Practical English Usage 4th Edition

Michael Swan
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/practical-english-usage-4th-edition-michael-swan/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Oxford English Grammar Course 8th Edition Michael Swan

https://textbookfull.com/product/oxford-english-grammar-
course-8th-edition-michael-swan/

Garner’s Modern English Usage Bryan A. Garner

https://textbookfull.com/product/garners-modern-english-usage-
bryan-a-garner/

English for Academic Research: Grammar, Usage and Style

Adrian Wallwork

https://textbookfull.com/product/english-for-academic-research-
grammar-usage-and-style-adrian-wallwork/

Grammar and Usage Your Questions Answered A New and

Updated Version of English Grammar Your Questions
Answered 2nd Edition Michael Mccarthy

https://textbookfull.com/product/grammar-and-usage-your-
questions-answered-a-new-and-updated-version-of-english-grammar-
your-questions-answered-2nd-edition-michael-mccarthy/
English Usage Guides History Advice Attitudes Ingrid
Tieken-Boon Van Ostade (Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/english-usage-guides-history-
advice-attitudes-ingrid-tieken-boon-van-ostade-editor/

Wearable Sensors in Sport A Practical Guide to Usage

and Implementation James Lee

https://textbookfull.com/product/wearable-sensors-in-sport-a-
practical-guide-to-usage-and-implementation-james-lee/

English Linguistics An Introduction 4th edition

Christian Mair

https://textbookfull.com/product/english-linguistics-an-
introduction-4th-edition-christian-mair/

The Black Swan Nassim Nicholas Taleb

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-black-swan-nassim-nicholas-
taleb/

Simply Psychology 4th Edition Michael W. Eysenck

https://textbookfull.com/product/simply-psychology-4th-edition-
michael-w-eysenck/
 new
MICHAEL SWAN

Practical
English
Usage
Fully Revised International Edition

• complete topic-by-topic grammar

• guide to over 250 vocabulary problems

O X FO R D
PRACTICAL ENGLISH USAGE
Michael Swan

PRACTICAL
ENGLISH
USAGE
Fourth Edition

OXTORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
UN IV ER SIT Y PRESS

Great C larendon Street, Oxford, 0 x 2 6dp, U nited Kingdom

Oxford U niversity Press is a dep artm en t of th e U niversity o f Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective o f excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by p ublishing w orldwide. Oxford is a registered trade
m ark o f Oxford U niversity Press in th e UK and in certain o th er countries

© Michael Swan 2016

The m oral rights o f th e a u th o r have b een asserted
First published in 2016
2020 2019 2018 2017 2016
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
No unauthorized photocopying
All rights reserved. No p art o f this publication m ay be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system , or transm itted, in any form o r by any m eans, w ithout
th e p rio r perm ission in w riting o f Oxford University Press, or as expressly
p erm itted by law, by licence or u n d er term s agreed w ith th e appropriate
reprographics rig h ts organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside th e scope o f th e above should be sent to th e ELT Rights D epartm ent,
Oxford U niversity Press, a t th e address above
You m u st n o t circulate this w ork in any o th er form and you m u st im pose
this sam e condition on any acquirer
Links to th ird party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for
inform ation only. Oxford disclaim s any responsibility for th e m aterials
contained in any th ird party w ebsite referenced in this w ork

i s b n : 9780194202466

P rinted in China
This book is p rin ted on paper from certified and well-m anaged sources

ac k n o w led g e m e n ts

The authors and publisher are grateful to those who have given permission to reproduce
the following extracts and adaptations of copyright material: E ntiy 282.2 - Extracts
from “Errors & Omissions: A nother distinctively British usage gets lost on its
way across th e Atlantic" by Guy Keleny, w w w .independent.co.uk, 27 August
2010. Reproduced by perm ission of The Independent.
Sources: Entry 287.3 - The Old Man and the Sea (Kindle Edition) by Ernest
Hemingway (Scribner, 2002), Entry 287.3 - Tortilla Bat (Penguin M odem
Classics - Kindle Edition) by John Steinbeck (Penguin, 2000), Entry 316.5 -
Scots Leid Associe, www.lallans.co.uk
Although every effort has been made to trace and contact copyright holders before
publication, this has not been possible in some cases. We apologise for any apparent
infringement of copyright and, if notified, the publisher will be pleased to rectify any
errors or omissions at the earliest possible opportunity.
Dedication

To John Eckersley, who first encouraged my interest in this kind of thing.

A ckn o w led gem en ts
I am grateful to all th e people who have helped m e w ith the preparation of
th is fourth edition. I owe a p a rtic u la r debt to Professor Bas A arts of University
College, London, an d Dr C atherine Walter, of Linacre College, Oxford, who
both read all of th e m aterial in draft, an d w hose detailed com m ents and
suggestions have substantially im proved the book. I am equally indebted to
Professor Loretta Gray of C entral W ashington University, who also read the
whole text, an d w hose com prehensive advice on questions of A m erican usage
has provided valuable su p p o rt for th is asp ect of the revision. M any teachers in
different co u n tries w ere good enough to respond to a request for suggestions
for possible additions an d im provem ents: m y th a n k s to the individuals and
organisations concerned. My th a n k s also to m em bers of the staff of the London
School of English, w ho kindly p articip ated in a very constructive w orkshop
designed to explore ways of using th e book. Several specialists have generously
sh ared th eir know ledge of specific areas of language and usage, and num erous
teachers, stu d en ts an d colleagues have taken th e trouble to m ake com m ents
an d suggestions regarding p a rtic u la r entries. T heir input, too, has benefited the
book considerably. I m ust also reacknow ledge my debt to the m any consultants
an d co rrespondents w hose help an d advice w ith the p rep aratio n of earlier
editions continue as an im p o rtan t contribution to the fourth.
Any pedagogic g ra m m a ria n owes an enorm ous debt to the academ ic
linguists on w hose research he or she is parasitic. There is not enough space to
m ention all th e scholars of th e last h u n d re d years or so on w hose work I have
draw n directly or indirectly, even if l had a com plete record of my borrow ings.
But I m ust at least pay hom age to two m onu m ental reference works of the
present generation: th e Comprehensive G ram m ar o f the English Language, by
Quirk, G reenbaum , Leech an d Svartvik (Longm an, 1985), and the Cambridge
G ram m ar o f the English Language, by H uddleston, Pullum an d others
(C am bridge U niversity Press, 2002). T heir authoritative accounts of the facts of
English stru c tu re an d usage constitute an essential source of inform ation for
anyone w riting pedagogic g ram m ar m aterials today.
Finally, it is w ith p a rtic u la r pleasure th a t I express my gratitude, once again,
to the editorial, design an d production team at Oxford U niversity Press, w hose
professional expertise is m atch ed only by th eir concern to m ake an author's task
as trouble-free as possible.

page vi
Contents sum m ary

Page

Acknowledgements vi
Introduction viii-xii
Contents overview xiii-xix
Language terminology xx-xxix
Phonetic alphabet xxx

Practical English Usage

Grammar Sections 1-28: entries 1-320
Vocabulary Sections 29-31: entries 321-635

Index

page vii
Introduction
What is Practical English Usage?
Practical English Usage is a com bined usage guide an d learner's gram m ar. It is
in ten d ed m ainly for ad v anced stu d en ts an d teachers of English as a foreign or
second language; it m ay also be useful to teacher train ers a n d m aterials writers.
It is not ad d ressed to native speakers of English, w ho n eed a rath e r different
kind of reference book.

A usage guide
Usage guides deal w ith problem points: w ords and structures th at people have
difficulty w ith, or disagree about. English, like all languages, is full of problem s
for th e foreign learner. Some of these points are easy to explain - for instance, the
form ation of questions, the difference betw een since and for, or the m eaning of
after all. O ther problem s are m ore tricky, an d cause difficulty even for advanced
students an d teachers. How exactly is th e present perfect used? W hen do we
use past tenses to be polite? W hat are th e differences betw een at, on and in w ith
expressions of place? We can say a chair leg - why not a cat leg? W hen can we use
the expression do so? W hen is the used w ith superlatives? Is unless the sam e as
i f not-1. W hat are th e differences betw een come and go, betw een each and every,
betw een big, large an d great, or betw een fairly, quite, rather an d pretty? Is it
correct to say There’s three more bottles in the fridge11. How do you actually say
3 x 4 = 121 And so on, an d so on.
Practical English Usage is a guide to problem s of this kind. It deals w ith over
1,000 points w hich regularly cause difficulty to foreign students of English. It
will be useful, for example, to a learner who is not sure how to use a particular
structure, or who has m ade a m istake an d w ants to find out why it is wrong. It
will also be helpful to a teacher who is looking for a clear explanation of a difficult
language point. There is very full coverage of gram m ar, as well as explanations
of a large num ber of com m on vocabulary problem s. There are also som e entries
designed to clarify m ore general questions (e.g. formality, slang, the nature of
standard English and dialects) w hich students and teachers m ay find them selves
concerned with.
Problem s are m ostly explained in short separate entries. This m akes it possible to
give a clear com plete treatm ent of each point, and enables the user to concentrate
just on the question th at he or she needs inform ation about. In longer entries,
basic inform ation is generally given first, followed by m ore detailed explanations
and discussion of m ore advanced points.

A complete student's grammar

The gram m atical entries in Practical English Usage are grouped into 28 Sections,
each dealing w ith a m ajor gram m atical topic (e.g. present tenses, passives, nouns
and n o u n phrases, prepositions, relative clauses). So the book can be used not
only as a guide to p articu lar usage problem s, but also as a system atic reference
gram m ar. For users who like to work in th is way, each Section begins w ith one or
two pages giving a general introduction to th e gram m atical topic, together w ith a
list of com m on m istakes th at are dealt w ith in the entries th at follow.

page viii
Vocabulary
The gram m ar Sections include a good deal of inform ation about the structures
used w ith particu lar words. In addition, the last th ree Sections of the book deal
specifically w ith vocabulary questions, an d include an A-Z guide to over 250
com m on w ord problem s of various kinds.

Approach and style

I have tried to m ake th e p resen tatio n as practical as possible. Each entry
contain s an explanation of a problem , exam ples of correct usage, a n d (when
th is is useful) exam ples of typical m istakes. In som e cases, an explanation
m ay be som ew hat different from th a t found in m any learners' gram m ars; this
is because th e rules traditionally given for ce rta in points (e.g. conditionals or
in d irect speech) are not always accurate or helpful. E xplanations are, as far
as possible, in sim ple everyday language. W here it has been necessary to use
gram m atical term inology, I have generally preferred to use trad itio n al term s
th a t are sim ple an d easy to u n d erstan d , except w here th is w ould be seriously
m isleading. Some of th ese term s (e.g. futu re tense) w ould be regarded as
unsatisfactory by academ ic g ram m arian s, b u t I am n o t w riting for specialists.
There is a glossary of th e term inology u sed in th e book on pages xx-xxix.

The kind of English described

The explanations deal m ain ly w ith sta n d a rd everyday so u th ern British
English, b u t contrasts betw een British an d A m erican English are given detailed
attention. There are also brief notes on several oth er varieties (e.g. A ustralian
and In d ian English). Inform ation ab o u t stylistic differences (e.g. betw een
form al an d inform al usage, or spoken an d w ritten language) is provided w here
th is is appropriate.

Correctness and rules

If people say th at a form is not 'correct', they can m ean several different things.
They m ay for instance be referring to a sentence like I have seen her yesterday,
w hich norm ally only occurs in th e English of foreigners. They m ay be thinking
of a usage like less people (instead offew er people), w hich is com m on in standard
English but regarded as w rong by som e people. Or they m ay be talking about
forms like ain-l or 'double negatives’, w hich are used in speech by m any British
and A m erican people, but w hich do not occur in th e standard dialects and are not
usually w ritten. This book is m ainly concerned w ith the first kind of 'correctness';
the differences betw een British or A m erican English and 'foreign' English.
However, there is also inform ation about cases of divided usage in standard
English, an d about a few im p o rtan t dialect forms.
The rules given in this book are descriptive: they explain w hat actually happens
in stan d ard spoken an d w ritten English. Some usage guides give prescriptive
rules - rules devised by people who feel th at th e language should be tidied up
or protected against corruption. Such rules do not always correspond to actual
usage (the rule about not using less w ith plu rals is an example). In Practical
English Usage, I avoid giving rules w hich do not describe the language as it is
actually used, th o u g h I m ention th eir existence w here th is is useful.

page ix
What this book does not do
Practical English Usage is not a com plete guide to the English language. As the
title suggests, its purpose is practical: to give learners and their teachers the m ost
im p o rtan t inform ation they need in order to deal w ith com m on language
problem s. W ithin this framework, the explanations are as com plete and accurate
as I can m ake them . However, it is not always helpful or possible in a book of this
kind to deal w ith all the details of a com plex stru ctu ral point; so readers m ay well
find occasional exceptions to som e of the gram m atical rules given here. Equally,
the book does not aim to replace a dictionary. W hile it gives inform ation about
com m on problem s w ith the use of a num b er of words, it does not attem pt to
describe other m eanings or uses of th e w ords beside those points th a t are selected
for attention. Nor does it attem pt to cover all th e vocabulary problem s th at
learners m ay m eet: for this, an o th er com plete book would be needed.

Changes in the fourth edition

After consultation w ith users, th e alp h ab etical organisation w hich w as used in
previous editions h as b een replaced by a th em atic arran g em en t (see above), so
as to m ake it easier to search for inform ation. A nu m b er of am en d m en ts have
also b een m ad e to p a rtic u la r en tries to reflect recent changes in the language -
for instance, th e red u ced frequency of som e m odal verbs, th e disap p earan ce of
shall, or cases w here British English is adopting A m erican usage.

How much do mistakes matter?

It depends on how m uch people need, or want, a high level of correctness when
speaking or w riting another language. For m any learners this is im portant - for
instance for work, examinations, or their own personal goals - and Practical English
Usage will help them to approach standard British/American native-speaker usage.
However, it it is im portant for such learners not to becom e obsessed w ith correctness,
or to worry every tim e they m ake a mistake. It is quite unnecessary to speak or write
a language like a native speaker in order to com m unicate effectively, and very few
adults in fact achieve a perfect com m and of another language. For some learners,
on the other hand, accuracy is relatively unim portant: people can use English
successfully for international com m unication even w hen their gram m ar differs
considerably from native-speaker models. However, too m any such differences can
m ake a speaker or w riter difficult to understand, so it is good even for these learners
to aim at a reasonable level of correctness.
Note also th at 'm istake' is a relative term . The m istakes listed in this book are wrong
if produced by someone aim ing to write standard British or American English. They
would not necessarily be incorrect in some other varieties of the language.

How to find things: the Index

The best way to find inform ation about a particular point is to look in the Index at
the end of the book. Most points are indexed under several different nam es, so it is
not difficult to locate the entry you need. For instance, if you w ant to know about
using to instead of a whole infinitive, in structures like I hope to, I ’d like to, you
can find the num ber of the entry where this is explained by looking in the Index
under ‘to’, ’infinitives', ‘ellipsis' or ‘leaving out words'. (On the other hand, it would
obviously not be helpful to look under ‘hope’ or ‘w an t’: the rule is a general one
about infinitive structures, not about these two verbs in particular.)
page x
 Using the Index

to (infinitive m arker) 89.6; u se d in stead of infinitives SECTIONS 8-10; introduction

w h o le in fin i^ "" ~>an 1■
pronunciatii
■'r' A 88; progressive, perfect, passive an d
negative infinitives 89; split infinitive
89.7; perfect infinitives (e.g. to have left)
90; w ith o u t to 91; to in stead of w hole
infinitive 280.1; as subject, o b je c to r
c o m p lem en t 92; infinitive o r -ing form
99; infinitive or -ing form w ith different
use s 105; after verbs 97; after verb +
object 98; after hear, see, etc + object 110;
'after adj ectives 101; after easy, difficult,
impossible, etc 101.4; after superlatives
(e.g. the youngest person to) 101.3;
after n o u n s a n d p ro n o u n s 102; after

280 ellipsis: infinitives /

1 to used instead o f w hole infinitive: We hope to.
We can use to instead of the whole infinitive of a repeated verb (and following
words), if the meaning is clear.
‘Areyou and Gillian getting married?1‘We hope to.’
‘Let's go for a walk.’ 'I don’t want to.’
I don't dance much now, but I used to a lot.
Sorry I shouted at you. I didn't mean to.
'Somebody ought to clean up the bathroom.' ‘I'll ask Jack to.’
Be and have (used for possession) are not usually dropped.
There are more flowers than there used to be. ( n o t . . . than there used /<0
She hasn't been promoted yet, but she ought to i
You've got more freckles than you used to have.
than you used~tOi)

ellipsis (leaving o u t w ords) : leave p reposition 213; + object + infinitive

after adjectives 278.1; aftei 98; a n d forget 470; w ith p reparatory it
or 276; after as a n d than 2 (e.g. I'll leave it to y o u to decide) 269.4;
auxiliary verbs 279; after ci w ith tw o objects 8.1
275.11; after d eterm in ers ; leave off .. .ing 100.1
after i f 244.6; after questioi leaving out words see ellipsis
a t th e b eg in n in g of a sentei left (= rem aining) 509
before q u estio n tags 306.8 leisurely adjective an d adverb 194.1
in ad v ertisem ents, instruct
in em ails, etc 290.2; in h ea
in infinitives (e.g. I d o n 't w a n t to) 280.1;
in n o u n p h rases 278; in replies 275.1;
leaving o u t articles 142; leaving out
i f 244.4; leaving o u t p repositions 214;
leaving o u t p rep o sitio ns before that
210.1; leaving o u t th a t 265; object relative
p ro n o u n 234.4; su b ject relative p ro n o u n
237.19; ellipsis causing co m p reh en sio n
p ro b lem s 285.6-7

page xi
How to find things: the Contents overview
Larger gram m atical topics (e.g. 'sim ple p re sen t’, ‘articles’, ‘reflexive p ronouns')
can also be found q uite easily by looking th ro u g h th e C ontents Overview on
pages x-xvi.

4 Talking about the Future

INTRODUCTION
35 going to 36 present progressive for future
37 simple present for future 38 will
39 will, going to and present progressive: advanced points
40 future perfect 41 future progressive
42 be to + infinitive: I am to you are to ..., etc 43 future in the past

12 Determiners: a/an and the-, my, your, etc; this, that, etc
INTRODUCTION
133 articles: introduction 134 articles: basic information (A)
135 articles: basic information (B) 136 more about the 137 more about а/ап
138 no article with plural and uncountable nouns
139 the difference between some!any and no article 140 talking in general
141 the\ difficult cases 142 special rules and exceptions
143 possessive determiners: my, your, etc 144 this and that
145 this/that and i t things that have just been mentioned

14 Pronouns
INTRODUCTION
173 personal pronouns: basic information
174 personal pronouns: advanced points 175 singular they
176 possessive pronouns: mine, yours, etc 177 a friend o f mine, etc
178 reflexive pronouns: myself, etc
179 reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another
180 somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, etc
181 one, you and they, used for people in general
182 one (substitute word): a big one

However, m any sm aller topics w ill not show up in the C ontents Overview,
because they do not have th eir ow n separate entries. So for in stance to find
w hat stru c tu re s can be used w ith expect or hope, or w hat is the correct plural
form of phenom enon, it is b est to go to th e Index.

page xii
 Contents overview
This overview gives a general picture of the topics covered in the book; it is not
a com plete guide to the contents. References are to entry num bers. To find
inform ation about a particular point, consult the Index at the back of the book.

Grammar
1 Verbs
INTRODUCTION
1 irregular verbs 2 active verb tenses 3 progressive structures
4 non-progressive verbs 5 progressive w ith always, etc
6 perfect structures 7 subjects, objects and com plem ents
8 verbs w ith two objects 9 verbs with both active and passive m eanings
10 verb + object + com plem ent: You m ake m e nervous.
11 linking verbs: be, seem, look, etc 12 tw o-part verbs: phrasal verbs
13 tw o-part verbs: prepositional verbs 14 verbs of m ovem ent: she ran in, etc
15 verb + verb: auxiliary verbs 16 verb + verb: other structures

2 Be, have and do

INTRODUCTION
17 be: general 18 be: progressive forms 19 be w ith auxiliary do 20 there is
21 have: introduction 22 have: auxiliary verb 23 have: actions
24 have (got): possession, relationships and other states 25 be and have
26 do: introduction 27 do: auxiliary verb 28 do: substitute verb ( / m ay do.)
29 do so /it/th a t

3 Present Tenses
INTRODUCTION
30 simple present: forms 31 simple present: use
32 present progressive 33 stories, com m entaries and instructions
34 present tenses: advanced points

4 Talking about the Future

INTRODUCTION
35 going to 36 p resent progressive for future
37 simple present for future 38 will
39 will, going to an d present progressive: advanced points
40 future perfect 41 future progressive
42 be to + infinitive: I a m to . . . , you are to . . . , etc 43 future in the past

5 Past and Perfect Tenses

INTRODUCTION
44 simple past 45 past progressive
46 past form with present or future meaning 47 present perfect: basic information
48 present perfect or past? 49 p resent perfect or past: advanced points

C ontents overview • xiii

To find the answer to a specific question, see the Index ►
 50 present perfect progressive
51 present perfect sim ple or progressive? 52 present perfect or present?
53 past perfect: basic inform ation 54 past perfect: advanced points
55 past perfect: progressive 56 This is the first/last . . etc

6 Passives
INTRODUCTION
57 passive structures and verb forms 58 by + agent
59 passive m odal structures: It can be done tomorrow.
60 get as passive auxiliary: He got caught.
61 verbs with two objects in the passive 62 verbs with prepositions in the passive
63 It was thought that . . . 64 He is believed to be . . .
65 He was considered a genius. 66 M y suitcase is packed.
67 W hen do we use passive structures?

7 Modal Auxiliary Verbs

INTRODUCTION
68 m odals: gram m ar, pronunciation and contractions
69 deduction (deciding that som ething is certain): must, can't, etc
70 deduction (deciding th at som ething is probable): should, ought to, etc
71 chances: may, m ight and could 72 m ay and might: som e special uses
73 strong obligation: must, will 74 strong obligation: have (got) to
75 have (got) to and m ust 76 w eaker obligation: should and ought to
77 w eaker obligation: had better 78 expectations: supposed to
79 willingness: will, can
80 instructions and requests: will, would, can, could, might, shall
81 perm ission: can, could, may, might, be allowed to 82 ability: can and could
83 ability: advanced points 84 can and could with see, hear, etc
85 be able to 86 typical behaviour: can, could, may, might, will, would
87 typical behaviour: used to + infinitive

8 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles

INTRODUCTION
88 infinitives: introduction 89 infinitives: forms
90 use of perfect infinitives: glad to have left
91 infinitives w ithout to: I saw you come in.
92 infinitive as subject or com plem ent 93 -mg forms: introduction
94 -ing form as subject, object or com plem ent
95 infinitive o r -in g form? 96 participles: -ing and -ed forms used like adjectives

9 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles after Nouns, Verbs, etc
INTRODUCTION
97 infinitives after verbs: It's beginning to rain.
98 verb + object + infinitive: I w ant you to listen. 99 try and .. . , go an d . . . , etc
100 -ing forms after verbs: I enjoy travelling.
101 infinitives after adjectives: pleased to see you
102 infinitives after nouns and pronouns: m y decision to leave
103 -ing forms after nouns and adjectives: tired o f listening

C ontents overview • xiv

 104 -ing forms after prepositions: w ithout breaking eggs
105 infinitives or -ing forms: both possible with different uses
106 active an d passive infinitive with sim ilar m eaning
107 causative structures with m ake 108 causative and similar structures with get
109 causative an d sim ilar structures w ith have
110 hear, see, etc + object + verb form

10 Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles: Other Uses

INTRODUCTION
111 infinitives after question words: who t o . . . , etc
112 infinitive of purpose: I sat dow n to rest. 113 fo r . . . to . . .
114 infinitives: other uses 115 participle clauses

11 Nouns and Noun Phrases; Agreement

INTRODUCTION
116 spelling of plurals 117 irregular and special plurals
118 pronunciation of plurals
119 countable and uncountable nouns: basic inform ation
120 countable and uncountable nouns: advanced points
121 piece- and group-words: a blade o f grass; a bunch o f flowers
122 noun + complement: W hat can follow a noun?
123 possessives: n o u n + 's (forms) 124 nouns in com bination: m y father's house
125 nouns in com bination: m ilk chocolate
126 classifying expressions: n o u n + n o u n or preposition structure?
127 classifying expressions w ith ’s: a child’s toy; cow's m ilk
128 singular expressions w ith plural verbs
129 plural expressions with singular verbs
130 m ixed singular and plural: other structures
131 distributive plural: Tell them to bring raincoats.
132 turning verbs into nouns: a cough, a taste

12 Determiners: a/an and the; my, your, etc; this, that, etc
INTRODUCTION
133 articles: introduction 134 articles: basic inform ation (A)
135 articles: basic inform ation (B) 136 m ore about the 137 m ore about а /а п
138 no article w ith plural and uncountable nouns
139 the difference betw een som e!any and no article 140 talking in general
141 the: difficult cases 142 special rules an d exceptions
143 possessive determ iners: my, your, etc 144 this and that
145 th is/that and it: things that have just been m entioned

13 Determiners: Quantifiers
INTRODUCTION
146 all: introduction 147 all (of) w ith n o u n phrases and pronouns
148 all w ith the verb: We can all swim. 149 all, everybody/everyone and everything
150 all an d whole 151 every (one) 152 every and all 153 each
154 each an d every: the difference 155 both 156 either 157 neither
158 some 159 any 160 any = ‘it doesn’t m atter w ho/w hich/w hat’

C ontents overview • xv
To find the answer to a specific question, see the Index ►
 161 some and any: the m ain differences 162 any and every: the difference
163 no, none an d not a /a n y 164 no one and none 165 m uch and m any
166 more 167 m ost 168 (a) little and (a) fe w 169 less and few er
170 least and few est 171 enough
172 quantifying expressions: a lot, lots, a great deal, the majority, etc

14 Pronouns
INTRODUCTION
173 personal pronouns: basic information
174 personal pronouns: advanced points 175 singular they
176 possessive pronouns: mine, yours, etc 177 a friend o f mine, etc
178 reflexive pronouns: myself, etc
179 reciprocal pronouns: each other an d one another
180 somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, etc
181 one, you and they: used for people in general
182 one (substitute word): a big one

15 Adjectives
INTRODUCTION
183 adjectives: norm al position 184 order of adjectives 185 adjectives with and
186 adjectives after nouns and pronouns
187 adjectives: position after as, how, so, too 188 adjectives without nouns
189 gradable and non-gradable adjectives
190 measurements: ‘m arked’ and ‘unm arked’ forms
191 pronunciation of aged, naked, etc 192 W hat can follow an adjective?

16 Adverbs and Adverbials

INTRODUCTION
193 adverbs of m anner and adjectives 194 adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases
195 adverb particles: up, down, back, away, etc
196 position of adverbials: introduction 197 connecting and com m ent adverbials
198 indefinite frequency, certainty and com pleteness 199 focusing adverbials
200 m id-position: details 201 m anner, place and time
202 adverbials modifying adverbials: terribly sorry; right past m e

17 Comparison
INTRODUCTION
203 as . . . as; as m u ch /m a n y as 204 com parative and superlative adjectives
205 com parative and superlative adverbs
206 using com paratives and superlatives 207 m uch older, by fa r the oldest, etc
208 com parison: advanced points

18 Prepositions
INTRODUCTION
209 prepositions at the ends of clauses 210 prepositions before conjunctions
211 - ing forms and infinitives
212 prepositions before particular w ords and expressions

C ontents overview • xvi

 213 prepositions after particular w ords an d expressions
214 expressions w ithout prepositions

19 Basic Clause Types

INTRODUCTION
215 sentence structure: basic w ord order 216 questions: basic rules
217 negative structures: basic rules 218 negative questions
219 negative structures w ith think, hope, seem, etc
220 m ultiple negatives: I couldn't see nobody.
221 am biguous negatives
222 non-affirm ative words: anybody, ever, yet, etc 223 exclam ations
224 im peratives 225 let introducing im peratives

20 Conjunctions, Sentences and Clauses

INTRODUCTION
226 putting things together: and, but, or
227 not . . . or; not . . . nor; a n d not
228 em phatic coordination: both . . . and; (n)either . . . (n)or; not only
229 subordinate clauses: som e general points
230 who, which, what, etc after prepositions
231 tense sim plification in subordinate clauses
232 subjunctive: th a t she go, that they be, i f I were, etc

21 Relative Clauses
INTRODUCTION
233 relatives: basic inform ation
234 identifying and non-identifying clauses:
the tall m an w h o . . . ; Mr Rogers, w h o . . .
235 whose 236 w hat 237 relatives: advanced points

22 If
INTRODUCTION
238 ordinary structures 239 special structures with past tenses and would
240 if I were you 241 unreal past situations 242 i f only 243 if . . . will
244 other points 245 other structures found in spoken English
246 other w ords an d expressions w ith sim ilar uses 247 unless
248 in case and if

23 Other Adverbial Clauses

INTRODUCTION
249 after: conjunction 250 before: conjunction
251 as, when and while: sim ultaneous events 252 whoever, whatever, etc
253 no m atter who, etc 254 whether . . . or . . .
255 as an d though: special w ord order
256 than- and as-clauses: leaving out subjects, etc

Contents overview • xvii

To find the answer to a specific question, see the Index ►
24 Noun Clauses, Direct and Indirect Speech
INTRODUCTION
257 direct speech: reporting verbs and word order
258 indirect speech: introduction 259 indirect speech: tenses
260 indirect speech: questions and answers 261 whether and if
262 indirect speech: infinitives 263 indirect speech: advanced points
264 that-clauses 265 leaving out that 266 interrogative (question-word) clauses

25 Information Structure
INTRODUCTION
267 inform ation structure: norm al order an d variations
268 preparatory it: subject 269 preparatory it: object
270 inversion: auxiliary verb before subject
271 inversion: full verb before subject
272 fronting: This question we have already discussed.
273 cleft sentences: It was m y secretary who . . .
274 cleft sentences: W hat I need is a rest.
275 ellipsis (leaving w ords out): introduction
276 ellipsis with and, but and or 277 ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence
278 ellipsis in n o u n phrases 279 ellipsis after auxiliary verbs
280 ellipsis: infinitives

26 Written Texts
INTRODUCTION
281 formality 282 p ronouns and other proform s
283 linking with conjunctions and adverbs 284 discourse m arkers in writing
285 reading com plicated structures 286 paragraphs 287 repetition
288 academ ic writing 289 correspondence: letters
290 correspondence: emails, text messages, etc 291 abbreviated styles
292 headlines 293 punctuation: full stop, question m ark and exclamation mark
294 punctuation: colon 295 punctuation: sem i-colon
296 punctuation: com m a 297 punctuation: dash
298 punctuation: quotation marks

27 Speech and Spoken Exchanges

INTRODUCTION
299 spoken sentence structure 300 avoiding repetition: Wonderful, isn’t it?
301 discourse m arkers in speech 302 declarative questions: That’s the boss?
303 rhetorical questions: Who cares?
304 echo questions: She's invited how many?
305 question tags: basic inform ation 306 question tags: advanced points
307 reply questions: Was it? D id you, dear? 308 short answers: Yes, he can, etc
309 so am I, neither do they, etc 310 politeness: using questions
311 politeness: distancing verb forms 312 politeness: softening expressions
313 pronunciation: stress and rhythm 314 pronunciation: intonation
315 pronunciation: weak and strong forms

Contents overview • xviii

28 Varieties of English
INTRODUCTION
316 standard English and dialects 317 correctness 318 changes in English
319 A m erican and British English 320 other varieties of English

Vocabulary
29 Vocabulary Areas
INTRODUCTION
321 nationalities, countries and regions 322 num bers 323 talking about age
324 dates 325 telling th e tim e 326 nam es and titles: Daniel; M r Lewis
327 nam es: Florence, Homer, etc 328 gender (references to m ales and females)
329 ‘social’ language 33 m eals 331 telephoning
332 idioms, collocations and form ulaic expressions
333 formal an d inform al vocabulary 334 slang
335 discrim inatory and offensive language

30 Word Formation and Spelling

INTRODUCTION
336 abbreviations 337 contractions: I'll, d o n ’t, etc 338 prefixes and suffixes
339 -ic an d -ical 340 apostrophes 341 capital letters 342 hyphens
343 -ise and -ize 344 -able and -ible 345 -ly 346 final e
347 doubling final consonants 348 у an d i 349 ch and tch, к and ck
350 ie a n d e i 351 spelling and pronunciation

31 Word Problems from A to Z 352-635

Contents overview • xix

To find the answer to a specific question, see the Index ►

L a n g u a g e te rm in o lo g y
The following w ords an d expressions are used in this book to talk about gram m ar
an d other aspects of language.
abstract noun (the opposite of a concrete noun) the nam e of som ething
w hich we experience as an idea, n o t by seeing, touching, etc. Examples: doubt;
height; geography.
active An active verb form is one like breaks, told, will help (not like is broken,
was told, will be helped, w hich are passive verb forms). The subject of an
active verb is usually the person or thing that does the action, or that is
responsible for w hat happens,
adjective a w ord like green, hungry, impossible, w hich is used w hen we
describe people, things, events, etc. Adjectives are used in connection with
nouns and pronouns. Examples: a green apple; She’s hungry.
adjective clause another nam e for relative clause
adverb a w ord like tomorrow, once, badly, there, also, w hich is used to say,
for example, w hen, w here or how som ething happens,
adverbial an adverb, or a longer expression w hich has a similar function to an
adverb in a clause. Examples: I usually get up a t seven o ’clock on weekdays.
adverbial clause a clause w hich functions as an adverbial. Examples: On Sundays
I usually get up w hen I w ake up; I'll phone you i f l have time.
adverb particle a short adverb like up, out, off, often used as part of a phrasal
verb (e.g. clean up, look out, tell off).
affirmative an affirmative sentence is one that m akes a positive statem ent -
n ot a negative sentence or a question. Com pare I agree (affirmative); I d o n ’t
agree (negative).
agent In a passive sentence, the agent is the expression that says who or what
an action is done by. Example: This picture was probably painted by a child.
article A, an and the are called 'articles! A !an is called the 'indefinite article';
the is called the 'definite article!
aspect Many gram m arians prefer to talk about progressive and perfective aspect,
rather than progressive and perfect tense, since these forms express other ideas
besides tim e (e.g. continuity, com pletion). However, in this book the term tense
is often used to include aspect, for the sake of simplicity,
attributive Adjectives placed before nouns are in ‘attributive position!
Examples: a green shirt; m y noisy son. See also predicative,
auxiliary verb a verb like be, have, do w hich is used with another verb to make
tenses, passive forms, etc. Examples: She was writing; Where have you p u t itl
See also modal auxiliary verb,
base form the form of a verb that has no endings or other changes, used for
example in infinitives, imperatives and present tenses (except third person
singular). Examples: I ’d like to phone; Pass the salt.
clause a stretch of language w hich contains a subject and a finite verb. Sentences
consist of one or m ore clauses. Examples: A lex co u ld n ’t com e today. I'll be
g la d when H arry gets back. The w ord clause is also som etim es used for som e
structures containing participles or infinitives. Example: N ot know ing w h a t to
do, I telephoned Robin. See also co-ordinate clause, main clause, subordinate
clause.
Language term inology • xx
cleft sentence a sentence in w hich special em phasis is given to one part (e.g.
the subject or th e object) by using a structure w ith it or what. Examples: It
was you that caused the accident; W hat I need is a drink.
collective noun a singular w ord for a group. Examples: fa m ily; team.
comparative the form of an adjective or adverb m ade with -er (e.g. older,
faster); also the structure more + adjective/adverb, used in the sam e way
(e.g. more useful, more politely).
complement 1. (predicative com plem ent) a part of a sentence that gives more
inform ation about the subject (after be, seem and som e other verbs), or, in som e
structures, about the object. Examples: You're the right person to help; She looks
very kind; I hey elected him President.
2. a structure or w ords n eed ed after a noun, adjective, verb or preposition
to com plete its m eaning. Examples: the intention to travel; fu ll o f water;
try phoning; dow n the street.
compound a com pound noun, verb, adjective, preposition, etc is one that is
m ade of two or m ore parts. Examples: bus driver; get on with; one-eyed.
concrete noun (the opposite of an abstract noun) the nam e of something which we
can experience by seeing, touching, etc. Examples: cloud; petrol; raspberry.
conditional a clause or sentence containing «/(or a w ord with a similar meaning).
Examples: I f you try you'll understand; I w ould be surprised if she knew;
Supposing the train had been late, w hat would you have done?
conjunction a word like and, but, although, because, when, if, which can be
used to join clauses together. Example: I rang because I was worried.
consonant for example, the letters b, c , d , f g an d their usual sounds (see
Phonetic alphabet, page xxx). See also vowel,
continuous the sam e as progressive.
contraction a short form in w hich a subject and an auxiliary verb, or
an auxiliary verb and the word not, are joined together into one word.
Contractions are also m ade w ith non-auxiliary be and have.
Examples: I'm; who've; lo h n ’ll; can’t.
co-ordinate clause one of two or m ore clauses of equal 'value' th at are connected.
Examples: Shall I com e to y o u r place or w ould yo u like to com e to mine?;
I t’s cooler today a nd there's a b it o f a w ind. See also clause, main clause,
subordinate clause.
co-ordinating conjunction a conjunction that joins co-ordinate clauses or other
co-ordinate structures. Examples: and, but, or.
countable noun a n o u n like car, dog, idea, w hich can have a plural form, and
can be used w ith the indefinite article a/a n . See also uncountable noun,
declarative question a question which has the sam e gram m atical form as a
statem ent. Example: That's your girlfriend?
definite article the.
defining relative see identifying relative,
demonstrative this, these, that, those.
determiner one of a group of w ords that begin noun phrases. D eterm iners
include a/an, the, my, this, each, either, several, more, both, all.
direct object see object.

Language term inology • xxi

direct speech speech reported ‘directly! in the words used by the original
speaker (m ore or less), w ithout any changes of tense, pronouns, etc. Example:
She looked a t m e and said, 'This is m y m o n ey’. See also indirect speech,
discourse marker a w ord or expression which shows the connection betw een
w hat is being said and the wider context. A discourse m arker may, for
example, connect a sentence w ith w hat com es before or after, or it may show
the speaker’s attitude to w hat h e /sh e is saying. Examples: on the other hand;
frankly; as a m atter o f fact.
duration how long som ething lasts. The preposition fo r can be used with an
expression of tim e to indicate duration,
ellipsis leaving out words w hen their m eaning can be understood from the context.
Examples: (It’s a) Nice day, isn't it?; It was better than I expected (it would be).
emphasis giving special im portance to one part of a word or sentence
(for exam ple by pronouncing it m ore loudly; by writing it in capital letters;
by using do in an affirmative clause; by using special word order),
emphatic pronoun reflexive pronoun (myself, yourself, etc) used to em phasise
a n o u n or pronoun. Examples: I'll tell him myself, I w ouldn’t sell this to the
president himself. See also reflexive pronoun,
ending som ething added to the end of a word, e.g. -er, -ing, -ed.
finite verb Verbs which show tim e (e.g. goes, went) are often called ‘finite’ in
gram m ars; other forms (e.g written, playing) are called 'non-finite!
first person see person.
formal the style used w hen talking politely to strangers, on special occasions,
in som e literary writing, in business letters, etc. For example, commence is a
m ore formal w ord than start.
frequency Adverbials of frequency say how often som ething happens. Examples:
often; never; daily; occasionally; every three days.
fronting moving a part of a clause to the beginning in order to give it special
em phasis. Example: Jack I like, but his wife I can't stand.
full verb a verb that is not an auxiliary verb. Examples: work, remove, explain.
future a verb tense m ade w ith the auxiliary will (or som etim es shall) + infinitive
w ithout to. Example: I will arrive on Tuesday evening.
future perfect a verb tense m ade with shall/will + have + past participle.
Example: I w ill have fin ish e d by lunchtime.
future progressive (or future continuous) a verb tense m ade with
shall!will + be + .. .ing. Example: I w ill be needing the car this evening.
gender the use of different gram m atical forms to show the difference betw een
m asculine, fem inine and neuter, or betw een hum an and nonhum an.
Examples: he; she; it; who; which.
gerund the form of a verb ending in -ing, used like a noun (for example, as the
subject or object of a sentence). Examples: Sm oking is bad fo r you; I hate
getting up early. See also present participle,
gradable Pretty, hard or cold are gradable adjectives: things can be m ore or
less pretty, hard or cold. Adverbs of degree (like rather, very) can be used with
gradable words. Perfect or dead are not gradable words: we do not usually say
that som ething is more or less perfect, or very dead.

Language term inology • xxii

grammar the rules that show how words are com bined, arranged or changed
to show certain kinds of meaning,
hypothetical Some words and structures (e.g. m odal verbs, (/-clauses) are used for
hypothetical situations - that is to say, situations which may not happen, or are
imaginary. Example: W hat would you do if you had six m onths free?
identifying (or defining) relative clause a relative clause which identifies a
nou n - which tells us w hich person or thing is being talked about. Example:
There’s the w om an w ho tried to steal y o u r cat. (The relative clause who tried
to steal your cat identifies the w om an - it tells us which w om an is m eant.)
See also non-identifying relative clause,
imperative th e form of a verb used to give orders, m ake suggestions, etc.
Examples: B ring m e a pen; H ave a good holiday.
indefinite article a/an.
indirect object see object.
indirect speech a structure in which we report w hat som ebody said by making
it part of our own sentence (so that the tenses, w ord order, pronouns and
other w ords m ay be different from those used by the original speaker).
Compare: He said ‘I ’m tired’ (the original speaker’s w ords are reported in
direct speech) and He said th a t he was tired (the original speaker's w ords are
reported in indirect speech),
infinitive the base form of a word (usually w ith to), used after another verb,
after an adjective or noun, or as th e subject or com plem ent of a sentence.
Examples: I w ant to go hom e; It’s easy to sing-, I've got a plan to sta rt a
business-, To err is hum an, to forgive divine.
informal the style used in ordinary conversation, personal letters, etc, when there is
no special reason to speak politely or carefully. I'll is more informal than I will; get
is used mostly in an informal style; start is a m ore informal word than commence.
-ing form the form of a verb ending in -ing. Examples: finding-, keeping-,
running. See also gerund, present participle,
initial at the beginning. Sometimes is an adverb that can go in initial position
in a sentence. Example: Som etim es I wish I had a different job.
intensifying making stronger, m ore emphatic. Very and terribly are intensifying
adverbs.
interrogative Interrogative structures and words are used for asking
questions. In an interrogative sentence, there is an auxiliary verb (or n o n ­
auxiliary be) before th e subject (e.g. Can you swim?-, Are you ready?).
What, who and where are interrogative words,
intonation the ‘m elody’ of spoken language: the way the musical pitch of the
voice rises and falls to show m eaning, sentence structure or mood,
intransitive An intransitive verb is one that cannot have an object or be used
in the passive. Examples: smile; fall; come; go.
inversion a structure in w hich an auxiliary or other verb com es before its
subject. Examples: Never h a d she seen such a mess; Here comes John.
irregular n o t following the norm al rules, or not having the usual form. An
irregular verb has a past tense an d /o r past participle that does not end in -ed
(e.g. swam, taken); children is an irregular plural.

Language term inology • xxiii

linking verb (or copular verb) be, seem, feel and other verbs w hich link a subject
to a com plem ent that describes it. Examples: My mother is in Jexsey^tlaseems
unhappy; This feels soft.
main clause, subordinate clause Some sentences consist of a m ain clause and
one or m ore subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause acts like a part of the
m ain clause (e.g. like a subject, or an object, or an adverbial). Examples:
Where she is doesn't m atter (the subordinate clause Where she is is the subject
of the m ain clause); I told you th a t I d id n ’t care (the subordinate clause that I
d id n ’t care is the direct object in the m ain clause); You'll fin d friends wherever
y o u go (the subordinate clause wherever you go acts like an adverb in the
m ain clause: com pare You'll fin d friends anywhere).
main verb A verb phrase often contains one or m ore auxiliary verbs together with
a m ain verb. The m ain verb is the verb which expresses the central m eaning;
auxiliary verbs m ostly add gram m atical inform ation (for instance, they may
show that a verb is progressive, future, perfect or passive). Examples: is going;
will explain; has arrived; w ould have been forgotten.
manner an adverbial of m an n er describes how som ething happens. Examples:
well; suddenly; fast; w ithout any delay.
mid-position If an adverbial is in m id-position in a sentence, it is with the verb.
Example: I have never been to Africa.
misrelated participle (also called hanging or dangling participle) a participle
w hich appears to have a subject w hich is not its own. Example: Looking out o f
the window, the m ountains appeared very close. (This seem s to say that the
m ountains were looking out of the window.) The structure is usually avoided
in careful w riting because of the danger of m isunderstanding,
modal auxiliary verb one of the verbs can, could, may, might, must, will, shall,
would, should, ought.
modify An adjective is said to 'm odify' the n oun it is with: it adds to or defines
its m eaning. Examples: a fin e day; m y new job. An adverb can modify a verb
(e.g. run fa st), an adjective (e.g. com pletely ready) or other w ords or expressions.
In sports car, the first n o u n modifies the second,
negative a negative sentence is one in w hich the word not is used with the
verb. Example: I d id n ’t know.
nominal relative clause a relative clause (usually introduced by what) which
acts as the subject, object or com plem ent of a sentence. Example: I gave him
w h a t he needed.
non-affirmative (also called non-assertive) The words some, somebody,
somewhere, etc are used m ost often in affirmative sentences. In other kinds of
sentence they are often replaced by any, anybody, anywhere, etc. Words like
any, anybody, etc are called 'non-affirm ative' or non-assertive' forms. Other
non-affirmative forms are yet an d ever.
non-identifying (or non-defining) relative clause a relative clause w hich does
not identify the noun it refers to (because we already know which person or
thing is m eant). Example: There’s H annah Smith, w ho tried to steal m y cat.
(The relative clause, who tried to steal m y cat, does not identify the person -
she is already identified by the nam e H annah Smith.) See also identifying
relative clause.

Language term inology • xxiv

noun a w ord like oil, memory, arm, w hich can be usecFwith an article. Nouns
are m ost often the nam es of people or things. Personal nam es (e.g. George)
and place nam es (e.g. Birm ingham ) are called ‘proper no u n s’; they are
m ostly used w ithout articles,
noun phrase a group of w ords (e.g. article + adjective + noun) which acts as
the subject, object or com plem ent in a clause. Example: the last bus.
number the way in w hich differences betw een singular and plural are shown
grammatically. The differences betw een house and houses, mouse and mice,
this and these are differences of num ber,
object a n o u n phrase or p ronoun that norm ally com es after the verb in an
active clause. The direct object m ost often refers to a person or thing (or
people or things) affected by the action of the verb. In the sentence Take the
dog fo r a walk, the dog is the direct object. The indirect object usually refers to
a person (or people) who receive(s) the direct object. In the sentence Anna
gave m e a watch, the indirect object is me, an d the direct object is a watch.
See also subject,
participle see present participle and past participle.
participle clause a clause-like structure which contains a participle, not a verb
tense. Examples: D iscouraged by his fa ilure, he resigned fro m his job; H aving
a couple o f hours to spare, I went to see a film .
passive A passive verb form is m ade w ith be + past participle. Examples:
is broken; was told; will be helped (but n o t breaks, told, will help, w hich are
active verb forms). The subject of a passive verb form is usually the person or
thing that is affected by the action of the verb. Compare: 7hey sent Lucas to
prison fo r fiv e years (active) and Lucas was sent to prison fo r five years
(passive). See also active,
past participle a verb form like broken, gone, stopped, w hich can be used to
form perfect tenses and passives, or as an adjective. (The m eaning is not
necessarily past, in spite of the nam e.)
past perfect a verb tense m ade w ith h ad + past participle. Examples: I h a d
forgotten; The children h a d arrived; She h a d been working; It h a d been
raining. The first two exam ples are sim ple past perfect; the last two
(with had been + .. .ing) are past perfect progressive (or continuous),
past progressive (or continuous) a verb tense m ade with was/were + .. .ing.
Examples: I w as going; They were stopping.
past simple see simple past.
perfect a verb form m ade with the auxiliary have + past participle. Examples:
I have forgotten; She h a d failed; h aving arrived; to have finished.
perfect conditional should/w ould have + past participle. Examples:
I sh o u ld / w ould have agreed; He w ould have know n.
perfect infinitive (to) have+ past participle. Example: to have arrived.
perfect participle a structure like having lost, having arrived.
person the way in which, in grammar, we show th e difference betw een the
person(s) speaking (first person), the person(s) spoken to (second person), and
the person, people or thing(s) spoken about (third person). The differences
betw een I, you, an d he/she, or betw een am , are an d is, are differences of person,
personal pronouns the w ords I, me, you, he, him, etc.

Language term inology • xxv

phrase two or m ore words that function together as a group. Examples: dead
tired; the silly old w om an; w ould have been repaired; in the country.
phrasal verb a verb form that is m ade up of two parts: verb + adverb particle.
Examples: fill up; run over; take in.
plural a gram m atical form used to refer to m ore th an one person cirHi'mg'
Examples: we-, buses; children; are; many; these. See also singular,
possessive a form used to show possession and similar ideas. Examples:
John's; our; mine.
possessive pronoun My, your, his, her, etc are possessive pronouns (they stand
for ‘the speaker’s,’ ‘the h earer’s! 'th at p erso n ’s’, etc). Mine, yours, his, hers, etc
are also possessive pronouns, for the sam e reason. My, your, etc are used
before nouns, so they are not only pronouns, but also determ iners. (They are
often called 'possessive adjectives! but this is not correct.) Mine, yours, etc are
used w ithout following nouns,
postmodifier a word that com es after the word which it modifies, e.g. invited
in The people in vited all came late. See also premodifier,
predicative Adjectives placed after a verb like be, seem, look are in predicative
position. Examples: The house is enorm ous; She looks happy. See also
attributive.
prefix a form like ex-, anti- or un-, w hich can be added to the front of a word
to give an additional or different m eaning. Examples: ex-wife, anti-British,
unhappy. See also suffix,
premodifier a word that com es before the word w hich it modifies, e.g. invited
in an invited audience. See also postmodifier,
preparatory subject, preparatory object W hen the subject of a sentence is an
infinitive or a clause, we usually put it towards the end of the sentence and
use the p ronoun it as a preparatory subject. Example: I t is im portant to get
enough sleep. It can also be used as a preparatory object in certain structures.
Example: He m ade it clear th a t he disagreed. There is used as a kind of
preparatory subject in there is . . . and similar structures. Example: There is
somebody a t the door.
preposition a word like on, off, of, into, norm ally followed by a noun or
pronoun.
prepositional verb a verb form that is m ade up of two parts:
verb form + preposition. Examples: insist on; care for; listen to.
present participle the form of a verb ending in -ing, used as an adjective,
a verb or part of a verb. Examples: a crying baby; O pening his newspaper,
he started to read; She was running. (The m eaning is no t necessarily present,
in spite of the nam e.) See also gerund,
present perfect a verb tense m ade with have/has + past participle. Examples:
I have forgotten; The children have arrived; I've been w orking all day;
It has been raining. The first two examples are simple present perfect; the last
two (with have been + .. .ing) are present perfect progressive (or present perfect
continuous).
present progressive (or continuous) a verb tense m ade with am /are/is + .. .ing.
Examples: I a m going; She is staying fo r two weeks.
present simple see simple present.
progressive (or continuous) A verb form m ade with the auxiliary be + .. .ing.
Examples: to be going; We were wondering; I'll be seeing you.

Language term inology • xxvi

progressive (or continuous) infinitive a form to be going) to be waiting.
pronoun a w ord like it, yourself, their, w hich is usecTInstead of a m ore precise
noun or n o u n phrase (like the cat, Tom's self, the fam ily's). The word pronoun
can also be used for a determ iner w hen this includes the m eaning of a
following n o u n w hich has been left out. Example: I ’ll take these.
proper noun or proper name a n o u n (m ost often with no article) which is the
nam e of a particular person, place, organisation, etc. Examples: Alex, Brazil;
the European Union.
quantifier a d eterm iner like many, few , little, several, w hich is used in a noun
phrase to show how m uch or how m any we are talking about,
question tag an expression like do you? or isn't it?, consisting of an auxiliary
verb (or non-auxiliary be or have) + pronoun subject, put on to the end of a
sentence. Examples: You d on’t eat meat, do you?; It's a nice day, isn’t it?
reflexive pronoun myself, yourself, himself, etc. Example: I cut m yself shaving
this morning. See also emphatic pronoun,
regular following the norm al rules or having the usual form. Hoped is a
regular past tense; cats is a regular plural. See also irregular,
relative clause a clause w hich modifies a noun, usually introduced by a
relative pro n o u n like who or which. Example: I like people who like me.
See also identifying relative clause, non-identifying relative clause,
relative pronoun a pronoun used to connect a relative clause to its noun.
Who, whom, whose, which and that can be used as relative pronouns, and
som etim es also when, where and why. Examples: There's the m an who wants
to buy m y car; This is the room w hich needs painting; Do you remember the
day w hen we met?
reply question a question (sim ilar in structure to a question tag) used to reply
to a statem ent, for instance, to express interest. Example: ‘I've been invited to
spend the weekend in London.' ‘H ave you, dear?'
second person see person.
sentence a group of w ords that typically expresses a statem ent, com m and,
question or exclamation. A sentence consists of one or more clauses, and usually
has at least one subject and verb. In writing, it begins with a capital letter and
ends with a full stop, question m ark or exclam ation mark,
short answer an answ er consisting of a subject and an auxiliary verb (or n o n ­
auxiliary be or have). Examples: ‘Has anybody phoned the police?' ‘J ack has. ';
' W ho’s ready fo r more?' I a m ’.
simple past (or past simple) a past verb tense that has no auxiliary verb in the
affirmative. Examples: I stopped; You heard; We knew.
simple present (or present simple) a present verb form that has no auxiliary
verb in the affirmative. Examples: He goes there often; I know; Ilik e chocolate.
simple a verb form that is not progressive.
singular a gram m atical form used to talk about one person, thing, etc, or about an
uncountable quantity or mass. Examples: me; bus; water; is; much; this. See also
plural.
slang a word, expression or special use of language found mainly in very
informal speech, often in the usage of particular groups of people. Examples:
thick (= stupid); lose one’s cool (= get upset); sparks (= electrician).

Language term inology • xxvii

 split infinitive a structure in which an adverb com es betw een to and the rest
of the infinitive. Example: to easily understand. Some people consider split
infinitives 'incorrect,' b u t they are com m on in standard usage,
standard A standard form of a language is the one that is m ost generally
accepted for use in governm ent, the law, business, education and literature.
I'm not is standard English; I a in ’t is non-standard,
statement a sentence which gives inform ation; not a question. Examples:
I ’m cold; Daniel d id n ’t come hom e last night.
stress the way in w hich one or m ore parts of a word, phrase or sentence are
m ade to sound m ore im portant than the rest, by using a louder voice an d /o r
higher pitch. In the word particular, the m ain stress is on the second syllable
(parTlcular); in th e sentence W here’s the new secretary? there are three
stresses (WHERE’S the NEWSEcretary?).
strong form, w eak form C ertain w ords can be pronounced in two ways:
slowly an d carefully with the vowel that is w ritten (strong form), or with a
quicker pronunciation with the vowel h i or / 1/ (weak form). Examples:
can (/каеп/, /к э п /) , was ( /w d z /, /w a z /),/o r (/fo:(r)/, Д э (г )/).
subject a n o u n phrase or p ro n o u n th at norm ally com es before the verb in an
affirmative clause. It often says (in an active clause) who or w hat does the
action that the verb refers to. Examples: Ellie gave m e a wonderful smile;
Oil floats on water. See also object,
subjunctive a verb form (not very com m on in British English) used in certain
structures. Examples: I f l were y o u ...; It’s im portant that he be informed
immediately; We prefer that he p a y in cash.
subordinate clause a clause w hich functions as part of another clause, for
example as subject, object or adverbial in the m ain clause of a sentence.
Examples: I thought th a t y o u understood; W hat I need is a drink; I ’ll follow
you wherever y o u go. See also clause, main clause,
subordinating conjunction a conjunction that joins a subordinate clause to the
rest of its sentence. Examples: when, if, because.
suffix a form like -ology, -able or -ese, w hich can be added to the end of a
word to give an additional or different m eaning. Examples: climatology;
understandable; Chinese. See also prefix,
superlative the form of an adjective or adverb m ade with the suffix -est
(e.g. oldest, fastest); also the structure m ost + adjective/adverb, used in the
sam e way (e.g. m ost intelligent, m ost politely).
syllable The w ord cat has one syllable, cattle has two, cataract has three and
category has four. A syllable norm ally has a vowel, and usually one or m ore
consonants before a n d /o r after the vowel. Som etim es the consonant sounds
I, m and n can act as syllables (for instance in the w ords bottle / ’b o tl/, capitalism
/'kaepitaliz(a)m /, button /'bA tn/).
tag a short phrase (e.g. pronoun subject + auxiliary verb) added on to the end
of a sentence, especially in speech. Examples: He likes to talk, Josh does; You
can’t swim, can you?; Very noisy, those kids. See also question tag.
tense a verb form that shows the tim e of an action, event or state, by a change in
its form a n d /o r the use of an auxiliary. Examples: worked, saw, will go; is sitting.
third person see person.
transitive a transitive verb is one that can have an object. Examples: eat
(a meal); drive (a car); give (a present). See also intransitive.

Language term inology • xxviii

uncountable noun a n o u n which has no plural form and cannot normally be
used w ith the article ala n . Examples: mud) rudeness;furniture.
verb a word like ask, wake, play, be, can. Most verbs refer to actions, events or
states. See also auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary verb, verb phrase,
verb phrase a verbal structure that has m ore than one part. Example: would have
been forgotten.
vowel the letters a, e, i, о, и and their com binations, and their usual sounds
(see Phonetic alphabet, page xxx). See also consonant,
weak form see strong form.

Language term inology • xxix

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Gauge for Laying Out Model Gear Wheels

The Gauge Steps Off Each Tooth Accurately for the Saw to Cut
the Next Slot

The illustration shows a simple device for making small gear

wheels by hand. It is made of a piece of brass, ¹⁄₈ in. thick and about
5 in. long, shaped as shown, forming a tooth, A, according to the
size of the teeth required in the gear wheel, with the end B on a
radial line from the center of the wheel. Use one or more hacksaws,
according to the size of the slots or teeth to be cut. If one blade is not
large enough and two are too large, grind off the teeth on the inner
side of the saws, or if two are not large enough, place a thin piece of
paper or metal between them to make the thickness required. Make
a clamp, C, for holding the blades together, by using a piece of sheet
brass, 6 in. long and ¹⁄₂ in. wide. This clamp also acts as a depth
gauge for the slots.
Place the wheel in a vise and proceed by cutting the first slot very
carefully. Place the tooth A of the gauge in this first slot and cut the
next by holding the side of the saw close up against the end of the
gauge, at B. This keeps all the teeth radiating from the center of the
wheel. Cut each slot in the same manner until all of them are formed.
—Contributed by George Jupp, New York City.
 Homemade Level

A Bottle Filled with Water and Tied to a Straight Piece of Wood for a Level

Having need of a level, and there being no place to obtain one

within several miles, I constructed one as follows: A long medicine
bottle was filled with water and tied to a straight piece of wood, 2 ft.
long. After setting it properly by turning the piece end for end several
times, I found that it could be used with accuracy.—Contributed by
Fred L. King, Islip, L. I.
 A Tuberculosis Cottage
By N. F. FULTZ

The tuberculosis society of a certain locality needed a

demonstration cottage for their crusade against the white plague,
and they placed their need before the boys of the public-school
shops. One class of eighth-grade boys volunteered, and two days
after the job was started the complete cottage was delivered to the
society. The material required for its construction was as follows:
220 linear feet of ship-lap, 1 in. thick and 6 in. wide.
80 ft. of 1-in. flooring.
6 studs, 14 ft. long.
7 pieces for plates and rafters, 2 by 4 in., 10 ft. long.
3 pieces for sills, 2 by 4 in., 16 ft. long.
100 ft. of sheathing boards.
100 ft. of tar roofing paper.

The cottage is constructed in sections and can be assembled or

dismantled in 30 minutes. The sections are not so heavy but that
they can be handled with ease by two men. There are seven
sections, namely, the floor, two sides, two ends, and two roof
sections. If the cottage is to be moved only a short distance, it can
be loaded into an ordinary dray assembled.
Since the building is made in sections, it is well to construct the
floor first, which is a simple matter. Cut two sills of the 2 by 4-in.
stock, 10 ft. long. Cap these onto the ends of the five joists, which
are cut from 2 by 4-in. stock, to a length that will total 8 ft. when the
thickness of the two sills are added. Lay the flooring the long way of
the section, bringing it flush with all outside edges. This completes
the floor section.
 The two side sections are made in a similar manner. Cut the studs
—12 of them—6 ft. 4 in. long, and four plates, 10 ft. long. Cap the
ends of the studs with the floor and rafter plates, according to the
measurement on the floor plan. Nail five pieces of ship-lap, cut 10 ft.
1¹⁄₂ in. long, on the bottom of the section, and one similar board to
the top edge. Bore four holes, ³⁄₈ in. in diameter, 1 in. from the
outside edge in the floor plate. These are for ¹⁄₂-in. lag screws, to
hold the parts together when the sections are assembled.
The front-end section is arranged for a 30-in. door. The top, or
rafter, plate is cut 7 ft. 4¹⁄₂ in. long. This makes the allowance for the
width of the side studs and plates when they are to be assembled, a
very important matter to remember. The floor plate is cut 4 ft. 5 in.
long. Provide a dummy, made from a waste piece, to be fastened at
the bottom of the door studs until the sections are assembled, when
it is removed. Use screws to fasten this piece in place. Nail five
pieces of ship-lap, 5 ft. long, at the bottom of the section, and an 8-ft.
piece at the top. Be careful to set the end studs in from the end of
the board the exact thickness of the corresponding studs on the side
section.
Cottage Built by Boys to Fill the Requirements of a Tuberculosis Society for
a Demonstration in Their Crusade against the White Plague

The back-end section is much more easily made. The top plate, as
well as the floor plate, is cut the same as on the other section. Place
the intermediate stud on the center and nail on ship-lap, as in the
other construction.
 Lap-Joint Corner Construction with Angle-Plate Reinforcement for the
Screens or Storm Screens

In making the roof sections, cut four rafters for an 18-in. pitch, or
any other pitch desired. These are to be placed at the ends. Note the
notch on the lower end of the rafter marked A in the illustration.
Make allowance for the thickness of the rider marked C. This piece
can be made of 2 by 4-in. stock or any convenient material 1 in.
thick. The rider must be nailed to the comb end of the rafters of one
section, while a dummy, fastened to the under side of the rafters of
the other section, will serve the purpose of holding them true until the
roof is placed. Nail the sheathing on, closing the cracks between the
boards as well as possible. Start at the comb end and bevel the first
board for the comb joint. Make allowance for an 8-in. board at the
lower end, so that a 4-in. overhang may be had. Cover these
sections with the desired roofing. Place two screw holes at the lower
end of each rafter to be used in holding the roof in place. Always use
screws instead of nails, if the house is to be dismantled. Provide
three rafter locks, marked B, and then the roof is ready for
assembling.

The Floor Section Consists of Simple Frame Construction of Ordinary

Material and Flooring Boards Fastened on the Frame to Make the Edges
Flush with the Sides and Ends

The three gable boards, cut from ship-lap, can be more easily
made after the cottage is assembled. After they are fitted, each
board must be fastened with screws which will find a hold in the
rafters. These boards are marked D. Be sure that all lag-screw holes
for the corner and floor moorings are bored before starting to
assemble the parts.
The screens are made with the half-lap construction at the corners
reinforced with angle plates. This construction is shown in the detail
sketch. The screens, or storm wings, should be covered with a good
grade of oilcloth or canvas. They are hung with an ordinary 3-in.
wing hinge.
The adjusting device for these storm wings consists of a piece of
1-in. gas pipe, 4 ft. long, threaded on one end to receive a collar.
Two flanges are used, one on each side of the board, above the
wings and located centrally. A wood plug is driven into the outer end
of the pipe, and a small pulley, suitable for a ³⁄₈-in. rope, hung on it.
Place a screw eye centrally into the lower edge of the wing and tie
the end of a ³⁄₈-in. rope to it. Run the other end of the rope through
the pulley and a hole in the wall. Place screw eyes, to which the rope
may be tied, at proper places on the inside of the wall boards. An
ordinary screen door is hung in the door opening.

Each Section is So Constructed That It can be Easily Handled and Set Up

with the Others to Form a Cottage, Only Screws being Used to Fasten the
Joints for Quick Assembling
 A house built in this manner was placed in the courthouse lawn as
a permanent fixture. Among other things brought out in the
construction was the fact that a cottage may be built by a boy at a
cost less than $50. Thus a stricken parent, brother, or sister may be
provided, by the hands of a young mechanic, with the first means
that may bring him or her back to health.
 To Remove Putty from the Hands
Putty purchased from a dealer is usually in a soft and oily state,
and the amateur glazier soon finds his hands, as well as the tools,
plentifully smeared after the job is finished. Removing this from the
hands with the putty knife or a stick is very tedious, but if a bunch of
fine excelsior is used, the putty will be removed quickly and
thoroughly.
 Focusing Screen for Enlarging Cameras
It is often very difficult when focusing an enlarging camera to
determine just when the perfect focus is reached, especially when
the negative is dim and without contrasting lights and shades. This
difficulty may be overcome and a perfect focus quickly determined
by the use of a focusing screen prepared as follows: Take a clear
film or plate, one that has been fixed without being exposed, and
when dry, rule lines on it with India ink to form small squares. To
make the ink adhere to the film, dust the latter with talcum powder.
To use the screen, slide the film to be enlarged in place and set it
for the size of enlargement, focusing roughly. Remove the film or
plate and put the screen in its place. The camera may now be
brought to a perfect focus with ease, as the black lines show up
sharp and clear on the screen. When the focus has been determined
the screen is removed and the film replaced.
The squares may be drawn from ¹⁄₄-in. size down to the smallest it
is possible to make. For large views it is easier to focus with the
smaller squares. If the squares are made to a certain size they can
be measured when thrown on the screen and the degree of
enlargement determined.—Contributed by R. H. Galbreath, Denver,
Colorado.

¶The longitudinal carriage handle should never be held in the hand

when cutting threads.
 An Indian Snake Game

Throwing the Snow Snake in Tracks Made through the

Snow with a Log: Each Player Tries to Get His Snake
First Out at the End of the Track More Times Than His
Opponents

Ask any Canadian Indian what a snow snake is, and he will tell
you that it is a piece of twisted wood, such as a wild grape vine,
about 5 or 6 ft. long, and 1 in. or over in thickness, stripped of its
bark and polished. It is grasped with one hand in the center and
given a strong forward throw at the tail end by the other hand, while
at the same time the hold in the center is loosened. With a hard
bottom and about 1 in., or more, of light snow on top—ideal
conditions for playing the game—the Indian snake will travel for a
long distance when thrown by an expert, and to a novice seeing the
snake traveling along at a rapid speed, raising and lowering its head
as the wood vibrates from side to side, its resemblance to the real
reptile is perfect.
When the Indians have tests of skill with the snake they make
tracks through the snow by drawing a log in it, and sometimes as
many as a dozen tracks are made side by side, and a dozen snakes
are sent along at once. The one who makes his snake emerge from
the end of the track first the most times out of a certain number of
throws, takes the prize. The trick of throwing the snake is not at all
hard to acquire, and it makes an exciting game.—J. E. Noble,
Toronto, Can.
 Storage of Wood for Cabinetwork
When working with wood to be made into furniture, or other
constructions of a high grade of workmanship, the ends of the
finished pieces should be shellacked in order to prevent moisture
from entering the ends. The ends are more susceptible to moisture,
as the pores of the wood are exposed. The application of this
remedy will often prevent warping or winding of boards, which is
particularly distressing after a piece has been shaped to its final size.
The pieces should be stored in a warm, dry room, and in any
event care should be taken that they are exposed evenly. If a board
is placed on the top of a pile of similar pieces, it will be noted that, if
left overnight and the weather becomes rainy, the upper piece will be
warped. This is caused by the absorption of moisture on the upper
side, the resulting expansion forcing the piece to warp or curve.
Long pieces of wood under process should be set on end while
being stored temporarily. The permanent storage should be in racks
having supports about 2 ft. apart. If the supports are too far apart,
the boards may warp or wind at intervening points. Boards in piles
should be separated by strips about 1 in. thick, set about 3 ft. apart,
in order that the lumber may be open to the air. This will keep the
stock more uniformly dry.
 Hanging Heavy Rug on a Line for Beating

When the Rug is Placed on the Line It is Easily Raised by Pulling the Rope
Ends

An easy way to put a heavy carpet, or rug, over a clothesline is to

fasten two pulleys, one to the house and the other to a post or tree,
or on two posts, and hang the line between them; then pull the rug
over the line and draw up the ends of the line. A very heavy rug can
be easily hung in this manner. The line should be long enough to
reach over the pulleys and to the ground and have end enough at
both supports for fastening.
 Repairing a Broken Metal Cross

A metal cross, the shank of which was imbedded in a plaster ball,

broke off level with the top. Not wishing to remove some of the
plaster to take out the shank, I soldered a stout brass pin on the
back of the cross, allowing the pin to project far enough to fit solidly
into a small hole back of the shank. This allowed the cracked edges
to fit closely together so that the crack could be entirely concealed
with a touch of bronze paint.—Contributed by James M. Kane,
Doylestown, Pa.
To Determine the Efficiency of Electrically Heated
Devices

Connections to the Voltmeter and Ammeter for Measuring the Input to an

Electric Heater

The efficiency of any machine is defined as being the ratio of the

output to the input expressed as a percentage, and both quantities
must be measured in the same units. For example, the output of a
motor is 10 hp. when the power taken by the motor from the electric
circuit to which it is connected is 9,325 watts. What is the efficiency?
Since the output must be expressed in the same units it is necessary
to change the 10 horsepower to watts or the 9,325 watts to
horsepower. There are 746 watts in each horsepower. The 9,325
watts are equivalent to 9,325 ÷ 746 or 12.5 hp. The efficiency is then
equal to 10 ÷ 12.5 or .8; that is, the output is .8 of the input or, when
multiplied by 100 to change it to percentage, 80 percent.
By way of an example, consider the efficiency of an electric heater,
like the one shown in the illustration, which is immersed in water
placed in a suitable vessel. The energy input to this heater in a given
time may be easily determined by measuring the current passing
through the heater circuit and the difference in pressure between the
terminals of the heater. These measurements may be made, in case
the heater is operated on a direct circuit, by means of any ammeter
and voltmeter of suitable capacity, connected as shown. If the heater
is operated on an alternating-current circuit, only alternating-current
instruments can be used, as certain types of instruments will not
operate when connected to such a circuit. In either case, the product
of the ammeter reading in amperes and the voltmeter reading in
volts will give the power taken by the heater in watts, assuming the
heater winding to be noninductive. If the heater winding is not
noninductive, then the current and the electrical pressure will no
longer be in phase when the device is operating on an alternating-
current circuit, and a wattmeter must be used. Practically all heating
elements are wound noninductively so that the power may be
measured by means of an ammeter and voltmeter.
The energy taken by a heater in a given time will be equal to the
product of the average power and the time. For example, if the
heater takes 300 watts for 30 minutes—¹⁄₂ hour—then the energy
consumed is equal to 300 times ¹⁄₂ or 150 watt-hours, which is equal
to .15 kilowatt-hour.
To determine the output of the heater is a little more difficult, but it
may be approximated as follows: Since the object of the device is to
convert electrical energy into heat energy the output must be
measured in heat units. The unit of heat most commonly employed is
the calorie, which is the heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of water one degree centigrade. Hence, if a certain weight of
water has its temperature increased a definite number of degrees
centigrade by the electric heater, then the total heat imparted to the
water in calories will equal the weight of the water in grams
multiplied by the change in temperature in degrees centigrade. Of
course, the heat generated by the heater exceeds that obtained by
the above calculation, due to the fact that some heat is imparted to
the vessel containing the water and to the supports for the vessel,
but it is only the heat imparted to the water that must be considered,
as the other heat is not useful.
When the temperature of the water is raised to the boiling point
and a part of the water is evaporated, the foregoing method of
calculating the heat imparted to the water no longer holds good, and
the following method must be used. Weigh the water before and
immediately after the test to determine the amount of evaporation.
For each gram of water evaporated there will be required
approximately 536 calories, and the heat in calories imparted to the
water to raise its temperature to the boiling point will be equal to the
difference between 100 and the initial temperature of the water
multiplied by the weight of the water at the start. To determine the
efficiency, the input to the heating element in electrical units must be
changed to heat units which may be done by multiplying the power in
watts by the time in seconds and this product in turn by .24, giving
the result in calories. The following example may serve as a help in
performing such an experiment or test.
Weight of water at the start 500.0 grams.
Weight of water at the end of test 474.5 grams.
Temperature of water at the start 25 deg. C.
Average current taken by the heater 6.5 amperes.
Average pressure at the heater terminals 110 volts.
Time heater is connected 5¹⁄₂ minutes.
Change in temperature of the water 75 deg. C.
Heat developed in heater: 6.5 × 110 × 5¹⁄₂ × 60 × .24 = 56,628 calories.
Heat absorbed by water in coming to boiling point: 500 × 75 = 37,500 calories.
Heat used in evaporating 25.5 grams of water: 536 × 25.5 = 13,668 calories.
Total heat absorbed by water 51,168 calories.
51,168
Efficiency of heater: × 100 = 90.4 per cent.
56,628

This value of efficiency may be increased by insulating the vessel

with a nonconductor of heat and providing a covering for it, thus
decreasing the losses to the air and surrounding objects.
The efficiency of an electric stove or electric iron, or, in fact, any
electrically heated device, may be determined in a manner similar to
the water heater. In the case of a stove, place a vessel filled with