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Roark's Formulas
for Stress and Strain
About the Authors
Richard G. Budynas (deceased) was professor emeritus of mechanical engineering at the
Rochester Institute of Technology. He was the author of Advanced Strength and Applied
Stress Anao/sis, Second Edition (McGraw-Hill, 1999), and coauthor of Shigley's Mechanical
Engineering Design, Ninth Edition (McGraw-Hill, 2011).

Ali M. Sadegh is professor of mechanical engineering, former chairman of the depart-

ment, and the founder and director of the Center for Advanced Engineering Design and
Development at the City College of the City University of New York. He is a Fellow of ASME
and SME. He is a PE and CMfgE with over 40 years of experience in academia and practic-
ing mechanical engineering design. He led the development of the 11th and 12th editions of
Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers (McGraw-Hill, 2007, 2018).
Roark's Formulas
for Stress and Strain

RICHARD G. BUDYNAS

ALI M. SADEGH

Ninth Edition

New York Chicago San Francisco

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Contents

Preface to the Ninth Edition ix 4.3 Principle of Reciprocal Deflections 82

Preface to the First Edition :Ii 4.4 Method of Consistent Deformations
List of Tables xiii (Strain Compatibility) 82
4.5 Energy Methods 82
CHAPTER1 4.6 Castigliano's Theorem 83
Introduction 4.7 Dimensional Analysis 89
4.8 Remarks on the Use of Formulas 90
1.1 Terminology 1 4.9 References 92
1.2 State Properties, Units, and Conversions 1
1.3 Contents 3 CHAPTERS
1.4 References 13 Numerical Methods 93
CHAPTER2 5.1 The Finite Difference Method 93
Stress and Strain: Important Relationships 15 5.2 The Finite Element Method 94
5.3 The Boundary Element Method 99
2.1 Stress 15
5.4 Zeroes of Polynomials 105
2.2 Strain and the Stress-Strain Relations 19
5.5 Solution of Differential Equations 106
2.3 Stress Transformations 22
5.6 Numerical Integration 106
2.4 Strain Transformations 34
Mohr's Circle 34 5.7 References 107
2.5
5.8 Additional Uncited References for Finite
2.6 Mohr's Circles for 3D Stress Analysis 37
Elements 108
2.7 Tables 40
5.9 Additional Uncited References for Boundary
2.8 References 44
Elements 108
CHAPTER3
CHAPTER6
The Behavior of Bodies under Stress 45
Experimental Methods 109
3.1 Methods of Loading 45
3.2 Elasticity; Proportionality of Stress and Strain 46 6.1 Measurement Techniques 109
3.3 Factors Affecting Elastic Properties 47 6.2 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages 114
3.4 Load Deformation Relation for a Body 48 6.3 Detection of Plastic Yielding 124
3.5 Plasticity 48 6.4 Analogies 124
3.6 Creep and Rupture under Long-Time Loading 48 6.5 Wheatstone Bridge 125
3.7 Criteria ofElastic Failure and of Rupture 50 6.6 Nondestructive Testing 126
3.8 Fatigue 53 6.7 Tables 129
3.9 Brittle Fracture 57 6.8 References 135
3.10 Stress Concentration 58
CHAPTER7
3.11 Effect of Form and Scale on Strength; Rupture
Factor 60 Tension, Compression, Shear, and Combined Stress 137
3.12 Prestressing 61 7.1 Bar under Axial Tension {or Compression);
3.13 Elastic Stability 62 Common Case 137
3.14 Tables: Mechanical Properties of Materials 65 7.2 Bar under Tension (or Compression); Special
3.15 References 78 Cases 139
7.3 Composite Members 141
CHAPTER4
7.4 Trusses 143
Principles and Analytical Methods 81 7.5 Body under Pure Shear Stress 145
4.1 Equations of Motion and of Equilibrium 81 7.6 Cases of Direct Shear Loading 147
4.2 Principle of Superposition 81 7.7 Combined Stress 147

v
vi Contents

CHAPTER a 11.3 Circular-Plate Deflection Due to Shear 392

Beams; Flexure of Straight Bars 151 11.4 Bimetallic Plates 393
11.5 Nonuniform Loading of Circular Plates 397
8.1 Straight Beams (Common Case) Elastically Stressed 151
11.6 Circular Plates on Elastic Foundations 397
8.2 Composite Beams and Bimetallic Strips 161
11.7 Circular Plates of Variable Thickness 398
8.3 Three-MomentEquation 164
11.8 Disk Springs 400
8.4 Rigid Frames 165
11.9 Narrow Ring under Distributed Torque about
8.5 Beams on Elastic Foundations 170
Its Axis 401
8.6 Deformation Due to the Elasticity of Fixed Supports 174
11.10 Bending of Uniform-Thickness Plates with Straight
8.7 Beams under Simultaneous Axial and Transverse
Boundaries 402
Loading 175
11.11 Effect of Large Deflection; Diaphragm
8.8 Beams ofVariable Section 179
Stresses 403
8.9 Slotted Beams 185
11.12 Plastic Analysis of Plates 407
8.10 Beams of Relatively Great Depth 185
11.13 Ultimate Strength 407
8.11 Beams of Relatively Great Width 189
11.14 Tables 409
8.12 Beams with Wide Flanges; Shear Lag 192
11.15 References 458
8.13 Beams with Very Thin Webs 193
8.14 Beams Not Loaded in Plane of Symmetry; Flexural CHAPTER12
Center 194
Columns and Other Compression Members 463
8.15 Straight Uniform Beams (Common Case); Ultimate
Strength 196 12.1 Columns; Common Case 463
8.16 Plastic, or Ultimate Strength, Design 199 12.2 Local Budding 467
8.17 Tables 203 12.3 Strength of Latticed Columns 471
8.18 References 266 12.4 Eccentric Loading; Initial Curvature 472
12.5 Columns under Combined Compression and
CHAPTER9 Bending 474
Curved Beams 269 12.6 Thin Plates with Stiffeners 476
9.1 Bending in the Plane of the Curve 269 12.7 Short Prisms under Eccentric Loading 478
9.2 Deflection of Curved Beams 276 12.8 Table 481
9.3 Circular Rings and Arches 284 12.9 References 483
9.4 Elliptical Rings 293
CHAPTER13
9.5 Curved Beams Loaded Normal to Plane of
Curvature 294 Shells of Revolution; Pressure Vessels; Pipes 485
9.6 Tables 300 13.1 Circumstances and General State of Stress 485
9.7 References 348 13.2 Thin Shells of Revolution under Distributed Loadings
Producing Membrane Stresses Only 485
CHAPTER10 13.3 Thin Shells of Revolution under Concentrated or
Torsion 349 Discontinuous Loadings Producing Bending and
10.1 Straight Bars of Uniform Circular Section under Membrane Stresses 488
Pure Torsion 349 13.4 Thin Multielernent Shells of Revolution 500
10.2 Bars ofNoncircular Uniform Section under 13.5 Thin Shells of Revolution under External
Pure Torsion 350 Pressure 511
10.3 Effect of End Constraint 355 13.6 Thick Shells of Revolution 513
10.4 Effect ofLongitudinal Stresses 362 13.7 Pipe on Supports at Intervals 515
10.5 Ultimate Strength of Bars in Torsion 363 13.8 Tables 517
10.6 Torsion of Curved Bars; Helical Springs 363 13.9 References 581
10.7 Tables 366
10.8 References 384 CHAPTER14
Bodies under Direct Bearing and Shear Stress 585
CHAPTER11
14.1 Stress Due to Pressure between Elastic Bodies 585
Flat Plates 387 14.2 Rivets and Riveted Joints 589
11.1 Common Case 387 14.3 Miscellaneous Cases 592
1L2 Bending of Uniform-Thickness Plates with Circular 14.4 Table 595
Boundaries 388 14.5 References 598
 Contents vii

CHAPTER15 19.4 Riveted and Bolted Joints 733

Elastic Stability 601 19.5 Shearing and Failure Modes in Riveted
Joints 733
15.1 General Considerations 601
19.6 Eccentric Loading of Riveted Joints 735
15.2 Budding of Bars 602
19.7 Bolt Strength and Design 738
15.3 Budding of Flat and Curved Plates 604
19.8 Gearing and Gear Stress 739
15.4 Budding of Shells 605
19.9 References 741
15.5 Tables 608
15.6 References 626
CHAPTER20
CHAPTER16 Composite Materials 743
Dynamic and Temperature Stresses 631 20.1 Composite Materials Classifications and
16.1 Dynamic Loadings; General Conditions 631 Components 743
16.2 Body in a Known State of Motion 631 20.2 Mechanics of Composite Materials 746
16.3 Impact and Sudden Loading 639 20.3 Macromechanics of a Layer (Lamina) 746
16.4 Impact and Sudden Loading; Approximate 20.4 Micromechanics of a Layer (Lamina) 749
Formulas 640 20.5 Failure Criterion for a Layer (Lamina) 752
16.5 Remarks on Stress Due to Impact 642 20.6 Macromechanics of a Laminate 756
16.6 Vibration 643 20.7 Classical Lamination Theory 757
16.7 Temperature Stresses 648 20.8 Macromechanics of a Laminate: Stress and Strain in
16.8 Tables 653 a Laminate 758
16.9 References 669 20.9 Inversion of Stiffness Equation in a Laminate 765
20.10 Example of Stresses and Strains in
CHAPTER17 a Laminate 766
20.11 Strength and Failure Analyses of Laminate 769
Stress Concentration 671
20.12 Composite Sandwich Structures 773
17.1 Static Stress and Strain Concentration 20.13 Composite Cellular Structures 775
Factors 671 20.14 Tables 777
17.2 Stress Concentration Reduction 20.15 References 782
Methods 676
17.3 Tables 679 CHAPTER21
17.4 References 695 Solid Biomechanics 785
CHAPTER18 21.1 Introduction 785
Fatigue and Fracture 697 21.2 Biomechanics of Bone 785
21.3 Biomechanics of Articular Cartilage 790
18.1 Fatigue in Materials 697 21.4 Biomechanics of Tendons and Ligaments 791
18.2 Fatigue Testing 698 21.5 Biomechanics of Muscles 793
18.3 Fatigue and Crack Growth 700 21.6 Biomechanics ofJoints 795
18.4 Creep 700 21.7 Biomechanics of the Knee 795
18.5 Fracture Mechanics 701 21.8 Biomechanics of the Hip 797
18.6 The Stress Intensity Factor 703 21.9 Biomechanics of the Spine 800
18.7 Fracture Toughness 706 21.10 Biomechanics of the Lumbar Spine 802
18.8 Crack Tip Plasticity 708 21.11 Biomechanics of the Cervical Spine 806
18.9 The Energy Balance Approach of 21.12 Biomechanics of the Shoulder 809
Fracture 709 21.13 Biomechanics of the Elbow 810
18.10 TheJintegral 710 21.14 Human Factors in Design 811
18.11 Tables 712 21.15 Implants and Prostheses 814
18.12 References 722 21.16 Hip Implants 814
21.17 Knee Implants 816
CHAPTER19
21.18 Other Implants 817
Stresses in Fasteners, Joints, and Gears 723 21.19 Biomaterials 817
19.1 Welding 723 21.20 Tables 820
19.2 Analysis of Welded Joints 725 21.21 References 824
19.3 Strength of Welded Joints 728 21.22 Glossary 826
viii Contents

APPENDIX A APPENDIXC
Properties of a Plane Area 827 Glossary 875

APPENDIXB Index 885

Mathematical Formulas and Matrices 847
Preface to the Ninth Edition

It is recognized that recent high-powered computers incorporated in computational

mechanics such as finite element methods have advanced and facilitated design and stress
and strain analyses of mechanical and structural systems. While numerical methods are
widely used in engineering practice, the very essence of engineering is rooted in the power
of classical closed-form solutions and established analytical methods. In addition, for opti-
mization, parametric design, and for understanding the mechanical behavior of a system,
a closed-form analytical solution is advantageous to a numerical solution.
Since the publication of the Sth edition of Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain,
I 0 years ago, we have witnessed significant advances in engineering methodology in solving
stress analysis problems. This has motivated the authors to embark on an improved edition
of this book.
Thus in preparation of this 9th edition, the authors had three continuing objectives:
first, to modernize with newly designed artwork and update the contents as required,
second, to introduce new topics and chapters that will maintain the high standard of this
book, and finally, to improve upon the material retained from the Sth edition. The 9th edition
of Roark's is intended to make available a compact, comprehensive summary of the for-
mulas and principles pertaining to strength of materials for both practicing engineers and
engineering students.
This book is intended primarily to be a reference book that is authoritative and covers
the field of stress and strain analyses in a comprehensive manner. Similar to the Sth edition,
the tabular format is continued in this edition. This format has been particularly success-
ful when implementing problem solutions on user-friendly computer software such as
MATLAB, MathCAD, TK Solver, and Excel. Commercial packages are available which
integrate the abovementioned software with Roark's. Tabulated coefficients are in dimen-
sionless form for convenience in using either system of units. Design formulas drawn from
works published in the past remain in the system units originally published or quoted.
The authors are mindful of the competing requirements to offer the user a broad
spectrum of information that has made this book so useful for over 80 years. Therefore,
in this edition, the authors have included a number of new topics in the chapters. The
main organizational change in the 9th edition is that majority of tables are published in
portrait format for ease of reading. Other changes/additions included in the 9th edition
are as follows:
• Chapter 2, Stress and Strain: Important Relationships: A new section on three-
dimensional Mohr's circle analysis for simple configurations is added.
• Chapter 3, The Behavior of Bodies under Stress: Mechanical properties of some
constructional steel including modulus of elasticity of materials and yield strength
are added. In addition, a section on factor of safety is also added.
• Chapter 4, Principles and Analytical Methods: The energy method "Castigliano's
theorem" for deflections calculation is revised, and more examples are added.
• Chapter 5, Numerical Methods: The numerical methods "finite element method"
and "boundary element method" with more references are updated and revised.

ix
x Preface to the Ninth Edition

• Chapter 6, Experimental Methods: A new section "Nondestructive Testing" for

quantitatively characterizing mechanical properties is added.
• Chapter 16, Dynamic and Temperature Stresses: Tables of natural frequencies of
cylindrical shells and springs are added.
• Chapter 17, Stress Concentration: The table for stress concentration factor is
expanded.
• Chapter 18, Fatigue and Fracture: A new section on fatigue with a table of fatigue
limits of materials and a new section on creep with a table of creep of materials at
high temperature are added.
• Chapter 19, Stresses in Fasteners, Joints, and Gears: A new section "Bolt Strength
and Design" and a new section Gearing and Gear Stress are added.
• Chapter 20, Composite Materials: Two new sections "Composite Sandwich Structures"
and "Composite Cellular Structures" are added. In addition, a table of Mechanical
Properties of Graphite-Polymer Composite Material with Different Volume Fraction
and several new references are added.
• Chapter 21, Solid Biomechanics: Biomechanics is updated and revised, and artificial
intervertebral discs are discussed.
• The references and publications of most chapters are expanded and updated.
• All the chapters are redesigned to make a much better user experience including:
adding color to the figures and tables; newly designed artwork and headings; and
portrait format of majority of tables for ease of reading.
The authors would especially like to thank those individuals, publishers, institu -
tions, and corporations who have generously given permission to use material in this
and previous editions, and the many dedicated readers and users of Roark's Formulas for
Stress and Strain.
Meticulous care has been exercised to avoid errors. However, if any are inadvertently
included in this newly designed printing, the authors will appreciate being informed so that
these errors can be eliminated in subsequent printings of this edition.

Richard G. Budynas
Ali M. Sadegh
Preface to the First Edition

This book was written for the purpose of making available a compact, adequate summary of
the formulas, facts, and principles pertaining to strength of materials. It is intended primarily
as a reference book and represents an attempt to meet what is believed to be a present need
of the designing engineer.
This need results from the necessity for more accurate methods of stress analysis
imposed by the trend of engineering practice. That trend is toward greater speed and com-
plexity of machinery, greater size and diversity of structures, and greater economy and
refinement of design. In consequence of such developments, familiar problems, for which
approximate solutions were formerly considered adequate, are now frequently found to
require more precise treatment, and many less familiar problems, once of academic interest
only, have become of great practical importance. The solutions and data desired are often
to be found only in advanced treatises or scattered through an extensive literature, and the
results are not always presented in such form as to be suited to the requirements of the
engineer. To bring together as much of this material as is likely to prove generally useful
and to present it in convenient form have been the author's aim.
The scope and management of the book are indicated by the contents. In Part 1 are
defined all terms whose exact meanings might otherwise not be clear. In Part 2 certain
useful general principles are stated; analytical and experimental methods of stress analysis
are briefly described; and information concerning the behavior of material under stress is
given. In Part 3 the behavior of structural elements under various conditions of loading is
discussed, and extensive tables of formulas for the calculation of stress, strain, and strength
are given.
Because they are not believed to serve the purpose of this book, derivations of formulas
and detailed explanations, such as are appropriate in a textbook, are omitted, but a suffi-
cient number of examples are included to illustrate the application of the various formulas
and methods. Numerous references to more detailed discussions are given, but for the most
part these are limited to sources that are generally available, and no attempt has been made
to compile an exhaustive bibliography.
That such a book as this derives almost wholly from the work of others is self-evident,
and it is the author's hope that due acknowledgment has been made of the immediate
sources of all material presented here. To the publishers and others who have generously
permitted the use of material, he wishes to express his thanks. The helpful criticisms and
suggestions of his colleagues, Professors E. R. Maurer, M. 0. Withey, J.B. Kommers, and
K. F. Wendt, are gratefully acknowledged. A considerable number of the tables of formulas
have been published from time to time in Product Engineering, and the opportunity thus
afforded for criticism and study of arrangement has been of great advantage.
Finally, it should be said that, although every care has been taken to avoid errors, it
would be oversanguine to hope that none had escaped detection; for any suggestions that
readers may make concerning needed corrections, the author will be grateful.

Raymond J, Roark

:rl
This page intentionally left blank
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Units Appropriate to Structural Analysis (p. 2)

Table 1.2 SI Units (p. 3)
Table 1.3 Multiples and Submultiples of SI Units (p. 4)
Table 1.4 SI Conversion Table (pp. 4-5)
Table 1.5 Multiplication Factors to Convert from USCU Units to SI Units (pp. 5-6)
Table 1.6 Conversion Factors (pp. 7-13)
Table 2.1 Material Properties (p. 40)
Table 2.2 Transformation Matrices for Positive Rotations About an Axis (p. 40)
Table 2.3 Transformation Equations and Principle Stress Formulas (p. 41)
Table 2.4 Mohr's Circle for Some Common States of Stress (pp. 42-44)
Table 3.1 Modulus ofElasticity Relationships (p. 66)
Table 3.2 Material Classification, Names, and Abbreviations (pp. 66-67)
Table 3.3 Moduli and Strength of Materials (p. 68)
Table 3.4 Temperature Effects ofElastic Modulus (p. 69)
Table 3.5 Extended Mechanical Properties at Room Temperature (p. 70)
Table 3.6 Hardness Test Indenters (p. 71)
Table 3.7 ANSI Carbon Steel Mechanical Characteristics (pp. 71-73)
Table 3.8 Coefficients ofThermal Expansion (pp. 73-75)
Table 3.9 Elastic Constants of Selected Polycrystalline Ceramics (pp. 75-76)
Table 3.10 Mechanical Properties of Some Constructional Steels (p. 77)
Table 3.11 Representative Average Mechanical Properties of Cold-Drawn Steel (p. 78)
Table 3.12 Material Properties of Fibers Used in Composites (p. 78)
Table 5.1 Sample Finite Element Library (p. 98)
Table 6.1 Change in Resistance with Strain for Various Strain Gage Element
Materials (p. 129)
Table 6.2 Properties of Various Strain Gage Grid Materials (p. 129)
Table 6.3 Strain Gage Rosette Equations Applied to a Specimen of a Linear, Isotropic
Material (pp. 130-131)
Table 6.4 Corrections for the Transverse Sensitivity of Electrical Resistance Strain
Gages (pp. 132-133)
Table 6.5 Strain Gauge Equations for Several Types ofBridge Configurations (p. 134)
Table 8.1 Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection Formulas for Elastic Straight Beams
(pp. 203-212)
Table 8.2 Reaction and Deflection Formulas for In-Plane Loading of Elastic Frames
(pp. 213-218)
Table 8.3 Numerical Values for Functions Used in Table 8.5 (pp. 219-220)
Table 8.4 Numerical Values for Denominators Used in Table 8.5 (pp. 220-221)
Table 8.5 Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection Formulas for Finite-Length Beams
on Elastic Foundations (pp. 222-228)
Table 8.6 Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection Formulas for Semi-Infinite Beams
on Elastic Foundations (pp. 229-231)
Table 8.7(a) Reaction and Deflection Coefficients for Beams Under Simultaneous Axial
and Transverse Loading: Cantilver End Support (p. 232)

xiii
xiv List of Tables

Table 8.7(b) Reaction and Deflection Coefficients for Beams Under Simultaneous Axial
and Transverse Loading: Simply Supported Ends (pp. 232-233)
Table 8.7( c) Reaction and Deflection Coefficients for Beams Under Simultaneous Axial
and Transverse Loading: Left End Simply Supported, Right End Fixed
(pp. 233-234)
Table 8.7(d) Reaction and Deflection Coefficient for Beams Under Simultaneous Axial
and Transverse Loading: Fixed Ends (p. 234)
Table 8.8 Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection Formulas for Beams Under Simulta-
neous Axial Compression and Transverse Loading (pp. 235-244)
Table 8.9 Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection Formulas for Beams Under Simulta-
neous Axial Tension and Transverse Loading (pp. 245-246)
Table 8.10 Beams Restrained Against Horizontal Displacement at the Ends (p. 247)
Table 8.ll(a) Reaction and Deflection Coefficients for Tapered Beams (pp. 248-250)
Table 8.11 (b) Reaction and Deflection Coefficients for Tapered Beams (pp. 251-253)
Table 8.ll(c) Reaction and Deflection Coefficients for Tapered Beams (pp. 254-256)
Table 8.ll(d) Reaction and Deflection Coefficients for Tapered Beams (pp. 257-259)
Table 8.12 Position of Flexural Center Q for Different Sections (pp. 260-261)
Table 8.13 Collapse Loads with Plastic Hinge Locations for Straight Beams (pp. 262-265)
Table 9.1 Formulas for Curved Beams Subjected to Bending in the Plane of the
Curve(pp.300-306)
Table 9.2 Formulas for Circular Rings (pp. 307-318)
Table 9.3 Reaction and Deformation Formulas for Circular Arches (pp. 319-328)
Table 9.4 Formulas for Curved Beams of Compact Cross Section Loaded Normal to
the Plane of Curvature (pp. 329-347)
Table 10.1 Formulas for Torsional Deformation and Stress (pp. 366-374)
Table 10.2 Formulas for Torsional Properties and Stresses in Thin-Walled Open Cross
Sections(pp.375-377)
Table 10.3 Formulas for the Elastic Deformations of Uniform Thin-Walled Open
Members Under Torsional Loading (pp. 378-384)
Table 11.1 Numerical Values for Functions Used in Table 11.2 (pp. 409-410)
Table 11.2 Formulas for Flat Circular Plates of Constant Thickness (pp. 411-444)
Table 11.3 Shear Deflections for Flat Circular Plates of Constant Thickness
(pp. 445-446)
Table 11.4 Formulas for Flat Plates with Straight Boundaries and Constant Thickness
(pp. 447-458)
Table 12.1 Formulas for Short Prisms Loaded Eccentrically; Stress Reversal Impos-
sible (pp. 481-483)
Table 13.1 Formulas for Membrane Stresses and Deformations in Thin-Walled Pres-
sure Vessels (pp. 517-522)
Table 13.2 Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection Formulas for Long and Short Thin-
Walled Cylindrical Shells under Axisymmetric Loading (pp. 523-527)
Table 13.3 Formulas for Bending and Membrane Stresses and Deformations in Thin-
Walled Pressure Vessels (pp. 528-542)
Table 13.4 Formulas for Discontinuity Stresses and Deformations at the Junctions of
Shells and Plates (pp. 543-578)
Table 13.5 Formulas for Thick-Walled Vessels Under Internal and External Loading
(pp. 579-580)
Table 14.1 Formulas for Stress and Strain Due to Pressure on or between Elastic Bodies
(pp. 595-598)
 List of Tables xv

Table 15.l Formulas for Elastic Stability of Bars, Rings, and Beams (pp. 608-615)
Table 15.2 Formulas for Elastic Stability of Plates and Shells (pp. 616-625)
Table 16.1 Natural Frequencies of Vibration for Continuous Members (pp. 653-655)
Table 16.2 Natural Frequencies of Vibration of Various Systems (pp. 656-664)
Table 16.3 Spring Constants (pp. 665-667)
Table 16.4 Longitudinal Wavespeed and K,,. for Engineering Materials {pp. 667-668)
Table 17.1 Stress Concentration Factors for Elastic Stress (K) (pp. 679-688)
Table 17.2 Graphs for Stress Concentration Factors (pp. 689-694)
Table 18.1 Typical Fatigue Limits for Reverse Bending Load (p. 700)
Table 18.2 Values of Factor C and Exponent m in Eq. (18.3-1) (p. 701)
Table 18.3 Stresses in Metals at High Temperature for Two Given Creep Rates (p. 702)
Table 18.4 Fracture Toughness of Some Materials (p. 706)
Table 19.1 Minimum Weld Metal Properties (p. 728)
Table 19.2 Minimum Fillet Weld Size w (p. 729)
Table 19.3 Allowable Loads for Various Sizes of Fillet Welds (p. 729)
Table 19.4 Treating a Weld as a Line (pp. 731-732)
Table 20.1 Density, Strength, and Stiffness of Selected Fibers (p. 745)
Table 20.2 Fiber and Matrix Materials Used in a Composite (p. 745)
Table 20.3 The Mechanical Properties of Unidirectional Reinforced Composite Mate-
rials (p. 752)
Table 20.4 Fibers and Matrix Materials and Their Applications (p. 777)
Table 20.5 Properties of Key Reinforcing Fibers (p. 777)
Table 20.6 Properties of Selected Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Matrices (p. 778)
Table 20.7 Effect of Fiber Form and Volume Fraction on Mechanical Properties of
E-Glass-Reinforced Polyester (p. 778)
Table 20.8 Mechanical Properties of Selected Unidirectional Polymer Matrix
Composites (p. 778)
Table 20.9 Mechanical Properties of Selected Quasi-Isotropic Polymer Matrix
Composites (p. 779)
Table 20.10 Fracture Toughness of Structural Alloys, Monolithic Ceramics, and
Ceramic Matrix Composites (p. 779)
Table 20.11 Mechanical Properties of Selected Unidirectional Continuous Fiber-
Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites (p. 779)
Table 20.12 Mechanical Properties of Silicon Carbide Particle-Reinforced Aluminum
(p. 779)
Table 20.13 Physical Properties of Selected Unidirectional Composites and Monolithic
Metals (p. 780)
Table 20.14 Physical Properties of Isotropic and Quasi-Isotropic Composites and
Monolithic Materials Used in Electronic Packaging (p. 780)
Table 20.15 Physical Properties of Selected Unidirectional Polymer Matrix Composites
(p. 781)
Table 20.16 Physical Properties of Selected Quasi-Isotropic Polymer Matrix Composites
(p. 781)
Table 20.17 Physical Properties of Silicon Carbide Particle-Reinforced Aluminum
(p. 781)
Table 20.18 Mechanical Properties of Graphite-Polymer Composite Material with
Different Volume Fraction (p. 782)
Table 20.19 Mechanical Properties of Glass-Polymer Composite Material with Different
Volume Fraction {p. 782)
xvi List of Tables

Table 21.1 Elastic Muduli and IBtimate Strength of Cortical Bone, from Ref. 51 (p. 788)
Table 21.2 Representative Properties of the Human Articular Cartilage Taken from the
Lateral Condyle of the Femur, from Ref. 35 (p. 791)
Table 21.3 Representative Properties of Human Tendon and Ligament under Tensile
Loading, from Refs. 31and61 (p. 792)
Table 21.4 Mechanical Properties ofa Vertebral Body, A: Cortical Bone, and B: Trabecular
Bone, from Re£ 20 (p. 804)
Table 21.5 Mechanical Properties of Spinal Elements, from Ref. 20 (p. 804)
Table 21.6 Anthropometric Data from Dreyfuss (Ref. 21) (p. 812)
Table 21.7 Significant Physical Properties of Different Biomaterials (p. 820)
Table 21.8 Compositions of Surface-Active Glasses and Glass Ceramics in Weight Percent,
Data from Ref. 66 (p. 820)
Table 21.9 Properties of Polyethylene, Data from ASTM F 648, and Ref. 67 (p. 821)
Table 21.10 Chemical and Mechanical Properties of Alumina for Implants, Data from
Ref. 18 (p. 821)
Table 21.11 Mechanical Properties ofCortical Bone, 316L Stainless Steel, Cobalt-Chromium
Alloy, Titanium, and Titanium-6-Aluminum-4-Vanadium (p. 821)
Table 21.12 Properties of Bones at Different Age (p. 822)
Table 21.13 Typical Mechanical Properties of Polymer-Carbon Composites (1bree-Point
Bending) (p. 822)
Table 21.14 Mechanical Properties of Some Degradable Polymers (pp. 822-823)
Table 21.15 Representative Mechanical Properties of Commercial Sutures (p. 823)
Table A.I Properties of Sections (pp. 829-839)
Table A.2 Moment of Inertia of Sections (pp. 840-844)
Table A.3 Moment of Inertia of Uniform Objects (pp. 845-846)
Roark's Formulas
for Stress and Strain
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The widespread use of personal computers, which have the power to solve problems solv-
able in the past only on mainframe computers, has influenced the tabulated format of this
book. Computer programs for structural analysis, employing techniques such as the finite
element method and the boundary element method, are also available for general use.
These programs are very powerful; however, in many cases, elements of structural systems
can be analyzed quite effectively independently without the need for an elaborate finite ele-
ment model. In some instances, finite element models or programs are verified by compar-
ing their solutions with the results given in a book such as this. Contained within this book
are simple, accurate, and thorough tabulated formulations that can be applied to the stress
analysis of a comprehensive range of structural components.
This chapter serves to introduce the reader to the terminology, state property units and
conversions, and contents of the book.

1.1 TERMINOLOGY
Definitions of terms used throughout the book can be found in the glossary in App. C.

1.2 STATE PROPERTIES, UNITS, AND CONVERSIONS

The basic state properties associated with stress analysis include the following: geometri-
cal properties such as length, area, volume, centroid, center of gravity, and second-area
moment (area moment of inertia); material properties such as mass density, modulus of
elasticity, Poisson's ratio, and thermal expansion coefficient; loading properties such as
force, moment, and force distributions (e.g., force per unit length, force per unit area, and
force per unit volume); other properties associated with loading, including energy, work,
and power; and stress analysis properties such as deformation, strain, and stress.
Two basic systems of units are employed in the field of stress analysis: SI units and
USCU units.* SI units are mass-based units using the kilogram (kg), meter (m), second (s),
and Kelvin (K) or degree Celsius ( 0 C) as the fundamental units of mass, length, time, and
temperature, respectively. Other SI units, such as that used for force, the Newton (kg-m/s2),
are derived quantities. USCU units are force-based units using the pound force (lbf),

*SI and USCU are abbreviations fur the International System of Units (from the French Syst6ne International
d'Uni~} and the United States Customary Units, respectively.

1
2 Chapter 1. Introduction

TABLE 1.1 Units Appraprilte to Strudural Analysis*

Quantity International Metric {SI) U.S. Customary

Length {meter)m {foot) ft
Force and weight, W (newton) N(kg-m/s2) (pound) lbf
Time s s
Angle rad rad
Second area moment m~ ft'
Mass kg lbf-s2 /ft (slug)
Area m2 ft2
Mass moment of inertia kg-ml lbf-s2-ft
Moment N-m lbf-ft
Volume m' ft3
Mass density kg/ml lbf-s2 /ft'
Stiffness oflinear spring Nim lbf/ft
Stiffness of rotary spring N-m/rad lbf-ft/rad
Temperature K (Kelvin) °F (degrees Fahrenheit)
Torque, work, energy N-m (Joule) lbf-ft
Stiffness of torsional spring N-m/rad lbf-ft/rad
Stress or pressure N/m2(pascal) lbf/ft2 (psi)
*In stius anlaysia, the unit of length used most often is the inch.

inch (in) or foot (ft), second (s), and degree Fahrenheit (°F) as the fundamental units of
force, length, time, and temperature, respectively. Other USCU units, such as that used for
mass, the slug (lbf-s2/ft) or the nameless lbf-s2/in, are derived quantities. Table I .I gives a list-
ing of the primary SI and USCU units used for structural analysis. Other SI units are given
in Table 1.2. Certain prefixes may be appropriate, depending on the size of the quantity.
Common prefixes are given in Table 1.3. For example, the modulus of elasticity of carbon
steel is approximately 207 GPa = 207 x 109 Pa = 207 x 109 N/m2• Prefixes are normally used
with SI units. However, there are cases where prefixes are also used with USCU units. Some
examples are the kpsi (1 kpsi = 103 psi= 103 lbf/in2), kip (1 kip= 1 kilopound = 1,000 lbf),
and Mpsi (I Mpsi = 106 psi).
Depending on the application, different units may be specified. It is important that
the analyst be aware of all the implications of the units and make consistent use of them.
For example, if you are building a model from a CAD file in which the design dimensional
units are given in mm, it is unnecessary to change the system of units or to scale the model
to units of m. However, if in this example the input forces are in Newtons, then the out-
put stresses will be in N/mm2 , which is correctly expressed as MPa. If in this example
applied moments are to be specified, the units should be N-mm. For deflections in this
example, the modulus of elasticity E should also be specified in MPa and the output deflec-
tions will be in mm.
Tables 1.4 and 1.5 present the conversions from USCU units to SI units and vice versa
for some common state property units. The more detailed conversion units are given in
Table 1.6.
 1.3 Contents 3

TABLE 1.2 SI Units

Quantity Unit (SI) Formula

Base Units
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin (K)
Supplementary Units
Plane angle radian (rad)
Solid angle steradian (sr)
Derived Units
Acceleration meter per second square m/s2
Angular acceleration radian per second square rad/s 2
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s
Area square meter m2
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m}
Energy joule (J) N-m
Force Newton(N) kg-m/s 2
Frequency hertz (Hz) l/s
Power watt (W) J/s
Pressure Pascal (Pa) N/m2
Quantity of heat joule(]) N-m
Stress Pascal (Pa) N/m2
Thermal conductivity watt per meter-Kelvin W/(m-K)
Velocity meter per second m/s
Viscosity dynamic Pascal-second Pa-s
Viscosity kinematic square meter per second m 2/s
Work joule (J) N-m

1.3 CONTENTS
Following the introduction, the state of stress and the important relationships associated
with stress and strain and their transformations including Mohr's circle is described in
Chap. 2. The behavior of bodies under stress is presented in Chap. 3. Chapter 4 describes
equation of motion and equilibrium of solid and analytical methods of solving for the
stresses and deflections in an elastic body, including the energy methods. Numerical
methods such as Finite Element Method and Boundary Element Method are presented
in Chap. 5. The experimental methods for stress and strain measurements are presented in
Chap. 6. Many topics associated with the stress analysis of structural components, including
direct tension, compression, shear, and combined stresses; bending of straight and curved
beams; torsion; bending of flat plates; columns and other compression members; shells
of revolution, pressure vessels, and pipes; direct bearing and shear stress; elastic stability;
4 Chapter 1. Introduction

TABLE 1.3 MultlplesandSubmultlplesofSI Units

Prefix Symbol Multiplying Factor

exa E 101• 1 OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO
peta p 101s 1 OOO OOO OOO OOO OOO
12
tera T 10 1 OOO OOO OOO OOO
giga G 109 1 000000 OOO
mega M 1Cl6 1 OOO OOO
kilo k 103 1 OOO
hecto h 102 100
deca da 10 10
deci d 10-1 0.1
centi c 10-l 0.01
milli m 10-3 0.001
micro µ lo-<I 0.000001
nano n lQ--9 0.000 OOO 001
pico p 10-ll 0.000 OOO OOO 001
femto f 10-1s 0.000 OOO OOO OOO 001
atto a 10-18 0.000 OOO OOO OOO OOO 001

TABLE 1.4 SI Conversion Table

SI Units From SI to English From English to SI

Length
kilometer (km) = 1000 m 1 km=0.621 mi 1 mi= 1.609 km
meter (m) = 100 cm 1 m=3.281 ft 1ft=0.305 m
centimeter (cm)= 0.01 m 1 cm = 0.394 in 1 in = 2.540 cm
millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m 1 mm = 0.039 in 1 in=25.4 mm
micrometer (µm) = 0.000 001 m 1 µm = 3.93 X 10-5 in 1 in= 25,400 mm
nanometer {run) = 0.000 OOO 001 m 1 nm= 3.93 x 1~ in 1 in = 25,400,000 mm
Area
square kilometer (kml) = 100 hectares 1 km2 = 0.386 mi2 1 mi2 = 2.590 km2
hectare (ha) = 10,000 ml 1ha=2.471 acres 1 acre = 0.405 ha
square meter (m2) = 10,000 cm2 1ml=10.765 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.093 m 2
square centimeter (cm2) = 100 mml 1 cm2 = 0.155 in2 1 in2 = 6.452 cml
Volume
liter (L) = 1000 mL = 1 dm3 1 L = 1.057 fl qt 1 fl qt = 0.946 L
milliliter (mL) = 0.001 L = 1 cm3 1 mL = 0.034 fl oz 1 £1. oz= 29.575 mL
microliter (µL) = 0.000 001 L 1µL=3.381x10-S floz 1 fl oz= 29,575 µL
(Continued)
 1.3 Contents 5

TABLE 1.4 SI CenweJSlon Table (Continued)

SI Units From SI to English From English to SI

Mass
kilogram (kg) = 1000 g 1 kg= 2.205 lb 1 lb = 0.454 kg
gram (g) = 1000 mg 1g=0.035 oz 1 oz = 28.349 g
milligram (mg) = 0.001 g 1 mg=3.52x lQ-?oz 1 oz = 28,349 mg
microgram (µg) = 0.000 001 g 1µg=3.52 x l~ oz 1 oz= 28,349,523 µg

TABLE 1.S Multlpllcatlon Factors to Convert from USCU Units to SI Units

To Convert from To Multiply by

Mass
ounce (avoirdupois) kilogram (kg) 2.834952 x 10-1
pound(avoirdupois) kilogram (kg) 4.535924 x 10-1
ton (short, 2000 lb) kilogram (kg) 9.071847 x 102
ton (long, 2240 lb) kilogram (kg) 1.016047x10'
kilogram (kg) ounce (avoirdupois) 3.527396 x 10 1
kilogram (kg) pound(avoirdupois) 2.204622
kilogram (kg) ton (short, 2000 lb) 1.102311 x lo-'
kilogram (kg) ton (long, 2240 lb) 9.842064 x lo->
Mass Per Unit Length
pound per foot (lb/ft) kilogram per meter (kg/m) 1.488164
pound per inch (lb/in) kilogram per meter (kg/m) 1.785797 x 10 1
kilogram per meter (kg/m) pound per foot (lb/ft) 6.719689 x 10-1
kilogram per meter (kg/m) pound per inch (lb/in) 5.599741 x 10-2
Mass Per Unit Area
pound per square foot (lb/ft') kilogram per square meter (kg/m') 4.882428
kilogram per square meter (kg/m') pound per square foot (lb/ft') 2.048161 x 10-1
Mass Per Unit Volume
pound per cubic foot (lb/ft') kilogram per cubic meter (kglm') 1.601846 x 101
pound per cubic inch (lb/in') kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m') 2.767990 x io•
kilogram per cubic meter (kglm') pound per cubic foot (lb/ft') 6.242797 x 10-2
kilogram per cubic meter (kglm') pound per cubic inch (lb/in') 3.612730 x 1o->
pound per cubic foot (lb/ft') pound per cubic inch (lb/in') 1. 728000 X 1O'
Length
foot (ft) meter(m) 3.048000 x 10-1
inch (in) meter(m) 2.540000 x 10-2
mil meter(m) 2.540000 x 1o->
inch (in) micrometer (µm) 2.540000 x I o•
meter (m) foot (ft) 3.28084
meter(m) inch (in) 3.937008 x 101
meter (m) mil 3.937008 x io•
micrometer (µm) inch (in) 3.937008 x 1o->
(Continued)
6 Chapter 1. Introduction

TABLE 1.5 Multlpllcatlon Fadon to Convert from USCU Units tG SI Units {Continued)
To Convert from To Multiply by
Area
foot' square meter (m2) 9.290304 x 10-2
inch2 square meter (m2) 6.451600 x 1()-'
circular mil square meter (m2) 5.067075 x 10-'0
square centimeter (cm 2
) square inch (in 2
) 1.550003 x 10-1
square meter (m') foot' 1.076391 x 10'
square meter (m2) inch2 1.550003 x 10'
2
square meter (m ) circular mil l.973525X W
Volume
foot' cubic meter (m') 2.831685 x 10-2
inch' cubic meter (m') 1.638706 x lo-'
cubic centi.meter (cm') cubic inch (in') 6.102374 x lo-2
cubic meter (m') foot' 3.531466 x 101
cubic meter (m') inch' 6.102376 x 10'
gallon (U.S. liquid) cubic meter (m') 3.785412 x lo-'
Force
pounda-force Obf) newtons (N) 4.448222

Pressure or StreN
pound force per square inch pascal (Pa) 6.894757 x 10'
(lbf/in2 )(psi)
kip per square inch (kip/in2)(ksi) pascal (Pa) 6.894757 x lO"
pound force per square inch megapascal (MPa) 6.894757 x 10-'
(lbf/in')(psi)
pascal (Pa) pound force per square inch (psi) 1.450377 x lo-'
pascal (Pa) kip per square inch (ksi) 1.450377 x 10-7
megapascals (MPa) pound force per square inch 1.450377 x 102
(lbf/in2) (psi)
Section Properties
section modulus S (in') S (m') 1.638706 x lo-'
moment of inertia I (in') I (m•) 4.162314 x 10-7
modulus of elasticity E (psi) E (Pa) 6.894757 x 10'
section modulus S (m') s (in') 6.102374 x 10'
moment of inertia I (m•) I (in') 2.402510 x 10"
modulus of elasticity E (Pa) E (psi) 1.450377 x lo-'
Temperature
degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius t"C = (t"F - 32)/1.8
degree Celsius degree Fahrenheit t"F = l.8t°C + 32
Angle
degree radian (rad) 1.745329 x lo-2
radian (rad) degree 5.729578 x 101
 1.3 Contents 7

TABLE 1.6 Convenlon Fadon

To Convert from To Multiply by

acceleration of free fall, standard (gn) meter per second square 9.80665
(m/s2 )
acre (based on U.S. survey foot) square meter (m2 ) 4.046873 x 103
acre foot (based on U.S. survey foot) cubic meter (m3) 1.233489 x 103
atmosphere, standard (atm) pascal (Pa) 1.01325 X 105
atmosphere, standard (atm) kilopascal (kPa) 1.01325 x 1()2
atmosphere, technical (at) pascal (Pa) 9.80665 x 104
atmosphere, technical (at) kilopascal (kPa) 9.80665 x 101
bar (bar) pascal (Pa) 1.0 X 105
bar (bar) kilopascal (kPa) 1.0 x 1()2
barn (b) square meter (m ) 2
1.0 x 10-21
barrel [for petroleum, 42 gallons (U.S.)] (bbl) cubic meter (m3 ) 1.589873 x 10-1
barrel [for petroleum, 42 gallons (U.S.)] (bbl) liter (L) 1.589873 x 102
caloriCu (c~) joule (J) 4.1868
calorieth (calth) joule (J) 4.184
calorie (cal) (mean) joule (J) 4.19002
calorie (15°C) (cal15) joule (J) 4.18580
calorie (20°C) (~) joule (J) 4.18190
centimeter of mercury (0°C) pascal (Pa) 1.33322 x 103
centimeter of mercury (0°C) kilopascal (kPa) 1.33322
centimeter of mercury, conventional (cmHg) pascal (Pa) 1.333224 x 103
centimeter of mercury, conventional (cmHg) kilopascal (kPa) 1.333224
centimeter of water (4°C) pascal (Pa) 9.80638 x 101
centimeter of water, conventional (cmHp) pascal (Pa) 9.80665 x 101
centipoise (cP) pascal second (Pa-s) 1.0 x 10-3
centistokes (cSt) meter square per second I.Ox lo-5
(m 2/s)
chain (based on U.S. survey foot) (eh) meter (m) 2.011684 x 101
circular mil square meter (m2 ) 5.067075 x 10-10
cubic foot (ft') cubic meter (m3) 2.831685 x 10-2
cubic foot per minute (ft'/min) cubic meter per second 4.719474 x 10-'
(m3/s)
cubic foot per minute (ft'/min) liter per second (Lis) 4.719474 x 10-1
cubic foot per second (ft3/s) cubic meter per second 2.831685 x 10-2
(m3/s)
cubic inch (in3) cubic meter (m3) 1.638706 x lo-5

(Continued)
8 Chapter 1. Introduction

TABLE 1.6 Conversion Factors (Contfnutd)

To Convert from To Multiply by
cubic inch per minute {in3/min) cubic meter per second 2.731177 x 10-7
(m3/s)
cubic mile (mi3) cubic meter (m3) 4.168182 x 109
cubic yard (yd3) cubic meter (m3) 7.645549 x 10-1
cubic yard per minute (yd3/min) cubic meter per second 1.274258 x l()--2
(m3/s)
cup (U.S.) cubic meter (m') 2.365882 x 10-4
cup (U.S.) liter (L) 2.365882 x 10-1
cup (U.S.) milliliter (mL) 2.365882 x 1()2
day(d) second (s) 8.64x 104
day (sidereal) second (s) 8.616409 x 104
0
degree (angle) ( ) radian (rad) 1.745329 x lo-2
degree Celsius (temperature) (°C) kelvin (K) T/K = t/°C + 273.15
degree Celsius (temperature interval) ( C) 0
kelvin (K) 1.0
degree centigrade (temperature) 0
degree Celsius ( C) t/°C"" t/deg. cent.
degree centigrade (temperature interval) degree Celsius (°C) 1.0
degree Fahrenheit (temperature) (°F) degree Celsius (0 C) tl°C =(tl°F- 32)/1.8
degree Fahrenheit (temperature) (°F) kelvin (K) T/K = (t/°F + 459.67)/1.8
dyne (dyn) newton(N) 1.0 x 10-s
dyne centimeter (dyn-cm) newton meter (N-m) 1.0 x 10-7
dyne per square centimeter (dyn/cm 2
) pascal (Pa) 1.0 x 10-1
fermi femtometer (fm) 1.0
3
fluid ounce (U.S.) (fl oz) cubic meter (m ) 2.957353 x 10-S
fluid ounce (U.S.) (fl oz) milliliter (mL) 2.957353 x 101
foot (ft) meter (m) 3.048 x 10-1
foot (U.S. survey) (ft) meter (m) 3.048006 x 10-1
foot of mercury, conventional (ftHg) pascal (Pa) 4.063666 x 104
foot of mercury, conventional (ftHg) kilopascal (kPa) 4.063666 x 101
foot of water (39.2°F) pascal (Pa) 2.98898 x 103
foot of water (39.2°F) kilopascal (kPa) 2.98898
foot of water, conventional (ftHp) pascal (Pa) 2.989067 x 103
foot of water, conventional (ftHp) kilopascal (kPa) 2.989067
foot per hour (ftlh) meter per second (m/s) 8.466667 x 10-S
foot per minute (ft/min) meter per second (m/s) 5.08 x 10-3
foot per second (ft/s) meter per second (m/s) 3.048 x 10-1
foot per second square (ft/s 2
) meter per second square 3.048 x 10-1
(m/s2 )
(Continued)
 1.3 Contents 9

TABLE 1.6 Conwrslon Factors (Cantlnflfd)

To Convert from To Multiply by
foot poundal joule (J) 4.214011 x 10-2
foot pound-force (ft-lbf) joule (J) 1.355818
foot pound-force per hour (ft-lbf/h) watt(W) 3.766161 x 10--t.
foot pound-force per minute (ft-lbf/min) watt(W) 2.259697 x 10-2
foot pound-force per second (ft-lbf/s) watt(W) 1.355818
foot to the fourth power (ft') meter to the fourth power 8.630975 x 10-3
(m4)
gal (gal) meter per second square 1.0 x 10-2
(mlrr)
gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gal) cubic meter (m') 4.54609 x 10-3
gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gal) liter (L) 4.54609
gallon (U.S.) (gal) cubic meter (m3 ) 3.785412 x 10-3
gallon (U.S.) (gal) liter (L) 3.785412
gallon (U.S.) per day (gal/d) cubic meter per second 4.381264 x 1~
(m3/s)
gallon (U.S.) per day (gal/d) liter per second (L/s) 4.381264 x lo-5
gallon (U.S.) per horsepower hour cubic meter per joule 1.410089 x 10"""
[gal/(hp-h)] (ml!J)
gallon (U.S.) per horsepower hour liter per joule (L/J) 1.410089 x lo-5
[gal/(hp-h)]
gallon (U.S.) per minute (gpm)(gal/min) cubic meter per second 6.309020 x lo-5
(m3/s)
gallon (U.S.) per minute (gpm)(gal/min) liter per second (L/s) 6.309020 x 10-2
gon (also called grade) (gon) radian (rad) 1.570796 x 10-2
gon (also called grade) (gon) degree (angle) ( 0
) 9.0x 10-1
grain (gr) kilogram (kg) 6.479891 x lo-5
grain (gr) milligram (mg) 6.479891x101
grain per gallon (U.S.) (gr/gal) kilogram per cubic meter 1.711806 x 10-2
(kg!m')
grain per gallon (U.S.) (gr/gal) milligram per liter (mg/L) 1.711806 x 101
gram-force per square centimeter (gf/cm2 ) pascal (Pa) 9.80665 x 101
3
gram per cubic centimeter (glcm ) kilogram per cubic meter 1.0 x 103
(kg/m')
hectare (ha) square meter (m2 ) 1.0x104
horsepower (550 ft-lbf/s) (hp) watt(W) 7.456999 x 102
horsepower (boiler) watt(W) 9.80950 x 103
horsepower (electric) watt(W) 7.46X 102
horsepower (metric) watt(W) 7.354988 x 102
(Continued)
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the western part) of the plain of Esdraelon is meant; compare 1
Chronicles x. 7, note.

²³And the archers shot at king Josiah; and the

king said to his servants, Have me away; for I
am sore wounded.
23. the archers shot] Compare the death of Ahab, xviii. 33. 1
Esdras i. 29, “the princes came down against king Josias,” is an
inferior reading due probably to a misreading of the Hebrew.

for I am sore wounded] The very words ascribed to Ahab (xviii.

33), and further the verb rendered I am wounded is used only in
these two passages: a singularly strong witness to the view that the
present story has been influenced by that of Ahab’s death.

²⁴So his servants took him out of the chariot,

and put him in the second chariot that he had,
and brought him to Jerusalem; and he died,
and was buried in the sepulchres of his
fathers. And all Judah and Jerusalem
mourned for Josiah.
24. the second chariot] War chariots were small, with (apparently)
only standing room for their occupants; see the illustrations of
Egyptian and Assyrian chariots given in the Encyclopedia Biblia i.
724‒730. This “second chariot” was probably of a larger kind,
suitable for travelling.

25 (= 1 Esdras i. 32; not in 2 Kings).

The Lamentations for Josiah.

²⁵And Jeremiah lamented for Josiah: and all

the singing men and singing women spake of
 Josiah in their lamentations, unto this day; and
they made them an ordinance in Israel: and,
behold, they are written in the lamentations.
25. lamented] i.e. “composed (or uttered) an elegy.” The Hebrew
word (ķōnēn) suggests formal composition, and the actual words of
lamentation are often given, as in 2 Samuel i. 17 ff., iii. 33, 34;
Ezekiel xxvii. 33, xxxii. 2, 16. The elegy in question is not preserved
in the book of Jeremiah or elsewhere. Doubtless the Chronicler or
his source had real grounds for his statement about the popular
Songs of Lament for Josiah, and we may suppose that one of these,
rightly or wrongly, was ascribed to Jeremiah.

an ordinance] compare 2 Samuel i. 18.

in the lamentations] In some lost work, not in our canonical book

of the Lamentations, for the contents of the canonical book lend no
support whatever to the view that it is referred to here (see further
Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹, s.v. Lamentations, p. 128).

26, 27 (= 1 Esdras i. 33; 2 Kings xxiii. 25, 28).

The Epilogue to Josiah’s Reign.

²⁶Now the rest of the acts of Josiah, and his

good deeds, according to that which is written
in the law of the Lord, ²⁷and his acts, first and
last, behold, they are written in the book of the
kings of Israel and Judah.
26. according to that which is written] Compare the strong terms
used in 2 Kings xxiii. 25, “like unto him was there no king before him,
that turned to the Lord with all his heart ... according to all the law of
Moses; neither after him arose there any like him.”
 Chapter XXXVI.
1‒4 (= 1 Esdras i. 34‒38; 2 Kings xxiii. 30b‒34).
The Reign of Jehoahaz.

¹Then the people of the land took Jehoahaz

the son of Josiah, and made him king in his
father’s stead in Jerusalem.
1. the people of the land took] Compare xxvi. 1, xxxiii. 25.

Jehoahaz] Called “Shallum” in 1 Chronicles iii. 15; Jeremiah xxii.

11. He was younger than Jehoiakim; verse 5.

²Joahaz was twenty and three years old when

he began to reign; and he reigned three
months in Jerusalem.
2. in Jerusalem] His mother’s name is here omitted; compare
xxxiii. 1, 21, xxxiv. 1. According to 2 Kings xxiii. 32 (compare Ezekiel
xix. 3, 4) Jehoahaz “did evil.”

³And the king of Egypt deposed him at

Jerusalem, and amerced the land in an
hundred talents of silver and a talent of gold.
3. deposed him at Jerusalem] The clause answers to 2 Kings
xxiii. 33, “put him in bands at Riblah in the land of Hamath, that he
might not reign in Jerusalem.” Perhaps we should read the same
words in Chronicles The Hebrew words for “deposed” and “put in
bands” are liable to be easily confused.

amerced] Authorized Version condemned. For “amerce” in the

sense of “fine,” compare Deuteronomy xxii. 19; and for “condemn” in
the same sense see Amos ii. 8 (Authorized Version, “fined” Revised
Version).

an hundred talents of silver and a talent of gold] The land was

poorer than in the days when Sennacherib had imposed a fine on
Hezekiah of “three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold”
(2 Kings xviii. 14).

⁴And the king of Egypt made Eliakim his

brother king over Judah and Jerusalem, and
changed his name to Jehoiakim. And Neco
took Joahaz his brother, and carried him to
Egypt.
4. changed his name to Jehoiakim] This name is compounded
with the Divine name Jehovah. Probably Neco made the new king
swear fealty by Jehovah, and then declared his official name to be
Jehoiakim, in order that he and his people might have something to
remind them of the oath he had taken. (Eliakim = “God establishes”;
Jehoiakim = “Jehovah establishes.”) The rendering of this verse in 1
i. 38 is due to misreadings of the Hebrew.

took Joahaz ... to Egypt] He died in Egypt; 2 Kings xxiii. 34;

Jeremiah xxii. 12.

5‒8 (= 1 Esdras i. 39‒42; 2 Kings xxiii. 36‒xxiv. 6).

The Reign of Jehoiakim.

⁵Jehoiakim was twenty and five years old

when he began to reign; and he reigned
 eleven years in Jerusalem: and he did that
which was evil in the sight of the Lord his
God.
5. and he reigned eleven years] So also in Kings. The statement,
however, is lacking in 1 Esdras i. 39, so that it is a highly probable
inference that the text of Chronicles has here been harmonised with
Kings; compare verse 15, and Introduction § 3, p. xxii.

in Jerusalem] The Chronicler omits his mother’s name (compare

verse 2, note) and also the statement that he raised the indemnity
imposed by Neco by means of a poll-tax (2 Kings xxiii. 35).

he did that which was evil] Compare 2 Kings xxiii. 37; Jeremiah
xxii. 13‒18, xxvi. 20‒23, xxxvi. 1‒32.

⁶Against him came up Nebuchadnezzar king

of Babylon, and bound him in fetters, to carry
him to Babylon.
6. Nebuchadnezzar] The correct form of his name is
“Nebuchadrezzar” (so generally in Jeremiah and Ezekiel); in the
inscriptions Nabu-kudurri-uṣur. The name is Assyrian and means “O
Nebo, defend the crown” (or “the boundary”), Nebo being a god who
was regarded as the son of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon
(compare Isaiah xlvi. 1). Nebuchadrezzar reigned from 604‒561
b.c., and was succeeded by Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk). The only
purely historical inscription relating to his reign deals with a
campaign in Egypt in 568 b.c.; compare Jeremiah xliii. 11.

came up] It seems probable that Nebuchadrezzar did not in

person come up against Jerusalem at the end of Jehoiakim’s reign,
nor in person carry off any of the sacred vessels; it is likely moreover
that Jehoiakim was not carried to Babylon. The result of Jehoiakim’s
rebellion against Nebuchadrezzar was according to 2 Kings simply
that “bands” of Chaldeans and their allies invaded Judah. Probably
Jehoiakim’s life and reign came to an end (how we do not know;
compare Jeremiah xxii. 18, 19) during this petty warfare, and then
three months later, the main Chaldean army under Nebuchadrezzar
having arrived, Jerusalem was taken, and Jehoiakim’s son and
successor Jehoiachin was carried off with the golden vessels of the
house of the Lord to Babylon. The Chronicler seems to foreshorten
the history at this point.

⁷Nebuchadnezzar also carried of the vessels

of the house of the Lord to Babylon, and put
them in his temple ¹ at Babylon.
¹ Or, palace.

7. of the vessels] There is no mention in 2 Kings of the removal of

sacred vessels during Jehoiakim’s reign. Some were carried off
under Jehoiachin, the rest under Zedekiah; 2 Kings xxiv. 13, xxv. 13‒
17. Compare last note.

in his temple] So LXX.; 1 Esdras i. 39 [41]; Daniel i. 2. Note the

margin, “in his palace.” The Hebrew word (heykāl) is a loan-word;
the original (ikallu) is the ordinary word in Assyrio-Babylonian for
“palace.”

⁸Now the rest of the acts of Jehoiakim, and his

abominations which he did, and that which
was found in ¹ him, behold, they are written in
the book of the kings of Israel and Judah: and
Jehoiachin ² his son reigned in his stead.
¹ Or, against.

² In 1 Chronicles iii. 16, Jeconiah. In Jeremiah xxii. 24, Coniah.

 8. that which was found in him] i.e. his sin (in this context);
compare 1 Kings xiv. 13.

of Israel and Judah] The LXX. (but not 1 Esdras) adds here “And
Jehoiakim slept with his fathers, and was buried in the garden of
Uzza with his fathers.”

9, 10 (= 1 Esdras i. 43‒45; compare 2 Kings xxiv. 8‒17).

The Reign of Jehoiachin.

The account given in 2 Kings contains much that is not given in

Chronicles and, in particular, many details of the first captivity of
Judah.

⁹Jehoiachin was eight ¹ years old when he

began to reign; and he reigned three months
and ten days in Jerusalem: and he did that
which was evil in the sight of the Lord.
¹ In 2 Kings xxiv. 8, eighteen.

9. Jehoiachin] Called “Jeconiah,” 1 Chronicles iii. 16, where see

note.

eight years] So LXX. (B) of Chronicles and Esdras (B); but the
number is probably corrupt for eighteen, so LXX. (A) of Chronicles
and Esdras (A) and Hebrew and LXX. of 2 Kings xxiv. 8. It is
possible that the words “and ten days” in the latter part of the verse
are a misplaced fragment of an original ben shĕmōneh ‘esreh
shānāh, i.e. “eighteen years old.”

in Jerusalem] The Chronicler here omits the king’s mother’s

name (compare verse 2, note), though she was a person of some
influence; compare 2 Kings xxiv. 12; Jeremiah xxii. 24‒26; and
perhaps Jeremiah xiii. 18 (Revised Version).
 he did that which was evil] Compare Jeremiah xxii. 24; Ezekiel
xix. 5‒9.

¹⁰And at the return of the year king

Nebuchadnezzar sent, and brought him to
Babylon, with the goodly vessels of the house
of the Lord, and made Zedekiah his brother
king over Judah and Jerusalem.
10. at the return of the year] Compare 2 Samuel xi. 1 = 1
Chronicles xx. 1, “at the return of the year, at the time when kings go
out to battle.” This would be in the spring.

brought him to Babylon] Not the king only, but also certain
leading men and craftsmen and smiths (in number 3023) went into
captivity—so Jeremiah lii. 28; compare Jeremiah xxiv. 1, and 2 Kings
xxiv. 14 (where the size of the deportation is magnified into “all
Jerusalem save the poorest of the land—even ten thousand
captives”).

Zedekiah] A covenant-name like “Jehoiakim”—(verse 4, note); it

seems to mean “Righteousness of Jehovah”; compare the significant
title in Jeremiah xxiii. 6, “The Lord is our Righteousness.”
Zedekiah’s original name was “Mattaniah” (i.e. “gift of Jehovah”); 2
Kings xxiv. 17.

his brother] In 2 Kings (more accurately) “his father’s brother”;

compare 1 Chronicles iii. 15, 16, notes.

11‒19 (= 1 Esdras i. 46‒56; compare 2 Kings xxiv. 18‒xxv. 21;

Jeremiah xxxvii. 1‒xxxix. 8, lii. 1‒27).
Reign of Zedekiah. Destruction of Jerusalem.

¹¹Zedekiah was twenty and one years old

when he began to reign; and he reigned
 eleven years in Jerusalem:
11. in Jerusalem] The Chronicler omits, as usual, his mother’s
name. She was “Hamutal, the daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah” (2
Kings xxiv. 18), and was mother of Jehoahaz also (2 Kings xxiii. 31).
Jehoiakim was by a different mother (2 Kings xxiii. verse 36).

¹²and he did that which was evil in the sight of

the Lord his God; he humbled not himself
before Jeremiah the prophet speaking from
the mouth of the Lord.
12. humbled not himself] Jeremiah consistently advised Zedekiah
to submit to the Chaldeans; but the king partly through fear of his
princes, partly through illusive hopes, could never bring himself to do
so; compare Jeremiah xxi. 1‒7, xxxiv. 8‒22, xxxvii. 1‒10, 17, xxxviii.
17‒23.

¹³And he also rebelled against king

Nebuchadnezzar, who had made him swear
by God: but he stiffened his neck, and
hardened ¹ his heart from turning unto the
Lord, the God of Israel.
¹ Hebrew strengthened.

13. who had made him swear by God] Compare Ezekiel xvii. 11‒
19.

¹⁴Moreover all the chiefs of the priests, and the

people, trespassed very greatly after all the
abominations of the heathen; and they
 polluted the house of the Lord which he had
hallowed in Jerusalem.
14. polluted the house] Jeremiah vii. 9‒11, xxiii. 11‒14; Ezekiel
viii. 5‒16.

¹⁵And the Lord, the God of their fathers, sent

to them by his messengers, rising up early
and sending; because he had compassion on
his people, and on his dwelling place:
15. rising up early and sending] The words are absent from 1
Esdras i. 50, and are perhaps a late addition to Chronicles derived
from Jeremiah; compare Jeremiah xxvi. 5. See note on verse 5
above.

¹⁶but they mocked the messengers of God,

and despised his words, and scoffed at his
prophets, until the wrath of the Lord arose
against his people, till there was no remedy ¹.
¹ Hebrew healing.

16. mocked the messengers] Jeremiah was imprisoned, beaten,

and threatened with death, Urijah (Jeremiah xxvi. 20‒23) was put to
death. Of the fate of Habakkuk (who probably lived during the
Chaldean period, Habakkuk i. 6) nothing is known.

¹⁷Therefore he brought upon them the king of

the Chaldeans, who slew their young men with
the sword in the house of their sanctuary, and
had no compassion upon young man or
 maiden, old man or ancient: he gave them all
into his hand.
17. Chaldeans] Their name in Hebrew is Casdim and in Assyrio-
Babylonian Caldu (the change of “s” for “l” before a dental is not
uncommon in the latter language). They were a people originally
living south of Babylon on the sea, but Nabopolassar, father of
Nebuchadrezzar, conquered Babylon and established a Chaldeo-
Babylonian Empire.

in the house of their sanctuary] Compare Ezekiel’s vision of the

slaughter; Ezekiel ix. 1‒11.

¹⁸And all the vessels of the house of God,

great and small, and the treasures of the
house of the Lord, and the treasures of the
king, and of his princes; all these he brought
to Babylon.
18. all the vessels] i.e. all the vessels which remained after the
previous spoliation (verse 10). They were perhaps chiefly of brass;
compare 2 Kings xxv. 13‒15.

¹⁹And they burnt the house of God, and brake

down the wall of Jerusalem, and burnt all the
palaces thereof with fire, and destroyed all the
goodly vessels thereof.
19. brake down the wall] The Hebrew verb here used (nittēç)
implies a more thorough breaking down than the pāraṣ of xxv. 23
(see note), xxvi. 6.

20, 21 (= 1 Esdras i. 57, 58).

The Captivity.
 ²⁰And them that had escaped from the sword
carried he away to Babylon; and they were
servants to him and his sons until the reign of
the kingdom of Persia:
20. to him and his sons] Compare Jeremiah xxvii. 7. There were
three kings of Babylon after Nebuchadrezzar before Cyrus
established Persian rule, viz. Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk) (2 Kings
xxv. 27), Neriglissar (Nergalšar-uṣur), and Nabonidus (Nabu-na’id).
The last two kings were usurpers. Neriglissar was (it seems) son-in-
law to Nebuchadrezzar (Hommel, Babylonia in Hastings’ Dictionary
of the Bible, 1. 229a, or Sayce in Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹, iii. pp.
105, 106). Whether Nabonidus was connected with the royal house
is not known.

²¹to fulfil the word of the Lord by the mouth of

Jeremiah, until the land had enjoyed her
sabbaths: for as long as she lay desolate she
kept sabbath, to fulfil threescore and ten
years.
21. by the mouth of Jeremiah] Compare Jeremiah xxv. 11, xxix.
10.

her sabbaths] i.e. years, occurring every seventh year, when the
land was to be allowed a respite from cultivation; compare Leviticus
xxv. 1‒7, xxvi. 34, 35.

threescore and ten years] i.e. two whole generations. It is

probable that the Chronicler intended to suggest that the Sabbatical
years had been neglected throughout the period (about 490 = 70 × 7
years) during which the kingdom lasted; but, if so, he treats the point
somewhat loosely, not troubling about the objection that the reigns of
the several God-fearing kings (David, Solomon, Jehoshaphat) would
need to be subtracted from this total, and that actually the number of
violated Sabbatical years would fall considerably below 70.

22, 23 (= Ezra i. 1‒3a] 1 Esdras ii. 1‒5a).

Cyrus Decrees the Rebuilding of the Temple.

These verses are obviously inappropriate as the conclusion of

Chronicles, and their proper place is as the opening words of the
book of Ezra, where also they are given. Their exposition properly
belongs to the commentaries on Ezra or Esdras, to which
accordingly the reader must be referred for fuller notes. These
verses were retained here when the separation of Ezra‒Nehemiah
from Chronicles was made (see Introduction, § 2), either through
mere accident, or perhaps to indicate that Chronicles had originally
formed one work with Ezra and Nehemiah, but most probably in
order to avoid a depressing termination to the book. This last point
carries no small weight in view of the fact that in the Hebrew Bible
Chronicles is the last book. It is interesting to note that to avoid
closing the book of Isaiah with the terrible verse (lxvi. 24) which is
actually its conclusion, it was customary to repeat after verse 24
some hopeful words taken from verse 23. Compare also the last
verses of 2 Kings.

²²Now in the first year of Cyrus ¹ king of

Persia, that the word of the Lord by the
mouth of Jeremiah might be accomplished,
the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of
Persia, that he made a proclamation
throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in
writing, saying,
¹ Hebrew Coresh.

22. Cyrus king of Persia] Cyrus, the Persian, was at first king of a
small state in Elam, to the east of Babylonia. In 549 b.c. he
conquered the king of the Medes, and so became founder of the
Medo-Persian Empire. In 546 b.c. he overthrew the famous
Croesus, king of Lydia, and advancing against Babylon entered it
after a short and easy campaign in 538 b.c.—a career of meteoric
brilliance. By his “first year” is meant 537 b.c., his first year as ruler
of the Babylonian Empire.

stirred up the spirit] Compare 1 Chronicles v. 26; Haggai i. 14.

made a proclamation] compare xxx. 5. The phrase is

characteristic of the Chronicler.

²³Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, All the

kingdoms of the earth hath the Lord, the God
of heaven, given me; and he hath charged me
to build him an house in Jerusalem, which is in
Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all
his people, the Lord his God be with him, and
let him go up.
23. All the kingdoms of the earth] The king of Babylon bore the
title of “king of the four quarters of the world.” Cyrus succeeded to
this title on his conquest of Babylon.

let him go up] i.e. to Jerusalem; compare Ezra i. 3. Since

Chronicles is the last book according to the order of the Hebrew
Canon, these encouraging words conclude the Hebrew Bible.
 INDEX
Abiathar,
39 f., 102, 120, 142, 167
Abib,
339
Abijah,
218 ff.
Abimelech (Ahimelech),
102, 120, 142
addīrīm,
273
Adullam, the cave of,
81, 88, 211
Adversary, the, see Satan
Ahab,
240 ff.
Ahaz,
292 ff.
Ahaziah (Jehoahaz),
263 ff., 284
Akaba, the Gulf of,
202
Alamoth, set to,
104
Alexander the Great,
xv, xix, xlix, 4
Algum trees,
174, 204
Aliens in Israel,
98, 120, 134, 173, 176, 312
Altar of incense, the,
139, 162, 185, 289
Altar-pillars,
83, 224, 313
Amaziah,
279 ff.
Ambushment,
223, 254
Amen,
111, 115
Amerce,
346
Ammon, Ammonites,
121, 125 f., 249, 291 f.
Amon, King of Judah,
329
Anachronisms,
164 f., 261
Anathoth,
84
Angel,
130 f.
Antonia, the Tower of,
163
Apes,
206
Arabians,
1, 238, 287;
invasion by, 226, 262 f.
Aram (= Syria),
9, 17, 119, 122
Aramaic,
9, 321
Ariel,
83
Ark, the,
94 ff., 101 ff., 186 ff., 339
Armourbearer,
74
Asa,
223 ff.
Asaph,
42 ff., 103, 107, 112, 145, 188
Ascent of the sepulchres, the,
324
Ashdod,
287
Asherim (Ashērah, Ashērim, Ashēroth),
224, 231, 237, 247, 277, 313, 320, 325 f., 331
Ashtaroth (Ashtoreth),
49, 75
Asshur-bani-pal,
6, 317, 327
Assyria, Assyrians,
8 f., 297 ff., 316 ff., 327
Assyrian monuments,
122, 206, 317, 320, 327
Athaliah,
266 ff.
Attent (= attentive),
194
Augury,
325
‘azārāh,
184, 250 f.
Azariah, another name for Uzziah,
23, 285
Azariah the prophet,
li, 228 ff.

Baal (Baalim), use and disuse of the title,

22, 31, 59, 63, 180, 236, 275;
the house of, 272;
altars of, 325, 331
Babylon,
327;
kings of, 351
Bädeker, Palestine, referred to,
32, 34, 47, 50, 57, 96, 99, 119 f., 150, 199, 211, 231 ff.,
250, 264, 266, 287, 291, 297 f., 318, 320, 323
Balsam trees,
100
bāmōth,
231, 320
bānāh,
211
Barnes, W. E., referred to,
lx;
(in Expositor), 78, 81;
(in Expository Times), 118;
(on Kings), 172, 185, 240, 285, 293, 322;
(in Journal of Theological Studies), 180
Bashan,
35
Bath (a measure for liquids),
175, 182
Bearers,
173, 176
Beauty of holiness,
110, 254
Beer-sheba to Dan,
128, 308
bĕgādim,
335
Belial, sons of,
219
Ben-hadad,
233
Benzinger, I., referred to,
xxxiii, 238, 307
Beracah, valley of,
255
Beth-Dagon,
75
Beth-el,
57, 222
Beth-horon,
 49, 199
Beth-shean (Beth-shan),
58, 75
Beth-shemesh,
47, 283, 298
Bezalel,
17, 170
bīrāh, bīrāniyyōth,
163, 238
Bliss, Dr, Excavations at Jerusalem,
318 f.
Boaz,
180
Book of the law, see Law
Brasen altar, the,
180 f., 196, 201
Brasen sea, the, see Sea
Brass,
118
Brook of Egypt,
196
Brother (= fellow-tribesman),
88
Burning for the dead,
235, 263
Burning of the dead,
76
Burnt offerings,
106, 141, 195, 306, 313