favorable fact that CSI possesses the temporal stability and frequency
diversity properties, which makes it capable of inferring the object’s status (i.e.,
moving or static) by the CSI-based location distinction mechanism.
Overall, we summarize the main contributions of our work as:

– We exploit the distinctive capability of CSI to investigate the object’s mobility

status, which is the crucial premise for better utilizing the nomadic APs’
mobility. Due to the advantages of both temporal stability and frequency
diversity characteristics, CSI-based location distinction can achieve very high
accuracy.
– We overcome the limitation of nomadic APs’ location uncertainty by further
aggregating the sensor information to the SP-based method which is less
sensitive to the nomadic APs’ position errors.
– From evaluation results, we observe that CNLoc can achieve great SLV reduc-
tion, and outperform the corresponding static AP deployment.
This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the state-of-the-art
researches. Section 3 gives an overview of the technical challenges and then
presents the architecture of CNLoc. Section 4 presents our methodology in detail.
We present a thorough evaluation in Sect. 5, and demonstrate that it is more
accurate compared to the static AP deployment. In Sect. 6 we discuss the prac-
 CNLoc: Channel State Information Assisted Indoor WLAN Localization 3

tical issues. Finally, we draw our conclusions and indicate some directions for
future work in Sect. 7.

2 Related Work
In this section, we introduce some researches in the following categories: (1)
deployment of indoor localization infrastructure, and (2) CSI-assisted localiza-
tion.

2.1 Deployment of Indoor Localization Infrastructure

A localization problem is to transform virtual coordinates of localization infras-
tructures into physical ones, such as a set of anchors or landmarks. Since the
geometric layout of the localization infrastructures significantly affects the local-
ization performance, AP deployment will lead to the SLV problem that the
accuracy of indoor localization differs with different layouts. Chen et al. [3] first
introduced the landmark placement problem in indoor localization with wire-
less networks and proposed a placement algorithm to minimize the maximum
localization error.
Dulman et al. [4] focused on the anchor deployment in wireless networks.
Meng et al. [10] proposed an optimal AP deployment method to improve posi-
tioning accuracy in indoor Wi-Fi environments, which maximizes the RSS (radio
signal strength) euclidean distance between physical locations.
Due to the complex indoor structure, AP deployment inevitably incurs the
SLV problem, where the localization accuracy differs at different locations, lead-
ing to user experience inconsistence. Lin et al. [7] proposed an AP selection
mechanism based on AP positioning capabilities to improve WiFi fingerprinting
accuracy. Gao et al. [5] optimized the placement of landmarks for localization in
a warehouse by maximizing the difference degree in each space unit.

2.2 CSI-Assisted Localization

The accuracy of RSS-based indoor localization systems is limited by the multi-
path effect [1,24]. Bhartia et al. [2] measured the frequency diversity of WLAN
channels and proposed some methods to harness diversity by leveraging the
CSI in WLAN communications. Yang et al. [23] first introduced the CSI into
WLAN-based indoor localization systems and analyzed the frequency diversity
from collected CSI data. Wu et al. [18] proposed FILA which is a novel approach
that eliminates the multipath effect by leveraging the CSI in indoor scenarios.
The CSI is also applied to separate line-of-sight (LOS) path in communications,
which can assist location estimation in complex indoor environments [14,15].
Building location fingerprints is another way to optimize the multipath effect
in indoor WLAN localization. Sen et al. [16] proposed an indoor localization
system called PinLoc that builds location signatures by harnessing the CSI in
WLAN channels. Moreover, since many works focused on the motion detection
4 J. Xiao et al.

by using WLAN CSI, it is possible to detect the object position directly with
the similar method. Pilot is a device-free indoor localization system that builds
different radio maps with CSI data to estimate the positions of entities in the
WLAN signal area [19].

3 CNLoc Framework
To deal with the SLV problem due to the static deployment of APs, we lever-
age nomadic APs to improve localization accuracy and mitigate user experience
inconsistence at different locations. This section starts with the challenges to
utilize nomadic APs for localization, before presenting the overall framework of
our CNLoc system.
To harness nomadic APs to establish a dynamic topology so as to avoid the
SLV problem, we need to address the following challenge: how to resolve the
location uncertainty of nomadic APs for robust location determination? Since
nomadic APs tend to move stochastically within the area of interest, it is diffi-
cult to obtain their coordinates accurately. As the location estimation error of
nomadic APs accumulates, the localization accuracy also degrades. To deal with
this challenge, we design a localization framework that is less sensitive to the
location uncertainty of nomadic APs.

OFDM
Data
ModulaƟon

RF Signal
Mobile Device

Channel Channel
Data Data
EsƟmaƟon EsƟmaƟon

OFDM OFDM
Sensor Reading
DemodulaƟon DemodulaƟon

StaƟc AP Nomadic AP

CSI-based LocaƟon PDP-based Proximity Sensor-based

DisƟncƟon DeterminaƟon Coordinate AcquisiƟon

SP-based LocaƟon
EsƟmaƟon

Server

Fig. 1. Architecture of CNLoc

We harness the mobility of nomadic APs via space partition. In this way,
CNLoc neither requires a pre-collected fingerprint database, which is labor-
intensive to construct [24], nor sophisticated calibration to achieve accurate
 CNLoc: Channel State Information Assisted Indoor WLAN Localization 5

ranging in complex indoor environments [18]. Figure 1 shows the iterative local-
ization framework, which is resilient to location uncertainty of nomadic APs
and gradually converges to an accurate location estimate. To enable proximity
determination in multipath and NLOS environments, we introduce CSI into the
time domain and adopt PDP (power of direct path) for distance estimates. PDP
filters out signal power from paths with long delays so as to mitigate the impact
of multipath on distance estimation. Since CNLoc only needs relative proximity
rather than precise distance between each nomadic AP and the object, the adop-
tion of PDP is sufficient to achieve high localization accuracy even in complex
indoor environments. Different from the preliminary work NomLoc [20], we do
not assume the coordinates of nomadic APs are known, and obtain them using
sensor-based coordinate acquisition.

4 Methodology
This section presents the detailed design of the three key modules, (1) PDP-based
proximity determination, (2) CSI-based location distinction, and (3) Sensor-
based coordinate acquisition.

4.1 Proximity Determination

CNLoc uses the maximum power of the power delay profile to approximate PDP
of links if there is a strong LOS path. However, it may over-estimate the distance
if the LOS path is severely attenuated or even blocked in NLOS propagation
situations. To mitigate the impact of NLOS propagation or propagation without
a LOS path, CNLoc adopts previous approaches on CSI-based LOS identification
schemes for both nomadic and static APs with at least two antennas [17]. As
such, we use the PDP as an indicator for proximity determination, which filters
out signal power from paths with long delays. Note that CNLoc may still falsely
determine the proximity information if there is no LOS path. Nevertheless, since
we formulate the localization problem into a space partition problem, which is
solved by optimization with redundant measurements, our approach can also
tolerate certain extent of errors induced by NLOS propagation.

4.2 CSI-Based Location Distinction

In current CNLoc design, SP-based algorithm is operated under the assumption
that the object stays at an identical location. In other words, the status of the
object is necessitated to be stationary during the positioning procedure. In this
case, we can derive the object’s location jointly from the partition results of
nomadic APs. It is unlikely to directly apply the proposed SP-based derivation
using the measurement of the nomadic AP at multiple positions if the object
is walking around in an indoor venue. For example, if an object moves from
location A (LA ) to location B (LB ), it is inappropriate to aggregate the SP-
based output of LB with LA for positioning. This is because the present partition
6 J. Xiao et al.

result of LB only correlates with the preceding ones at LB , while independent of

those at LA . As a consequence, it raises a prerequisite of detecting the mobility
status of the object, i.e., static or moving, which directly bounds up with the
outcome of SP-based algorithm. Now that we need to take the object’s status
into consideration in the design of CNLoc. Because it needs to be guaranteed
that the object keeps stationary as long as the nomadic APs fulfil the localization
task. To achieve this, we focus our efforts on the location distinction relying on
the fine-grained CSI. The basic idea is to exploit the suitable CSI-based feature
which can distinguish the statuses between static and moving, taking advantage
of both the temporal stability and frequency diversity characteristics. We denote
the CSI measurements over sliding window W of length N by H as,

H = [H1 , H2 , . . . , HN ] (1)

For each Hi , it consists of 30 subcarriers and can be expressed as a vector

Hi ,
.
Hi = [|Hi1 |, |Hi2 |, .., |Hi30 |]T (2)
where |Hik |
corresponds to the amplitude of k-th subcarrier CSI.
The location distinction feature can then be formulated as the following Ct :
N
1 
Ct = corr(Ht , Ht−j ) (3)
N − 1 j=1

In CNLoc, Ct is compared to a preset threshold τ . If Ct is a higher value

than the τ , the object is determined to stay stationary in the area of interest
without tendency to change position. On the other hand, the movement of the
object will be detected when Ct falls below the τ . Moreover, we can fuse the
detection outputs over multiple links to produce a more accurate result.
To summarize, we can employ the CSI-based location distinction feature from
multiple static APs deployed in the positioning region. Lying on the benefits of
temporal stability and frequency diversity, such feature can be steady in static
status while sensitive to the mobility of the object.

4.3 Sensor-Based Coordinate Acquisition

As previously noted in Sect. 3, the uncertainty of nomadic APs’ location can

result in performance degradation, which is incompatible with our design objec-
tive. To confront such difficulty, we assume built-in sensors of nomadic APs
become handy tools for identifying the absolute coordinates. In particular, when
the prior knowledge of nomadic APs’ initial coordinate is available, we suggest
a simple yet effective dead reckoning approach based on the sensor information
including three phases: (1) leveraging low-pass filter and additional constrains
comparing with existing methods for step detection, (2) minimizing the efforts
for personalize step length estimation, and (3) direction determination. This
 CNLoc: Channel State Information Assisted Indoor WLAN Localization 7

method makes it very convenient to ensure accurate nomadic APs’ coordinates

for optimal preparation of SP-based location estimation.
We start by detecting and counting the number of steps during nomadic
APs’ movement using the accelerometer sensor reading. A novel AFSM (augment
finite state machine) algorithm is derived to achieve this goal. AFSM algorithm
incorporates the following functionalities:

– to apply the butterworth low pass filter for mitigating the high frequency noise
and spikes in raw acceleration magnitudes as to recover the true periodicity
of the steps;
– to further remove the erroneous detection by adding two-fold heuristic con-
strains: (1) for each step, the time duration in respect to the descend and
ascend parts of vertical acceleration should be identical; and (2) the maxi-
mum time duration of one step is limited.

As the second step, we directly apply the well-known step length model [12,
13] to estimate the step length a as follows,

l =a∗f +b (4)

where a, b are the parameters need to be estimated, f is the frequency of steps.

More specifically, we eliminate the time-consuming calibration efforts with a per-
sonalized estimation method. In our experiment, we observe that the nomadic
APs with similar variance and average of the vertical acceleration in one step
are likely to exhibit similar step length. Relying on this fact, we modify the
model for each nomadic AP with minimal efforts required from it. For instance,
when a new nomadic AP is tracked for the first step, the model computes the
similarly in terms of feature parameters including acceleration variance V , mean
M , and frequency f between this new comer and the previous nomadic APs.
If it shares the same feature as that of the previous nomadic AP, they presum-
ably share the same a, b. Direction of the nomadic APs’ movement is another
key factor for acquiring the coordinates. In complex indoor environments, the
accuracy of direction determination can be influenced by both ferromagnetic and
electrical materials in the vicinity. Fortunately, the gyroscope is decoupled from
the geomagnetic sensor, which is insensitive to ambient magnetic fields. There-
fore, CNLoc leverages the magnetometer to provide the initial phase as well the
gyroscope sensor to obtain the relative angular displacement of the nomadic AP
for the purpose of direction determination. This means that CNLoc can detect
the orientation of nomadic APs’ movement even in the face of the surrounding
noises.

5 Performance Evaluation

We evaluate the performance of CNLoc system in this section. We collect

CSI measurements from external NICs and sensor readings from smartphones
because CSI information is currently unavailable on phones. Each nomadic AP
8 J. Xiao et al.

is placed on a wheeled desk and pushed by volunteers to move randomly in the

area of interest. To record the ground truth trajectories of each nomadic AP, we
record the experiments via video and adopt computer vision based localization
scheme to pinpoint the location of each nomadic AP.

5.1 Performance of CSI-based Location Distinction

Next comes to study the performance of location distinction based on CSI in
the scenarios Lab and Lobby. In Lab, we first keep the object staying at site L2
for CSI measurements. Afterwards, the object slightly moves to a close site with
around 1m distance. By leveraging the CSI-based location distinction feature,
we can identify whether the object has changed the location. Figure 2 depicts the
results in terms of detection rate (Y-axis) versus false alarm (X-axis). As shown
in Fig. 2, the FP rate is negligible which proves the effectiveness of the proposed
approach in Sect. 5.1. We further perform the similar measurements at sites L5
and a position one meter nearby in Lobby. Even in such a considerably large area,
the FP rate only increases very slightly. Hence, we show that in practice, the
CSI-based location distinction technique makes it effective and reliable enough
to imply the mobility status of the object.

1
Lobby
0.9
Lab
0.8

0.7
Detection Ratio

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
False Alarm Ratio

Fig. 2. Location distinction accuracy

5.2 Impact of Nomadic APs’ Location Uncertainty

Finally, to provide insights into how the uncertainty of nomadic APs’ location
influences the overall performance, we show the results in Fig. 3(a) and (b).
We can observe in Fig. 3(a) that the sensor information is responsive enough
to handle such uncertainty. In general, the smaller coordinate error improves
the performance of location estimation in Lab due to the SP-based method
 CNLoc: Channel State Information Assisted Indoor WLAN Localization 9

barely depends on the AP location which other range-based methods do. We also
obtain similar results in Lobby as shown in Fig. 3(b). Thus, it demonstrates the
promise of ensuring the overall localization performance by accurately coordinate
acquisition with embedded sensors of nomadic APs.

0.8

0.6
CDF

0.4

0.2 True Coordinates

Estimated Coordinates
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Error (m)
(a) Lab

0.8

0.6
CDF

0.4

0.2
True Coordinates
Estimated Coordinates
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Error (m)
(b) Lobby

Fig. 3. Sensor-based coordinate acquisition performance in two scenarios

6 Discussion
As an important step forward, CNLoc leaves several open issues and new pos-
sibilities for future research. In this section, we briefly comment on the most of
important of these here.
10 J. Xiao et al.

6.1 Influence of AP Mobility on CSI Measurement

A possible side-effect of nomadic APs lies in the fact that the dynamic move-
ment can give rise to Doppler shift. In particular, nomadic APs move relatively
towards or away from an object, resulting in positive or negative Doppler shift
as transmission frequency changed. Such Doppler shift may bring in undesirable
impact on CSI measurement and degrade the performance of SP-based algo-
rithm. We then calculate the Doppler shift frequency Δf as below:
vnomAP
Δf = f0 (5)
vnomAP + c

where c is the speed of light (i.e., 3 × 108 m/sec), vnomAP and f0 are the speed
and frequency of a nomadic AP, respectively. In the typical 2.4 GHz wireless
networks, a moving nomadic AP with velocity of vnomAP (i.e., 2 m/sec) results
in a maximum Doppler shift of 2Δf = 32 Hz which is very small comparing to
the center frequency and can be negligible [11].

6.2 Impact of Diverse APs

Note that CSI is the key to enable proximity determination and location dis-
tinction, which is collected at the AP side in our system. All the APs in current
prototype are identical. In practice, the WLAN-based localization infrastructure
can be consisted of a variety of APs supplied by different manufacturers (e.g.,
Belkin, D-Link, Linksys). Yet these APs can have diverse antenna gain which
is an influential factor for proximity determination. To handle this factor, we
suggest that multiple APs mutually measure the transmission power and then
proceed to server for calibrating the differences.

6.3 Improvement with Nomadic APs’ Moving Pattern

From our evaluation results, CNLoc is capable of improving AP deployment
by performing random walk of nomadic APs. Nevertheless, it still leaves upside
potential for specifying moving pattern to cover the region of poor localizability.
Intuitively, the more the moving traces of nomadic APs approaching an area
of dissatisfied localizability, the higher the effectiveness of SP-based scheme.
That means optimizing moving pattern can lead to optimum coverage of AP
deployment, which ensures to provide users better experience of ILBS at any
indoor locations. To this end, we are interested in studying such influence on
localization performance resulting from moving pattern of nomadic APs in the
future.

7 Conclusion
CSI in WLAN communications provides vast opportunities for indoor localiza-
tion. With the help of fine-grained CSI data, the CNLoc framework advocates
 CNLoc: Channel State Information Assisted Indoor WLAN Localization 11

the use of mobility for addressing the critical SLV problem, and improves the
accuracy of the nomadic AP based localization. Our approach is, to the best of
our knowledge, the first one to investigate the static AP deployment, and har-
ness the mobility of nomadic APs to adjust the network topology. To be specific,
in the mobile environment, CNLoc also shows good performance in monitoring
the object’s mobility status without calibration efforts. Furthermore, it permits
the sensor-based information for resolving the location uncertainty of nomadic
APs’. Through extensive experiments, we show the benefits of CNLoc in effec-
tively reducing the SLV and improving the localization accuracy compared to
static AP deployment.
In summary, we have taken an important first step towards enabling the
mobility of APs for indoor positioning. Our major ongoing work is to arrogate
multiple nomadic APs for overall performance enhancement.

Acknowledgment. This work is supported by National Science Foundation of China

under Grant No. 61702203, Hubei Provincial Natural Science Foundation General Pro-
gram No. 2018CFB133.

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 ALOR: Adaptive Layout Optimization
of Raft Groups for Heterogeneous
Distributed Key-Value Stores

Yangyang Wang1,2 , Yunpeng Chai1,2(B) , and Xin Wang3

1
Key Laboratory of Data Engineering and Knowledge Engineering,
MOE, Beijing, China
ypchai@ruc.edu.cn
2
School of Information, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
3
College of Intelligence and Computing, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China

Abstract. Many distributed key-value storage systems employ the sim-

ple and effective Raft protocol to ensure data consistency. They usually
assume a homogeneous node hardware configuration for the underlying
cluster and thus adopt even data distribution schemes. However, today’s
distributed systems tend to be heterogeneous in nodes’ I/O devices due to
the regular worn I/O device replacement and the emergence of expensive
new storage media (e.g., non-volatile memory). In this paper, we propose
a new data layout scheme called Adaptive Layout Optimization of Raft
groups (ALOR), considering the hardware heterogeneity of the cluster.
ALOR aims to optimize the data layout of Raft groups to achieve a
better practical load balance, which leads to higher performance. ALOR
consists of two components: leader migration in Raft groups and skewed
data layout based on cold data migration. We conducted experiments on
a practical heterogeneous cluster, and the results indicate that, on aver-
age, ALOR improves throughput by 36.89%, reduces latency and 99th
percentile tail latency by 24.54% and 21.32%, respectively.

1 Introduction

Due to the excellent scalability and efficiency, key-value (KV) stores have been
widely adopted by many big data systems (e.g., Cassandra and HBase). Many
distributed KV storage systems employ the Raft [1] protocol to ensure data
consistency because it is easy to be implemented in practical systems. These
distributed KV systems coupled with Raft are usually designed for homoge-
neous systems. However, today’s distributed systems tend to be heterogeneous,
especially for nodes’ I/O devices. The reason lies in the following two aspects:

– The annual disk replacement rates in large-scale distributed systems are typ-
ically 2–4% and can be up to 13% in some systems [2]. The replacement
rates of Solid State Drives (SSDs) are usually higher than disks due to the

c IFIP International Federation for Information Processing 2018

Published by Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018
F. Zhang et al. (Eds.): NPC 2018, LNCS 11276, pp. 13–26, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05677-3_2
14 Y. Wang et al.

limited write endurance of Flash chips. That is to say, in a large-scale dis-

tributed KV system, I/O devices are regularly replaced with new generations
of I/O products, and these new products usually have higher performance
and cost-efficiency than the old ones.
– The emerging storage devices (e.g., SSDs or non-volatile memory (NVM)
[3]) have obvious performance advantages over the traditional ones. However,
these new devices are usually much more expensive, so we usually deploy
them in only a subset of the clusters for cost efficiency.

In distributed storage systems, the Raft protocol is usually adopted to ensure

data consistency by defining the different behaviors of the only leader and the
other followers for the same data segment. In consequence, the Raft protocol has
the inherent heterogeneous feature, i.e., the leader in a Raft group usually takes
more jobs and has greater impact on the performance than the followers do. In a
heterogeneous distributed KV storage system based on the Raft protocol, if many
leaders locate on slow nodes, the performance of the entire system will be slowed
down, because the result is not returned to the client until the corresponding
leader completes applying the log into the data set (see Sect. 2.1 for more details).
Considering this feature of Raft, the hardware heterogeneity is not necessarily a
negative factor. Instead, if we can adapt heterogeneity of Raft to the hardware
heterogeneity of distributed KV systems through data layout optimization of
Raft groups, the system performance can be improved.
In this paper, we propose a new scheme called Adaptive Layout Optimization
of Raft groups (ALOR) to match the data layout with the hardware heterogene-
ity of distributed KV systems for higher performance. ALOR consists of two
components: leader migration in Raft groups (Sect. 3.1) and skewed data layout
based on cold data migration (Sect. 3.2). The experiments based on a practical
heterogeneous cluster indicate that, on average, ALOR improves throughput by
36.89%, reduces the average latency by 24.54%, and reduces 21.32% tail latency.
Furthermore, if we construct hybrid devices with two kinds of different devices
(e.g., NVM and SSDs) on each node of the cluster, ALOR can still achieve a
28.57% higher write throughput compared with this homogeneous hybrid device
solution coupled with the same hardware resources.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the back-
ground and related work. The detailed design of our proposed ALOR is presented
in Sect. 3, followed by the evaluations in Sect. 4. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes this
paper with a summary of our contributions.

2 Background and Related Work

2.1 The Raft Protocol
Traditionally, Paxos [4] is a classical protocol to ensure data consistency in dis-
tributed systems. However, Paxos was particularly difficult to understand and
implement. In this case, the Raft protocol [1], which is readily comprehensible
and realized, has been quickly adopted by many practical distributed systems
like Etcd [5], TiKV [6], and PolarDB [7] since it was proposed in 2014.
 ALOR 15

Fig. 1. The main process of serving requests according to Raft.

According to Raft, the main process of serving read and write requests can
be found in Fig. 1. We assume a Raft group contains three copies located in
three different nodes in the cluster, i.e., one and only one elected leader and two
followers.
When a write request arrives at the leader from users, the leader both
appends the new contents to the local log and forwards them to the two fol-
lowers. After more than half of the nodes (i.e., two in this case, including the
leader itself) have accomplished the logging action successfully, the leader will
proceed to apply the request log, i.e., insert/update the new data into the struc-
tured key-value store. Then, the user can get the response of this write request
from the leader.
In addition, all read requests are served by the leader alone to ensure the
data consistency. In order to ensure linear consistency, Raft will ensure that all
the previous logs have been applied before the read request is served.

2.2 Related Work

Raft/Paxos Improvements. In order to reduce the high latency of the Paxos
protocol, Wang et al. proposed APUS [15], the first RDMA-based Paxos protocol
that aims to be fast and scalable to client connections and hosts. PolarFS [16]
implements a parallel Raft to allow parallel submission of logs, breaking Raft’s
strict limitation that log has to be continuous, with the benefit of increasing
concurrency. In order to reduce the latency of distributed systems, Guerraoui
et al. proposed Incremental Consistency Guarantees (ICG) [17]. In addition,
Alagappan et al. [18] proposed correlated crash vulnerabilities to ensure data
security in distributed systems.
Heterogeneous Systems. Zhang et al. developed Mega-KV [19], a high-
performance distributed in-memory key-value store system on a heterogeneous
CPU-GPU cluster. Dey et al. [20] proposed an approach that gives multi-item
transactions across heterogeneous data stores. Strata [21] and OctopusFS [22]
designed file systems for heterogeneous storage devices on a single node.
Therefore, few research works consider the heterogeneous I/O performance
among nodes in a cluster. This paper will focus on the performance optimization
in heterogeneous distributed key-value storage systems.
16 Y. Wang et al.

3 The Design of ALOR

In this section, we will present the detailed design of our proposed Adaptive
Layout Optimization of Raft groups (ALOR) scheme, which aims to improve the
performance of distributed key-value storage systems in case of heterogeneous
situations. The two main components of ALOR will be introduced in Sects. 3.1
and 3.2, respectively.

3.1 Leader Migration in Raft Groups

According to the Raft protocol, the performance of service nodes does not affect
the leader election. In this case, the leader and the followers in a Raft group
are usually randomly and evenly distributed among all the service nodes for
the sake of load balance no matter the underlying system is homogeneous or
heterogeneous. For example, as Fig. 2 shows, we assume that there are four Raft
groups and each group contains three copies of data in a distributed KV storage
system with six nodes. According to the original Raft protocol, the data blocks
and the leaders are evenly distributed.

Fig. 2. Raft groups are usually evenly distributed among nodes for load balance.

However, the leader in a Raft group plays the most important role in affecting
the performance (e.g., users always read data from leaders and write requests
are not confirmed until the leader applies the log). If the leader is placed on a
slow node, the performance of accessing this Raft group will be slowed down.
Therefore, ALOR gradually migrates leaders to the node with the best perfor-
mance in Raft groups. The larger the performance gap among the nodes in a
Raft group is, the higher priority of migration the corresponding leader will be
given in ALOR, as illustrated in Fig. 3. Furthermore, as long as a follower catches
up the same status of logging and applying data as the leader, it can be easily
set as the new leader with negligible overhead.
For write operations, the leaders and the followers perform the same work
(i.e., writing the log first and then applying it). In this case, although the nodes
with higher performance undertake more leaders, their average loads are the
same as each other. In fact, ALOR just fully utilizes the fast processing of high-
performance nodes in a heterogeneous system to reduce the process time of users’
write requests.
 ALOR 17

Fig. 3. ALOR migrates the leaders in Raft groups to the faster node as far as possible
for higher performance.

For read operations, according to ALOR, the nodes with high performance
usually store more leaders than the nodes with low performance. Because users
always read data from leaders for strong consistency, the high-performance nodes
serving most read requests can reduce the response time of read request process-
ing in most cases. Although the high-performance nodes will undertake more
read requests, the read request processing is much more lightweight than the
write requests in a key-value storage system due to the significant write ampli-
fication of the KV indexes (e.g., B-tree, LSM-tree, etc.).
For a read-write mixed workload, write operations will slow down read oper-
ations, because Raft ensures linear consistency, i.e., read operations must be per-
formed after all the previous write operations have been completed. So speeding
up the write operations is critical for improving system performance.

3.2 Skewed Data Layout Based on Cold Data Migration

Skewed Data Layout. The idea of promoting system performance in a hetero-
geneous distributed store is to put appropriate load on nodes according to their
ability. Although the aforementioned leader migration mechanism in ALOR puts
more leaders on the strong nodes, this is not enough. We should further optimize
the data amount distribution during the disk-filling process, i.e., putting more
data on the high-performance nodes. The skewed data layout in ALOR can fully
utilize the fast processing speed of the high-performance nodes for higher system
performance.
However, it also causes two issues: (1) How to set an appropriate data-filling
speeds according to the performance of a node? (2) Assuming all nodes have
the same storage capacity, some high-performance nodes will be full ahead of
others due to the different data-filling speed setting. Thus how to process the
new arrival data after some nodes are full is a problem. The solutions to these
two problems in ALOR will be presented in the following parts.

Disk-Filling Speed Setting. In ALOR, the disk-filling speed of nodes is set

to be proportional to the average performance of writing key-value pairs into
the KV store in the node. For example, shown as Fig. 4, assuming there are six
nodes and their KV accessing performance is 3:3:2:2:1:1, the proportion of data
18 Y. Wang et al.

that they get is similar to this ratio. In this case, the load on a node matches its
key-value pairs processing ability.
The next problem is how to estimate the key-value accessing performance of
the nodes. The difficulty lies in that a distributed key-value store usually does
not supply a KV accessing interface on a single node. Our solution is to automat-
ically measure the I/O performance of a node during its initialization process
by calling tools like fio [23]. However, the I/O performance is not linear with
the node’s KV accessing performance. Thus we measured both the I/O and the
KV performance of several representative nodes and construct their relationship
beforehand. Then we can fit the KV performance of the nodes through their
measured I/O performance (See Fig. 10 in the experimental part for reference).

Fig. 4. The distribution of Raft groups in ALOR.

Cold Data Migration. In ALOR, the skewed data layout is achieved through
the specially designed data migration mechanism. An important weight, i.e.,
Data Weight, is employed to control the data migration among nodes. The con-
dition of migrating some data in node A to node B can be expressed as Eq. 1,
where SA and SB are the data volume of node A and B respectively, and SM is
the size of the to-be-migrated data.
SA − S M SB + SM
> (1)
DataW eightA DataW eightB
If the nodes A and B have the same data weights, Eq. 1 aims to balance the
stored data amount between them through data migration. In a heterogeneous
system, the strong nodes should have larger data weight values to undertake
more data and more requests than weak nodes. In order to reach the above
disk-filling speed setting, the data weight values of nodes can be set according
to their key-value accessing performance.
When the data volume of a node reaches a specified threshold (e.g., 95% of its
capacity), we need to migrate some cold data in this node to others, thus making
room for the new arrivals. Then the node’s data weight will be set to a very small
value (e.g., 10−6 ), some of its cold data will be migrated to other nodes. When
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behalf of humanity is a duty;[1232] and this notwithstanding the
remedy be tenfold more inhuman than the disease.
Not that the Spaniards were insincere in their proffers of such
excuses; duty comes to us in the color of our desires. Moreover, they
were fresh from the Moorish wars; they were imbued with a religious
exaltation and chivalric sentiment that placed before them in varied
light duty to their God, their king, and themselves. For centuries they
had been trained to devote life and possessions to advance the
interests of sovereign and church. Many of the noblest
characteristics were interwoven in the nature of Cortés, and also with
admirable distinctness in such men as Juan Velazquez, Sandoval,
and Puertocarrero. In others we find the dignity of the hidalgo upheld
without marked stain, and this notwithstanding the tendency to
intrigue, the disregard for truth and justice, and a yielding to certain
vices on the part of leaders, and the greed and brutality of rank and
file. But even among the common soldiers, in fairness we cannot
disregard the echo of noble sentiment, the aspiration toward high
emprise there present. It is the leader, however, who with all his
selfish cruelties and unprincipled trickeries must ever remain the
central figure of our admiration. If ever there was a hero, a genius of
war worthy the adoration of war worshippers, if ever there were
grand conception and achievement, all were vividly displayed in the
mind and person of Hernan Cortés.
An able French writer, comparing the siege of Mexico with that of
Troy, depicts Cortés as an Achilles in whom were combined the
talents of Agamemnon and Ulysses.[1233]
In some respects, and as compared with his companions, he
indeed approached the deity the Mexicans thought him. Behold him
out upon this venture, throwing life to the winds that waft him from
Cuba, sinking his ships behind him, plunging into the heart of a
hostile country, and with a handful of men opposing powerful armies,
quelling insurrections, capturing his captors, turning enemies into
allies, balancing upon his finger contending powers, and after the
grand cataclysm opened by him on the central plateau has spent
itself, he quietly pockets the prize. No Alexander, or Scipio, or
Cæsar, or Napoleon ever achieved results so vast with means so
insignificant. It was indeed a rare piracy!
Taken as a whole, the testimony of eye-witnesses and the early chroniclers on
the conquest may be considered as fully up to the average of historical evidence.
While there was no little exaggeration, and some downright mendacity, such were
the number of the witnesses, the time, place, and circumstances of their several
relations, and the clearness of their testimony, that we find no difficulty with regard
to any important matters in determining truth and falsehood. When in addition to
the writings of the Spaniards we have native records and architectural remains as
collateral evidence, every honest searcher after truth may be satisfied.
In regard to the two writers by the name of Diaz who accompanied the first
expedition to Mexico, I have spoken of the Itinerario de Grijalva of the priest, and
before closing this volume I will review the Historia Verdadera of the soldier.
Following these were the memorials of the relatives of Velazquez, wholly
unreliable; the relation of the Anonymous Conqueror, whose statements were for
the most part true; many documents, such as the Carta del Ejército, and Probanza
de Lejalde, as well as the Cartas de Cortés, in the main true, but which may
properly be accepted only after close scrutiny and careful comparison; the reports
of Zurita, and the innumerable papers and documents lately brought to light by
Navarrete, Ramirez, Icazbalceta, Ternaux-Compans, and others, and published as
Coleccion de Documentos Inéditos, Coleccion de Documentos para la Historia de
Mexico, etc.; native and Spanish historians, Tezozomoc, Camargo, and Ixtlilxochitl;
Duran, Veytia, Sahagun, Mendieta, and Las Casas; Oviedo, Peter Martyr, and
Gomara; Herrera, Torquemada, Solis, and Clavigero; Bustamante, Robertson,
Prescott, and Brasseur de Bourbourg. These and others of but little inferior
importance offer ample foundation on which the modern historian may safely rear
his superstructure.
I say that it is easy enough to determine truth from falsehood in such a study
as this, where the evidence is so abundant and the witnesses are so widely
separated. When Torquemada enters into a long argument to show that the misery
wrought by the conquest was the punishment by God for the vices of the
Mexicans, I do not discuss the matter. I willingly admit that the ancient historian
knew, if indeed he knew anything about it, more concerning the mind of the deity
than the modern, though the latter might ask if the sufferings of the Spaniards
were not in like manner on account of their vices.
The books treating of Cortés’ achievements, as I have said, form an immense
array, as may be expected from the importance and interest of what Robertson
justly terms “the most memorable event in the conquest of America,” involving the
subjugation of the richest and most advanced country therein, the fall of its
beautiful and renowned city, and one of the most daring campaigns ever
undertaken. The narrative reads indeed like a romance rather than history based
on stern facts, and it is not strange that men have arisen who seek to cast doubt,
not alone on certain incidents, but on the main features of the achievement and
the field.
One method of doubt has been to lower the estimate of native culture and
resources; to sneer at the large cities, magnificent palaces, regal state, certain
industrial and fine arts, picture-writing, and other evidences of a higher culture.
Such statements reveal to the experienced student a lamentable disregard or
ignorance of evidence extant, of ruins with their massive form, their beautifully
designed ornamentation, their admirable sculptured and plastic delineation of the
human figure, both far in advance of the conventional specimens of Egypt, and the
former equal in many respects to the productions of the higher Greek art. The
picture-writing, again, reveals the phonetic element so developed as to endow the
Mexicans with that high proof of culture, written records, applied not only to historic
incidents and common facts, but to abstract subjects of philosophic, scientific, and
poetic nature, as instanced in my Native Races.
It needed not the official investigation instituted by the Spanish government to
confirm the mute testimony of relics, and the vivid declaration of chroniclers.
Native records exist in sufficient abundance to speak for themselves; records
written by and for the people, and therefore free from any suspicion of
misrepresentation; records used by a number of writers for obtaining that insight
into esoteric features of Nahua institutions which could not well be acquired by
Spaniards. The translation of these records, as reproduced in the volumes of
Sahagun, Ixtlilxochitl, Kingsborough, and others, with copies of original paintings,
have been carefully used both for the Native Races and the histories of Mexico
and Guatemala, and introduced indeed more thoroughly in this series as evidence
than by any modern writer on the subject, not excepting the learned Abbé
Brasseur de Bourbourg, though unlike this enthusiast I have not allowed myself to
accept this evidence with the same non-critical bias. I have merely used it for what
it is worth, after applying severe analytic tests. Certain points may be covered by
merely one or two authorities; but even then the erudite student will readily
determine the value of the testimony from internal evidence, while in the generality
of cases he will find a number of versions by natives and Spaniards, by partisans
and rivals, whose contradictions will aid him in determining the truth.
In a previous bibliographic note I have pointed out the many internal evidences
furnished by the letters of Cortés, of undoubted reliability on most points, in their
minuteness, their frank soldierly tone, and other features. They are besides
confirmed in all the more essential points by the contemporaneous letters from the
municipality of Villa Rica and the army, the sworn depositions before the royal
notary by leading officers, the narratives of Andrés de Tápia, and others. Still
stronger confirmation is given in the complaints and memorials issued by enemies
and rivals of the great captain, who in their efforts to detract from his character and
achievements provide the historian with material that enables him to avoid the
pitfalls abounding even in the honest narratives of partisans, either from sympathy,
from lack of thorough knowledge, or from hearsay. Such testimony is abundant in
the residencia investigations of Cortés, Alvarado, Guzman, and others, all which
contain voluminous testimony on the most important questions. Prescott’s
opportunities for consulting new material were vastly superior to those of his
predecessors. If mine have been correspondingly greater, it may perhaps to some
extent be due to the example set by him in his earnest researches, and because
since the publication of his volumes, private individuals and learned societies have
striven with increased enthusiasm to bring to light hidden material, notably from
the rich archives of Spain and certain Latin-American states.
From this mass of what may be termed documentary evidence we turn to the
regular historians and narrators, beginning with Peter Martyr and Oviedo, who both
adhere chiefly to Cortés, though the latter adds other versions by different eye-
witnesses. Sahagun’s account contains a strange admixture of native absurdities
and vague recollections of converted soldiers. A more complete version is given by
Gomara, the biographer of the great captain, who had access to private and public
archives and individual narratives now lost; but he frequently colors the incidents
to the credit of his hero and his profession. Nevertheless the value of the text is
testified to by his Mexican translator Chimalpain, who adds some interesting facts
from native records and personal knowledge. The Tezcucan writer Ixtlilxochitl also
follows him pretty closely for the Spanish side, while the archives left him by his
royal ancestors and different narratives furnish the other side, frequently absurd
and highly colored. Camargo gives a rather brief Tlascaltec version. Gomara’s
coloring, which, in accordance with the method of most historians, leaves the
credit for achievements with the leader, roused the feelings of more than one of
the soldiers who had shared in the glories of that period, and Bernal Diaz promptly
began to write his celebrated Historia Verdadera, which professes to tell the true
story and rectify in particular the so-called blunders of Gomara. Although this
profession is not always to be relied on, the story is most valuable from its
exceeding completeness, its many new facts, and its varied version. Not long after,
Herrera, the official historiographer, began his decades, wherein for the conquest
he uses the material already printed, with a leaning toward Gomara, yet with
several additional narratives to perfect his own revised version, notably that of
Ojeda, a leading officer under Cortés, and also no small mass of material from the
archives of Spain. Torquemada copies him for the most part, though he adds much
native testimony from Sahagun, from a Tezcucan writer, and others, making his
account of the conquest the most complete up to that time. Solis elaborates with
little critique, and with a verboseness and grandiloquence that tire. Vetancurt’s
version is comparatively brief, with few additions, and Robertson’s is a brilliant
summary; but Clavigero, while adding not much to Torquemada’s bulky account,
presents it in quite a new form, pruned of verboseness, re-arranged in a masterly
manner, and invested with a philosophic spirit altogether superior to anything
presented till Prescott’s time. On the above historians and some of Cortés’ letters
are founded the immense array of minor accounts and summaries on the
conquest, both in separate and embodied form, some of them provided with
occasional observations, but for the great part they contain nothing of any value to
the student. Those after Prescott’s time follow him as a rule. Mexican accounts
might naturally be expected to present useful features, but such is hardly the case.
Alaman, Ramirez, Icazbalceta, Orozco y Berra, Bustamante, and certain writers in
the Boletin of the Mexican Geographical Society, have brought to light several
documents and monographs bearing on particular incidents and features; but no
complete account of real value has been written, Carbajal’s pretentious version
being almost wholly a plagiarism from Clavigero, Mora’s a hasty compilation, and
so on. As for the new bulky Spanish version by Zamacois, it is not only verbose
but superficial and narrow in its research, blundering even where Prescott points
the way, and representing more a feuilleton issue than a history.
Bernal Diaz del Castillo is, as I have said, the main historian of the conquest,
from the exhaustive thoroughness of his material, as compared with other original
writers, and from his participation in all its leading scenes, including the discovery
voyages. For about half a century he survives, and sees comrade after comrade
disappear from the field till but five of Cortés’ original company remain, “all of us
very old, suffering from infirmities, and very poor, burdened with sons and
daughters to marry, and grandchildren, and with but a small income; and thus we
pass our days in toil and misery.” He is not so badly off, however, as he would
have us believe, for a comfortable encomienda supplies every want, and
numerous descendants throng round to minister to his comfort and listen to his
tales. But as he recalls the great achievements wherein he participated, he swells
with the importance of the events, and dwelling on the multiplied treasures he has
assisted to capture, the reward sinks to insignificance. It is but the chronic
grumble, however, of an old soldier that half the continent would not satisfy.
Springing from a poor and humble family of Medina del Campo, in old Castile, he
had embarked at an early age with the expedition of Pedrarias in 1514 to seek
fortune in Darien. Failing there, he drifts to Cuba in time to join the discovery
parties of Córdoba and Grijalva. Subsequently he enlists under Cortés as a
common soldier, yet somewhat above the mass in the favor of his chief. “Soldado
distinguido,” says Juarros, implying higher birth; but this is doubtful. There is hardly
a prominent incident of the conquest in which he does not participate, being
present in no less than one hundred and nineteen battles, according to his
enumeration, whereof many a scar remains to bear witness, and many a trophy to
attest his valor. In due time he receives his share of repartimientos of land and
serfs, and settles in Goazacoalco as regidor, with sufficient means to feed a taste
that procures for him the not ill-esteemed nickname of Dandy. From his life of
contentment, though not equal to his claims, he is torn by the Honduras expedition
under Cortés, who gives him at times the command of a small party, whence
comes the sported title of captain. Afterward for a time he drifts about, and finally
settles in Guatemala city with the rank of regidor perpétuo, and with a respectable
encomienda, obtained partly through the representations of Cortés to the king. He
marries Teresa, daughter of Bartolomé Becerra, one of the founders of the city,
and repeatedly its alcalde, and has several children, whose descendants survive
to witness the overthrow of the royal banner planted by their forefather. Grandsons
figure as deans of the city church, and an historian of the adopted country rises in
Fuentes y Guzman. Pinelo, Epitome, ii. 604; Gonzalez Dávila, Teatro Ecles., i.
177; Memorial de Conquistadores, in Monumentos Admin. Munic., MS.; Juarros,
Guat., i. 338, 350; Torquemada, i. 351.
The leisure afforded him in Guatemala, broken by little save the inspection of
his estate, gave opportunity for indulging in the reveries of by-gone days. Histories
of achievements were nearly all connected with the great Cortés, famed on every
lip; yet that fame had been acquired with the aid of soldiers who like himself had
been consigned to an obscure corner of the vast domains conquered by them. It
did not seem right to the scarred veteran that the fruits of combined toil should fall
to one or two alone; that he himself should be regarded far less than hundreds of
upstarts whose only deeds had been to reap the field won by him and his
comrades. He would tell his tale at all events; and forthwith he began to arrange
the notes formed during his career, and to uplift the curtains of memory for
retrospective views. While thus occupied he came upon the history by Gomara,
and perceiving “his great rhetoric, and my work so crude, I stopped writing, and
even felt ashamed to let it appear among notable persons.” But finding that the
biographer of Cortés had committed many blunders, and had colored the narrative
on behalf of his patron, he again seized the pen, with the double purpose of
correcting such errors and of vindicating his slighted comrades. Faithfully he
carried out his plan, recording name after name of brave fellows who shed lustre
on the flag, who freely risked their lives in gallant encounters, or who gave their
last breath for church and king. While dwelling lovingly on humble companions,
whose cause he espoused, he detracts little from the leaders and cavaliers. He
describes their appearance and traits with a graphic fidelity that seems to bring
them before us in person; he freely accords them every credit, and if he spares not
their vices they are seldom brought forward in a captious or ill-natured spirit. On
the contrary, he frequently covers disagreeable facts in deference to the dead.
This general fairness of dealing is particularly noticeable in regard to Cortés, whom
nevertheless he sometimes severely criticises; and while Diaz assumes for his
side the credit of many a suggestion and deed, yet he is ever the loyal soldier, and
frequently takes up the cudgel in behalf of the honored leader when others seek to
assail him. He admires the great captain hardly less than himself. Indeed, to say
that the old campaigner was vain is stating it mildly. Two licentiates who read the
manuscript pointed this out to him, but he replied, “Whom does it harm? No one
praises an old, broken-down soldier, so I must even praise myself. It is a duty I
owe not only to my fair name but to my descendants.” He revives in his narrative
and carries us back with him to those stirring days, depicting now the hardships of
the march, now the new countries and races that appear; then he enters into the
heat of battle with a fidelity that brings the din and turmoil vividly before us; and
anon we see the adventurers in camp, in their social relations, relieved by pleasing
episodes. He enters thoroughly into their hopes and feelings, deeds and life; he
grows eloquent and pathetic by turns, and reveals also the undercurrent of piety
and zeal which pervaded the rakish crew. Here is the gossipy frankness of
Herodotus, illumined by many a quaint observation and many a blunt sally. Bernal
Diaz had but the rudiments of education, which nevertheless was above the
average among his fellow-soldiers; but he had evidently read a little in later years,
to judge by his allusions to classic history, though not enough to acquire more than
a mediocre proficiency in grammar. There is a minuteness of detail at times
wearisome, and garrulous digression and repetition; but a simple perspicuity
pervades the whole narrative, which makes it easy to follow, while the frankness
and frequent animation are pleasing. Much of it appears to have been dictated,
perhaps to some one of his children, “cuyo manuscrito se conserva en el archivo
de esta municipalidad.” Jil, in Gaceta Nic., June 24, 1865. It was given for perusal
to different persons, and several copies made; but none cared to assume its
publication. Sixty years later, however, Friar Alonso Remon, chronicler of the
Merced order in Spain, found one set in the library of Ramirez del Prado, of the
Council of the Indies, and perceiving the importance of the narrative, he caused it
to be printed at Madrid in 1632 under the title of Historia Verdadera de la
Conquista de la Nueva-España. Remon dying during the publication, Friar Gabriel
Adarzo, “nunc Hydruntinus præsul,” Antonio, Bib. Hisp. Nova, iii. 224, took it in
charge. Several discrepancies indicate that revisions have been made, and
Vazquez, Chron. Guat., 524, whose jealousy as a friar was aroused by allusions to
Father Olmedo, Cortés’ companion, compared the print with the original copy and
pointed out several differences. A second edition, bearing the date 1632, though
published later probably, contains an additional chapter on omens, which appears
in others of the many editions and translations issued in different countries, even
of late years.
Perhaps the most clear-sighted writer on Mexico during the last century was
Francisco Javier Clavigero, himself a native of that country, and born at Vera Cruz
in 1731. His father was a Leonese, whose official duties called him to different
parts of the country, and young Francisco profited by this to acquire a knowledge
of its resources and idioms. After a novitiate of three years at the Jesuit college of
Tepozotlan, he passed to that at Puebla, and there studied philosophy and
theology, and showed particular fondness for languages, both classic and native.
He taught rhetoric and philosophy in the principal schools of the country, though
restricted somewhat by the superiors in his too liberal ideas, for which Mexico was
not yet considered ripe. Meanwhile his enthusiasm centred on the study of Aztec
history and hieroglyphs, which received a serious check in the expulsion of Jesuits
from America in 1767. He sought refuge in Italy, staying chiefly at Bologna, where
he founded an academy, and having considerable leisure he began to shape the
results of his late studies, impelled in no small degree by the writings of De Pauw
and Robertson, which grated on his patriotic spirit. They were prepared in Spanish,
but the authorities giving no encouragement for their publication in Spain, an
Italian translation was made and issued in four volumes, as Storia Antica del
Messico, Cesena, 1780, dedicated to the university at Mexico. Subsequently a
Spanish version appeared, but not before several editions had been published in
England and other countries. The first volume treats of resources and ancient
history, the second of manners and customs, the third of the conquest, and the
fourth consists of a series of dissertations on the origin of the Americans, on
chronology, physique, languages, and other points. They have been widely quoted,
and Francisco Carbajal de Espinosa has shown such appreciation of it as to copy
almost the whole text in what he calls his Historia de Mexico, Mex., 1856, 2 vols.
Clavigero’s work is based to a great extent on aboriginal records and personal
observation, and the old chronicles have been largely used; but their cumbrous
and confused material is here arranged in a manner worthy of the liberal-minded
philosopher and rhetorician. Indeed, no previous work in this field can at all
compare with it for comprehensiveness and correctness, depth of thought and
clearness of expression. In the former respect he greatly surpasses Robertson and
in the latter he may be classed as his equal. His death, which took place at
Bologna in 1787, found him in the midst of a number of literary projects, called
forth in part by the success of the Storia, and by the different subjects which he
had therein touched but lightly. Among these works was the Storia della California,
issued at Venice two years after his death. It will be noticed in due order.
There can be no more fitting close to this volume on the conquest of Mexico
than a tribute of esteem to William Hickling Prescott. I have noted in a previous
volume his amiable weakness, incident to the times rather than to the man, of
intensifying the character of prominent personages so as to present the good
better and the bad worse than they truly were, in order to render his narrative
stronger and more interesting than it would be otherwise; but this is nothing as
compared with his general fairness, united with a magnificent style and philosophic
flow of thought. I have noted some inaccuracies and contradictions in his history,
but these are nothing as compared with his general care and correctness as a
writer. I have mentioned material which he lacked, but this is nothing as compared
with the great mass of fresh evidence which he brought to enrich his subject.
Words fail to express my admiration of the man, the scholar, the author. Apart from
the din and dust of ordinary life, he lived as one in the world but not of it, pure of
mind, gentle of heart, and surpassingly eloquent.
Mr Prescott was born at Salem, Massachusetts, May 4, 1796. His father, a
lawyer of rising reputation, then thirty-four years of age, removed his family to
Boston in 1808. At the age of fifteen William entered Harvard College. While
engaged in a boyish frolic one day during his junior year a large hard piece of
bread, thrown probably at random, struck full in his left eye, forever depriving him
of its use. Pursuing his studies with his wonted cheerfulness, he graduated in
1814, and entered upon the study of law in his father’s office. In 1815 a rheumatic
inflammation settled in his right eye, now his sole dependence, causing him much
pain and anxiety. A change of climate having been determined upon, he embarked
for the Azores, on a visit to his grandfather Hickling, then United States consul at
Saint Michael. There he remained about six months, confined the greater part of
the time to a dark room. In April 1816 he embarked for London, crossed to Paris,
made the usual Italian tour, and the following year, his eye becoming worse, he
returned home. But hope for the restoration of his sight still lingered, and the
marvellous buoyancy of his spirits never deserted him. A devoted sister cheered
the long hours of his solitude by readings from his favorite authors. A literary
venture made at this time in a contribution to the North American Review failed; his
manuscript was returned, and his sister, alone in the secret, was enjoined to
silence.
Leaving his darkened chamber and mingling again with society, of which he
was ever a bright ornament, he became attached to a daughter of Thomas C.
Amory, a Boston merchant, whom he married on his twenty-fourth birthday.
Mr Prescott now abandoned the hope of the entire restoration of his eye. If by
restrictions of diet and dieting and by persistent open-air exercise he might
preserve a partial use of the organ he would rest content. And thus he passed the
remainder of his life. At times he was in almost total darkness, but ordinarily he
could read and revise his manuscripts; for the purpose of writing, however, he was
obliged to use a noctograph.
Possessing strong literary tastes, and an aversion to law, Mr Prescott
determined upon literature as a pursuit, and in 1826, with the aid of a secretary, he
began a systematic course of reading for a history of Ferdinand and Isabella. For
three years and a half he pursued this preparatory labor; in 1829 he began writing,
publishing the work in 1837. Ten of the best years of his life Mr Prescott claims to
have devoted to this book; and for the use of the stereotype-plates, which Mr
Prescott supplied at his own cost, and the right to publish twelve hundred and fifty
copies, the American Stationers’ Company agreed to pay the sum of one thousand
dollars. But money was not the author’s object. The publication in London was
offered to John Murray and to the Longmans, and was declined by both. Bentley
finally became the London publisher. The work was well received on both sides of
the Atlantic; it was translated into several languages, and procured for the author
at once a world-wide reputation. The Conquest of Mexico was a worthy outgrowth
of so splendid a creation as the Ferdinand and Isabella. The year following the
publication of his first work, and after having sent to Spain and Mexico for
materials for histories of the conquests of Mexico and Peru, Mr Prescott learned
accidentally that Mr Irving was engaged on similar work. He wrote Irving,
acquainting him of the fact, and the latter retired gracefully from the field. In 1843
the Conquest of Mexico appeared, under the auspices of the Harpers, who paid
$7500 for the use of the plates and the right to publish 5000 copies. The Conquest
of Peru was published in 1847; Philip the Second in 1855-8; and Robertson’s
Charles the Fifth in 1856. Mr Prescott died of apoplexy in the sixty-third year of his
age.
 For his Conquest of Mexico, besides all printed material extant, Mr Prescott
drew upon a large mass of new information in manuscript, from several sources,
notably from the valuable collection of Muñoz, brought together for an intended
history of America; that of Vargas Ponce, obtained chiefly from Seville archives;
that of Navarrete, president of the Royal Academy of History at Madrid; and the
archives of Cortés’ heirs, all of which shed new light on almost every section of the
subject. His deep research, manifest throughout in copious foot-notes, is
especially displayed in the very appropriate introduction on Mexican civilization,
which enables the reader to gain an intimate knowledge of the people whose
subjugation he follows. Good judgment is also attested in the dissertation on the
moot question of the origin of this culture, wherein he prudently abstains from any
decided conclusions. The fact of occasional inaccuracies cannot be severely
criticised when we consider the infirmity under which the author labored. Since his
time so great a mass of material has been brought to light that the aspect of
history is much changed. This new material consists partly of native records, and it
is due to his unacquaintance with these records that a great lack is implied in his
pages. The fact that Prescott relied too much on Spanish material may account for
the marked bias in favor of the conquerors in many instances where strict
impartiality might be expected, and for the condemnatory and reflective assertions
which at times appear in direct contradiction to previous lines of thought. At times,
as if aware of this tendency, he assumes a calmness that ill fits the theme, giving it
the very bias he seeks to avoid. Yet with all this it is safe to say that few histories
have been written in which the qualities of philosopher and artist are so happily
blended.

FOOTNOTES
[1190] Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. ii., lib. i. cap. xx., places this incident on the third
day of entry into the city.

[1191] ‘Todos los mas principales y esforzados y valientes.’ Cortés, Cartas, 244.
And 2000 captives. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades, 43. ‘Tuuieron bien q̄ cenar
aquella noche los Indios nuestros amigos,’ observes Gomara, unctuously. Hist.
Mex., 209. Bernal Diaz, who claims to have been among the 100 select, intimates
that Alvarado also formed an ambuscade that day, though less effective. Hist.
Verdad., 153-4. In rushing from the hiding-place, says Cortés, two horses collided,
one of them throwing its rider and charging alone amid the foe. After receiving
several wounds it sought refuge among the soldiers and was conducted to camp,
where it died.

[1192] ‘Fué bien principal causa para que la ciudad mas presto se ganase,’
Cortés, Cartas, 245, but this must be regarded as an exaggerated estimate.

[1193] Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. ii. Torquemada, i. 560, 564, wavers, intimating in
one place that all were determined to die. When the people at last inclined to
peace, says Gomara, Quauhtemotzin opposed it on the ground that they had once
decided for war, ‘contra su voluntad y consejo.’ Hist. Mex., 213. Most of the
revelation was made by a woman of rank, it appears. Carried away by his love for
hero-painting, Prescott has either missed or ignored the facts which now reveal his
false coloring.

[1194] ‘Y asi escondidas huvo algunos Principales de las Provincias cercanas que
acudieron con algun maiz para solo llevar joyas.’ That is, where the cruisers
allowed such smuggling. Duran, Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 497.

[1195] About 1000 were killed, says Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades, 44; but Cortés
puts the killed and captured at more than 800. Cartas, 245.

[1196] ‘Osauan nuestros vergantines romper las estacadas ... remauan con gran
fuerça y ... a todas velas.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 150.

[1197] ‘De la Capitana, que èl havia salvado,’ says Herrera, while asserting that
the captain Villafuerte abandoned her; but this hardly agrees with his own later
statements that Villafuerte remained in charge of the fleet, dec. iii. lib. i. cap. xxi.;
lib. ii. cap. viii. The slain leader is called the lieutenant-general of Quauhtemotzin,
and his death ‘fue causa, que mas presto se ganase la Ciudad,’ Torquemada, i.
558, all of which is doubtful. A similar reward to that of Lopez was accorded on
another occasion to a soldier named Andrés Nuñez, who after the captain had
abandoned his vessel led her to the rescue of two consorts. When the commander
came to resume his post Nuñez refused to admit him, saying that he had forfeited
it. On being appealed to, Cortés sustained the brave fellow and gave him the
command, in which capacity he rendered important service. Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. i.

[1198] July 25th, according to Clavigero, while Torquemada less correctly makes it
August 5th.

[1199] The Spanish corruption of Quauhtemotzin. ‘La calle qe ba al tianguiz de

Tlatelulco qe se llama de Guatimosa.’ Libro de Cabildo, MS., 88.
[1200] Herrera names Magallanes as one of those who succumbed under the
onslaught of a chief, but his death was avenged by Diego Castellanos, a noted
marksman. dec. iii. lib. i. cap. xx. On this occasion Ixtlilxochitl intimates that his
namesake captured his brother, the usurper king of Tezcuco, and surrendering him
to Cortés, he was at once secured with shackles. Hor. Crueldades, 42-3. ‘De
manera que de cuatro partes de la ciudad, las tres estaban ya por nosotros.’
Cortés, Cartas, 246.

[1201] At the corner of the street leading to Sandoval’s quarter. Id., 247.

[1202] I knew three of them, writes Bernal Diaz. ‘Las enterramos en vna Iglesia,
que se dize aora los Mártires.’ Hist. Verdad., 153.

[1203] For a full description see Native Races, ii. 382 et seq.

[1204] Cortés saw the smoke from his camp, from which he was preparing to start.
Cartas, 247. Herrera leaves the impression that Alférez Montaño captured the
temple, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. i., but he was probably only the first to step on the
summit. Bernal Diaz, who fought under Alvarado, states distinctly that Badajoz led
the party, but he is no doubt incorrect in adding that the fight on the top continued
till night. Hist. Verdad., 153. Torquemada, i. 565, refers to the temple as the
Acatliyacapan. Duran makes Cortés appeal to the Chalcans, and they ‘tomando la
delantera del Ejército, y con ellos Yxtlilxachitl ... ganaron el Cue grande.’ Hist. Ind.,
MS., ii. 506. This must be a Chalcan version.

[1205] Gomara, Hist. Mex., 210. Cortés calls them wounded merely. Sahagun’s
native version of the plaza fight is very confusing, and mixed with that of the
struggle against the other divisions, ‘y tomaron los bergantines [two] á los
españoles, y lleváronlos á una laguna que llaman Amanalco.’ Hist. Conq. (ed.
1840), 202-3. But this must be a mistake.

[1206] ‘Que se llama Atenantitech, donde ahora està edificada la Iglesia de la

Concepcion, junto de la Albarrada.’ Torquemada, i. 553. Tetenamitl ward, says
Sahagun in one edition. Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 209.

[1207] This or a third relic bore the name of Mamalhuaztli. Sahagun also refers to
a divine bow and arrow. Hist. Conq., 53-4. But his editions vary in text; see that of
1840, 210-12. The serpent was invoked even after the conquest, says the pious
friar, and he heard Father Tembleque relate that he one day opened his window
during a storm and had his left eye injured by a ray of lightning, which damaged
the house and adjoining church. This ray, the Mexicans assured him, was the
Xiuhcoatl, conjured up by the sorcerers, for they had seen it issue in the form of a
big snake through the door. The editor Bustamante tells an equally impressive
story in connection with an attempt to account for the snake and lightning.
[1208] One being killed and two horses wounded. Bernal Diaz, loc. cit.

[1209] Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 213. The editor Bustamante speaks of a
similar phenomenon in Michoacan in 1829. Id. (ed. 1829), 68.

[1210] ‘De los niños no quedó nadie, que las mismas madres y padres los
comian,’ is the statement of the native records. Id., 210. Yet Torquemada, i. 572,
assumes that the Mexicans would not eat of their own race. Thousands had
already died of starvation without touching the flesh of countrymen, though priests
partook of children sacrificed during ordinary festivals; but at last the scruple
among the masses was overcome by despair. See Native Races, ii. passim.

[1211] ‘Porque no acabas cõ el que nos acabe?... Desseamos la muerte por yr a

descansar cõ Quetçalcouatlh,’ adds Gomara, Hist. Mex., 210-11.

[1212] The chroniclers call him an uncle of the Tezcucan king, but this appears to
be a misinterpretation of Cortés’ text, wherein he says that such an uncle had
captured the prisoner.

[1213] Cortés, Cartas, 251. This was partly in accordance with the law against
nobles who returned from captivity, as already instanced.

[1214] ‘Tenia mucho miedo de parecer ante mí, y tambien estaba malo.’ Cortés,
Cartas, 253. ‘Empacho,’ explains Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. vii. He feared to be
shot. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 164.

[1215] ‘Ni tenian ni hallaban flechas ni varas ni piedras con que nos ofender.... No
tenian paso por donde andar sino por encima de los muertos y por las azoteas.’
Cortés, Cartas, 254.

[1216] ‘Mataron y prendieron mas de cuarenta mil ánimas.’ Id. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor.
Crueldades, 48, raises the number to 50,000, while Duran states that over 40,000
men and women perished while fleeing. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 510. What pained the
conquerors most, however, was the sight and knowledge of what immense
quantity of booty eluded them to pass into the hands of these marauders.

[1217] ‘Entre la Garita del Peralvillo, la place de Santiago de Tlatelolco et le pont

d’Amaxac.’ So says Pichardo. Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 193. ‘Donde se
embarcaban para Atzlapotzalco,’ adds Bustamante. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades,
50.

[1218] Chimalpain calls him Tlacotzin, afterward baptized as Juan Velasquez. Hist.
Conq., ii. 71. ‘Ciguacoacin, y era el Capitan y gobernador de todos ellos, é por su
consejo se seguian todas las cosas de la guerra,’ says Cortés, Cartas, 255.
[1219] ‘Porque les queria combatir y acabar de matar.’ Cartas, 256. ‘Pues eran
barbaros, que no queria dexar hombre vivo, q̄ se fuessen.’ Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. vii.

[1220] The distinguished captive said: ‘Capitan señor, dáte buena maña, que
aquellos indios ... son esclavos de Guatimuçin, é podrá ser quél va allí huyendo,
porque su bandera ya no paresçe.’ Oviedo, iii. 516. A canoe of twenty rowers and
bearing a number of people. Gomara, Hist. Conq., 212. See also Vetancvrt, Teatro
Mex., pt. iii. 164; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 230. A small canoe, says Duran.

[1221] Torquemada, i. 570-1, followed by Clavigero, mentions besides

Tetlepanquetzaltzin, king of Tlacopan, the fugitive king of Tezcuco; but this is
doubtful, as we have seen. He enumerates several dignitaries. Brasseur de
Bourbourg names Tlacahuepan, son of Montezuma, while his authority,
Ixtlilxochitl, states that his namesake captured him and Tetlepanquetzaltzin in
another canoe, and in a third Papantzin Oxomoc, widow of Emperor Cuitlahuatzin.
Hor. Crueldades, 50. ‘Quahutimoc se puso en pie en la popa de su canoa para
pelear. Mas como vio ballestas ... rindiose.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 213. This
probably assumed fact has been elaborated by some writers into an heroic act.
The incident has been placed by tradition as occurring near the later Puente del
Clérigo. But this can hardly be. See note 27. According to Bernal Diaz, Sandoval
came up shortly after, on learning the news, and demanded the surrender of the
captives to him as the commander of the fleet, who had ordered Holguin to pursue
the canoes. The latter refused, and a delay occurred, during which another crew
hurried to bear the tidings to Cortés and claim the reward granted for first reports.
Two captains were now sent to summon the disputants and captives. Hist.
Verdad., 155. Cortés, while according in his letter the credit of the capture to
Holguin, promised to refer the claim to the king. Holguin figures some years later
as regidor and estate owner in the city.

[1222] ‘Esta casa era de un principal tlatilulcano que se llamaba Aztaoatzin.’

Sahagun, Hist. Conq., 55.

[1223] The versions of this remarkable speech vary greatly. ‘Habia hecho todo lo
que de su parte era obligado para defenderse á si y á los suyos hasta venir en
aquel estado, que ahora ficiese dél lo que yo quisiese.’ Cortés, Cartas, 257.
‘Diçiéndole que le diesse de puñaladas é lo matasse, porque no era raçon que
viviesse en el mundo hombre que avia perdido lo que’l avia perdido,’ adds Oviedo,
iii. 422. ‘Preguntáronle por los chripstianos, é dixo: No me preguntés esso; é si me
quereys matar; matadme ya: que harto estoy de vivir,’ says another version. Id.,
517. ‘Iria mui consolado adonde sus dioses estaban, especialmente haviendo
muerto à manos de tal Capitan.’ Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. vii. ‘Why so stubborn?’
is the way Duran opens the conversation on Cortés’ part. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 509.
‘Toglietemi con questo pugnale una vita, che non perdei nella difesa del mio
Regno.’ Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 230. See also Ixtlilxochitl and others. Writers
generally go into ecstacy over this utterance. ‘Magnanimo,’ exclaims Peter Martyr,
dec. v. cap. viii. ‘Heroic,’ ejaculates Bustamante in support of Chimalpain’s
encomium. Hist. Conq., ii. 75. ‘Ce trait est digne du plus beau temps de la Grèce
et de Rome.’ Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 193. ‘A spirit worthy of an ancient Roman,’
echoes Prescott, Mex., iii. 206. Bernal Diaz says the emperor wept, and with him
his chiefs. Hist. Verdad., 155.

[1224] Made a few years later by order of the city council. It was not, as many
suppose, the original standard, for this was hidden during two centuries among
rubbish in the university, as stated in its records. It now exists in the museum,
forming a piece about a yard square, which shows on one side the Virgin of the
Immaculate Conception with hands joined in prayer, and bearing on her head a
crown of gold surrounded by a halo and a circle of stars; on the other are the royal
arms. Boturini, Idea, 157. In his Catálogo, 75, this author assumes it to be the
standard given to the Tlascaltecs, but Carbajal states that at Tlascala exists
another standard of Cortés’, with royal arms, Hist. Mex., ii. 637, with a picture of
the above named virgin. See also Beaumont, Crón. Mich., ii. 345-6. By order of
July 31, 1528, the city council orders bull-fights and other entertainments in honor
of the day, ‘e q todos cabalguen los q tovieren bestias.’ Libro de Cabildo, MS.,
127, 234. Mexicans are never seen to share in the procession. ‘Tan profundo está
en sus ánimos la herida.’ Cavo, Tres Siglos, i. 3; Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 192. A
minute account of the ceremonies on the occasion is given in Monumentos Hist.
Admin. Colon., MS., 365, copied from the Archivo General.

[1225] Counting from May 30th, Cartas, 257, and so it is stated in the grant to
Cortés of Escudo de Armas. Duran and Ixtlilxochitl extend it to 80 and Bernal Diaz
to 93 days. ‘Despues de muchos combates, y mas de sessenta peleas
peligrosisimas.’ Acosta, Hist. Nat. Ind., 525.

[1226] Over 60 soldiers were lost in the great defeat, and small numbers now and
then, while the auxiliaries, less skilled in fighting and chiefly unarmored,
succumbed in hordes. Gomara says about 50 soldiers, 6 horses, and not many
Indians; Herrera modifies to ‘a little over’ 50; Torquemada advances to ‘less than
100,’ and Clavigero to ‘more than 100 Spaniards.’ Hernandez, in his Estadist.
Méj., 232, computes such curiously exact figures as 107 Spaniards, 18,915
Tlascaltecs, and 33,240 Aztecs. Ixtlilxochitl, ever eager to enlarge upon the
services of his race, claims that 30,000 Tezcucans fell out of 200,000 employed,
Hor. Crueldades, 51; but this is evidently exaggerated.

[1227] ‘En que murieron infinitos.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 213; Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. viii.; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 232-3. Bustamante raises the number killed
to ‘150,000 at least.’ Chimalpain, Hist. Conq., ii. 74; Ixtlilxochitl, loc. cit., to
240,000, including most of the nobles; while Torquemada, i. 577, observes ‘que de
veinte partes, no quedò vna, aviendo perecido, y muerto las diez y nueve,’ he and
several others allowing the estimate of fully 300,000 inhabitants. The survivors are
estimated at from 30,000 persons, by Torquemada to 70,000 warriors by Oviedo,
iii. 516.

[1228] ‘Hiço herrar algunos Hombres, y Mugeres por Esclavos; à todos los demàs
dexò en libertad.’ Torquemada, 573. ‘À muchos indios é indias, porque estaban
dados por traydores,’ says Oviedo, iii. 517. Cortés stayed and punished those who
took slaves, ‘aunque todavia herraron en la cara á algunos mancebos y mugeres.’
So states the native record of Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 231. But if he
punished slave-takers it was for not declaring the capture to the royal official.
Duran reduces his account of Spanish liberality to an absurdity, but more from
politic reasons than because he had not at hand better evidence, Hist. Ind., MS., ii.
510.

[1229] Hist. Verdad., 156. ‘Io sospetto, che da’ Messicani lasciati fossero a bella
posta insepolti i cadaveri, per iscacciar colla puzza gli Assediatori.’ Clavigero,
Storia Mess., iii. 231. But this is unlikely. A severe siege will produce such results.

[1230] Bernal Diaz relates that although wine and provisions from Cuba were
abundantly dispensed at the banquet, yet there was not room for one third of the
soldiers, and much discontent grew out of it, partly from the utterances of drunken
men. A dance followed. Father Olmedo complained of so much revelry before the
rendering of due thanks to God. Cortés pleaded that soldiers must be allowed
some license, but the following day was set apart for religious services. Hist.
Verdad., 156.

[1231] Bustamante comments on the non-fulfilment of the promises to Tlascala,

saying that the republic was rightly served for lending herself to the invaders.
Sahagun, Hist. Conq., 144. On their way home, says Ixtlilxochitl, the Tlascaltecs
and their neighbors plundered Tezcuco and other towns. With the slaves carried
home by his namesake, he adds consolingly, the destroyed palaces of Tezcuco
were rebuilt. Hor. Crueldades, 52-3. The Tlascaltecs ‘aun lleuaron hartas cargas
de tasajos cecinados de Indios Mexicanos, que repartieron entre sus parientes ...
por fiestas.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 157.

[1232] ‘Non dubitamus quin justa sint bella ... in eos qui humanam carnem
epulantur,’ etc. De Jure Belli, lib. ii. cap. xx.

[1233] Alvarado was Ajax; Maxixcatzin, Nestor; Quauhtemotzin, Hector. Chevalier,

Mex. Ancien, 232-41.
 Transcriber’s Note
Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original
document have been preserved. Simple typographical errors
have been corrected.
In some cases, Bancroft uses both “u” and “v” to spell an
author’s name, e.g. Vetancurt and Vetancvrt.
Other archaic letter substitutions include “b” for “v”, “i” for
“y”, “x for “j”, “i for “j”, “ç” or “c” for “z” and vice versa. These
have been left as printed.
Accents and other diacritics are inconsistently used.
Some possible printer’s errors or inconsistencies include:

Barucoa and Baracoa

Basan and Bazan

Luis Becerra Tanco and Luis Bezerra Tanco

casy should be casi

Cholula and Chulula

Rᵒ de de guaqaqa is a possible double word error

overset thinge should possibly be oversetthinge

Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of pages, have been

sequentially renumbered, collected together, and placed after
the last page of each chapter.
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