𝓞𝓶 𝓝𝓪𝓶𝓪𝓱 𝓼𝓱𝓲𝓿𝓪𝔂…

Manufacturing Processes I
21ARE113
Unit 2_Metal Forming
 Metal Forming
Metal forming is a manufacturing process in which the forces are applied to the raw material such that
stresses induced in the material are greater than yield and lower than ultimate stress. So that the material is
experiencing plastic or permanent deformation to change the shape of the component and get the required
shape of the component.

𝜎𝑦 < 𝜎 > 𝜎𝑢
Advantages:

1. The wastage in the metal forming process is very minimum or negligible when compared to other
manufacturing methods.

2. Grain orientation is possible.

3. Because of grain orientation the material is converted from isotropic (properties are same) to
anisotropic (properties are not same in all directions) material.

4. In most of engineering applications requires anisotropic material because the stresses induced in the
component in different directions are different.
 Metal Forming
Example: In the case of a pressure vessel, even though uniform
internal pressure is applied inside the pressure vessel the stresses
induced in the hoop direction are higher than in the longitudinal
direction.

5. Sometimes the strength and hardness of work material is increasing.

6. Some other metal forming process the surface finish obtained on the component is very good and
excellent.

Disdvantages:

1. The force and energy required for the metal forming process are much higher than the manufacturing
methods.

2. Except for the forging operation all other metal forming processes are used for producing uniform
cross-sectioned components only.
 Metal Forming
• Deforming the material at a temperature less
than that recrystallization temperature is
called as cold working. Metal Forming
• Deforming the material at a temperature
more than that recrystallization temperature
is called hot working.

• Recrystallization temp. (RcT) is the minimum Cold working Hot Working

temperature at which the formation of new
crystals has been completed. (T<Recrystallization) (T>Recrystallization

• The formation of new grains is nothing but changing the behavior of grains or crystals.

• For changing the behavior the grains require energy which is supplied through a heating process. i.e.
when the material is getting heated the energy supplied through the heating process is absorbed by
grains.
 Metal Forming
• Whenever the grains are attaining a certain level of energy they started changing their behavior called
starting to form new grains.

• On further heating of material the amount of energy absorbed by the grains will be increased, at some
point when a threshold level of energy is absorbed by the grains, the grains are forgetting their old
behavior and show only the new behavior. This is called as completion of the formation of new grains
and the corresponding temperature is called recrystallization temperature.

• Beyond the RcT when the heat energy is supplied further to the material this excess energy will be
used for increasing the grain size of the grains called grain growth.

1 1
𝑅𝑐𝑇 = 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑃 (𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
3 2
• For lead and tin, RcT < RT
• For Zinc and Cd, RcT ̴ RT

• Deforming the material above room temperature is considered a cold working

Tungsten - 1100°C (Cold working) (Melting point - 3400°C)
 Metal Forming

1
• Deforming the tungsten at 1100°C is still considered cold working only because 1100°C < of the
3
melting point of tungsten.

• In the case of a hot worked or normal component the required threshold level of energy for changing
the behavior is obtained only through heating, whereas in the case of a cold worked component
because of the presence of the residual stresses in the material when the component is heated the
energy distributed.

• When the cold work component is heated the required threshold level of energy of grains is obtained
through heating as well as the distribution of energy available in the form of energy pockets.

• That is why the threshold level of energy can be obtained at a lower temperature itself.
 Metal Forming
Features of cold & hot working:

1. For the same amount of deformation to be produced the force required for cold working is higher than
the hot working.

2. In hot working operation when the material is heated to a temperature above RcT, the scales or oxides
are forming on the surface of components. Due to this:

a. Surface finish produced in the component will be very poor.

b. Close dimensional tolerance is not possible.
c. The coefficient of friction present during the process will be high. i.e 0.5 to 0.6

3. Whereas in cold working operation because the material is heated to a temperature < RcT. No scales
or oxides are forming, due to :

a. Good or excellent surface finish can be obtained.

b. Close dimensional tolerance is possible.
c. Coefficient of friction obtained is low i.e about 0.1 to 0.2
 Metal Forming

• Handling of the component is difficult in hot working

because of higher temperature, but the handling of
the component is easier in case of cold working
operation.

• In the case of cold working, the strength and

hardness of a cold-worked component are always
higher than the original material. Ductility &
toughness will be always less than the original
material.

• In the case of hot working the mechanical properties

of the material will always depend on the temperature
at which the hot working has been completed.
 Metal Forming

• From the above: When the hot working is completed very near to the RcT, the mechanical properties of
the material obtained will remain the same as the original material.

• From the above: When the hot working is completed well above the RcT, the grain size obtained is
greater than the original grain size of the material.

• That is why, the strength & hardness of the component are less than the original material, and ductility
& toughness is greater than the original material.
 Metal Forming
• From the given materials and their stress-strain diagrams.
Whichever material has having widest plastic deformation zone, the corresponding material can be
considered as easy in the metal forming process.

• For a given material to make material easily in the metal forming process, the plastic deformation zone of
the material has to be widened.

This can be done by:

• Increasing the ultimate strength of the material: This is possible by performing cold work on the material.
 Metal Forming

• But with cold working not only the material's ultimate strength, the yield strength also increases
proportionally. The width of the plastic deformation zone almost remains constant (It is not a preferable
methodology).

ii. By reducing the yield strength of the material:

The yield strength of the given material can be reduced by heating the material. i.e., with heating
a small amount of ultimate strength reduction also takes place. However, it is negligible when compared to
the reduction in yield strength. It is the preferable method for making the material easy in the metal forming
process material.

• For all the materials with an increase in temperature the yield strength is reduced except steel.

• From the above it is concluded that whenever the tensile load is applied to the metal-forming process. It
is necessary to maintain the load for some more time to convert elastic deformation present in the
plastic deformation.
 Metal Forming

• Whenever a material is stressed beyond the flow stress

in the compressive loading condition, the flow behavior
of solid material is like a fluid.

• In compressive loading conditions whenever the

material is stressed beyond the flow stress deformation
produced in the material is 100% permanent.

• Whenever compressive loads are used in the metal

forming process it is not necessary to maintain the load
for some more time like in the case of tensile load.
 Metal Forming
True strain (or instantaneous strain):
𝐹
• Engineering stress: 𝜎 = 𝐴𝑜
∆𝑙 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝜖 = lim =
∆𝑙 𝑙𝑜 −𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑓 ∆𝑙→0 𝑙 𝑙
• Engineering strain: e = = =𝑙 −1
𝑙𝑜 𝑙𝑜 𝑜
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝜖 = =−
e+1= 𝑙
𝑙𝑓 𝑙 𝐴
𝑜
∈ 𝐿𝑓
𝑑𝑙
• Volume constancy: 𝐴𝑜 𝑙𝑜 = 𝐴𝑓 𝑙𝑓 න 𝑑 ∈= න
0 𝐿𝑜 𝑙
𝑙𝑓 𝐴
= 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑒 + 1 𝐿𝑓
𝑙𝑜 𝑓 ∈= 𝑙𝑛
𝐿𝑜
𝒆𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 ≠ 𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐
𝐿𝑓 𝐴𝑜
∈= 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 = ln 1 + 𝑒
Hence ‘e’ does not provide us a true picture of 𝐿𝑜 𝐴𝑓
deformation.
𝐴𝑜 𝐷𝑜
𝑙𝑛 = 2𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑓 𝐷𝑓
 Metal Forming

Let us consider a slab of initial dimensions 𝑙𝑜 , 𝑤𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑜 which is deformed to a final dimensions of
𝑙𝑓 , 𝑤𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓

𝑙𝑜 𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑜 = 𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑓 ℎ𝑓

𝑙𝑜 𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑜
=1
𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑓 ℎ𝑓

𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑓 ℎ𝑓
𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 = ln(1)
𝑙0 𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑜

∈𝑙 +∈𝑤 +∈ℎ = 0 ⇒Volume constancy

𝝈𝒕 = 𝑲 ∈𝒏

Where, 𝜎𝑡 = true stress

∈= true strain
K = Strength coefficient (in MPa)
n = Strain hardening exponent
 Metal Forming
Flow Stress:
Metal forming operations require plastic deformation. The stress required to sustain the given amount of
plastic deformation rate is called flow stress.

Plastic work per unit volume:

𝑊 = න 𝜎𝑜 𝑑𝜖

= න 𝐾 ∈𝑛 𝑑𝜖

𝐾 ∈𝑛
= ∈
𝑛+1
𝜎𝑜 ∈
𝑊=
𝑛+1
True strain,
1
∈= ln
1−𝑟

𝐴𝑜 −𝐴𝑓
where, 𝑟 = is amount (fraction) of cold work
𝐴𝑜
 Metal Forming
Q.1 Find the yield strength after 50% of cold work. Consider K = 700 Mpa and n = 0.2

Q.2 A specimen is cold worked by an unknown amount and then again cold worked 15% more and found to
have a yield strength of 525 Mpa. What is the unknown amount of cold work? You may consider this relation
𝜎𝑡 = 700𝜖 0.2
 Metal Forming - Forging
FORGING:
Forging is a deformation process in which material is deformed under compressive stress and can be
carried out either as hot or cold forging.

• In hot forging stress will be low and strain rates will be high.
• Ture strain of 2-4 can be achieved in hot forging.

Characteristics of forging:
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish
• Material loss is small
• Directional grain flow can be achieved
Drop/Hammer forging:
In this forging, the billet is kept on the die fixed with and anvil and the upper die is fixed with a ram, which
reciprocates and applies repetitive blows on the billet in quick successions, resulting into the material flow
and upon closing of two die halves, we get the final product.
Press forging:
• Load is applied gradually which is of squeezing type.
• A hydraulic press is used to apply the gradual load.
 Metal Forming - Forging
• In press forging no retraction of upper dies as in drop forging, so press forging can be performed fast.
• I drop forging, alignment of the die is difficult.
• There is better control of grain flow in press forging so better properties are obtained

➢ Based on the nature of material flow and constraints on material flow, forging is further divided into three
categories
❖ Open die
❖ Closed die
❖ Flashless die

Open die
 Metal Forming - Forging
Open die forging:
• It is also known as upsetting or upset forging
• It involves compressions of a work part of a cylindrical cross-section between two flat dies.
• In the case of open die forging, there is no constraint to material flow in the lateral direction.
• Due to friction and temperature differences at the interface, the material flow is non-uniform. Material adjacent to
the die gets restricted from flowing, whereas the material at the center flows almost freely. This causes a barrelling
effect in open-die forged components.
• Barrelling can be minimized by either using sufficient suitable lubricants or preheating the dies as required or even
combining the two.
 Metal Forming - Forging
Open die forging basic operations:
 Metal Forming - Forging
Closed die forging:
• It is also called Impression die forging.
• Impression cavities are made in pairs of the die halves and the billet
is placed between them. Upon closing of die halves, we get the
product.
• An extra cavity called a gutter is provided in the die cavity so that
excess material (Flash) can flow into it upon closing of the dies.
• Flash ensures proper filling and provides the necessary cushioning.
 Metal Forming - Forging
Analysis of forging:
During any deformation process
Workdone, dW= F change in length
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜎 × 𝐴 × 𝑙𝑑 ∈
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜎 × 𝑉 × 𝑑 ∈

𝑑𝑊
= 𝜎𝑑 ∈
𝑉
Strain energy per unit volume = 𝜎𝑑𝜖

𝑈 𝜖
න 𝑑𝑈 = න 𝐾𝜖 𝑛 𝑑𝜖
0 0

𝐾𝜖 𝑛
𝑈= 𝜖
𝑛+1
This is valid only for uniaxial stress.
 Metal Forming - Forging
Analysis of forging:
If stress is not uniaxial
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜎1 𝑑𝜖1 + 𝜎2 𝑑𝜖2 + 𝜎3 𝑑𝜖3
• The above equations are derived neglecting friction and assuming homogeneous deformation, so it provides us with
the minimum energy required for deformation.
• But, due to the presence of friction, inhomogeneous deformation starts leading to additional shear
stresses/deformations and so extra energy is required to overcome this inhomogeneity which is termed redundant
work.
𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑈𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 + 𝑈𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑈𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
Forming efficiency = 𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

For rolling, approx. 0.75, 0.95

For forging, approx. 0.30, 0.65
 Metal Forming - Forging
Analysis of forging:
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑦 × 𝐴𝑜
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 × 𝐴𝑓

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑓

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑓 = 2 × 𝑊 × 𝐻 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐻𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Q.1 A cylindrical rigid plastic material with a yield strength of 200 Mpa is forged between a pair of flat dies.
The height and diameter of the cylindrical material are 25 mm. The material was forged to 3.6 true strain.
Find the workdone.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜎𝑚𝑓 𝜖

 Metal Forming - Forging
Forging hand tools:

Common Types of Hammers Common Types of Sledges

Sledges:
Sledges are heavier hammers used by the blacksmith’s helper and vary in weight from 5 to 20
pounds.
 Metal Forming - Forging

Anvil

Types of Tongs

Set Hammer Flatter

 Metal Forming - Forging

Swages for round work Fuller

Swage block
 Metal Forming - Forging

Drop/Open forging Impression/closed forging

Upset forging

Roll forging Fleshless forging

Metal Forming - Forging
 Metal Forming - Forging

Board drop press

Mechanical/Crank press Knuckle press
 Metal Forming - Forging

Screw press Rack and Pinion press Hydraulic press

Metal Forming - Forging

Pneumatic press
 Metal Forming - Forging
Forging defects:

1. Unfilled sections:
If die cavity sections are not filled, this results in this defect. It can be
overcome by proper design of the die and improving the forging technique.

2. Cold shut:
It appears as a small crack at the corner of the forged
part. This is also caused by improper die design.
 Metal Forming - Forging
Forging defects:
3. Scale pits:
It is caused because of improper cleaning of the input material. The oxide and scale
that were present on the input material get embedded and upon cleaning irregular depressions
are observed on the surface.

4. Die shift:
It is caused by the misalignment of die halves.

5. Flakes:
These are internal ruptures caused by improper cooling.

6. Improper grain flow:

It is caused by improper die
design. It is observed when the metal
does not flow in the final intended
directions.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Rolling:
Rolling is a metal-forming process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by compressive forces
exerted by two rolls rotating in opposite directions. Flat rolling is shown in the figure. Similarly, shape
rolling is possible like a square cross-section formed into a shape such as an I-beam or L-beam.

Important terminologies:
Bloom: It has a square cross-section of 150 mm x 150 mm or more. Blooms are rolled into structural
shapes like rails for railroad tracks.

Slab: It is rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a rectangular cross-section of 250 mm width or more
and a thickness of 40 mm or more. Slabs are rolled into plates, sheets, and strips. Hot rolled plates are
generally used in shipbuilding, bridges, boilers, welded structures for various heavy machines, and many
other products.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Billet: It is rolled from bloom and is square in cross-section with dimensions 40mm on a side or more.
Billets are rolled into bars, and rods. They become raw materials for machining, wire drawing, forging,
extrusion etc.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Mechanics of rolling:

• Draft = ∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑜 − 𝐻𝑓
• Contact length: AB = L
• The angle subtended by the deformation zone/contact length on rolls center is called the bite angle (𝜃).
• If the rollers are small, AB = AC = L
Now, ACCD = EC BC
∆𝐻 ∆𝐻
⇒ 𝐿 × 𝐿 = 2𝑅 − ×
2 2

∆𝐻 2
⇒ 𝐿2 = 𝑅∆𝐻 2

∆𝐻 2
⇒ 𝐿2 = 𝑅∆𝐻 Neglecting as it is very small
2

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝑳 = 𝑹∆𝑯

 Metal Forming - Rolling
Assume width (w) remains constant and from volume constancy:
𝑤𝐻𝑜 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑤𝐻𝑓 𝑉𝑓

𝐻𝑜 𝑉𝑓
=
𝐻𝑓 𝑉𝑜

1
𝐻∝
𝑉
∴ 𝑉𝑜 < 𝑉𝑅 < 𝑉𝑓
At entry, the velocity of the plate is less than the velocity of the roller, So relative velocity of roller with respect to plate is
𝑽𝑹𝒆𝒍 = 𝑽𝑹 − 𝑽𝑷
Now, Since the relative velocity of the roller with respect to the plate is in the forward direction, therefore friction on the
roll surface acts in backward direction while at the plate surface, it acts in forward direction.
• Since the velocity of the plate increases from 𝑽𝒐 < 𝑽𝑹 𝒕𝒐 𝑽𝒇 > 𝑽𝑹 as it passes through rolls so there must exist a
point in the deformation zone where the plate and roll velocities becomes equal. It is named a neutral point.
From volume constancy 𝑯𝒐 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑯𝒇 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑯𝒏 𝑽𝒏 where 𝑉𝑛 is velocity at neutral point = 𝑉𝑅
 Metal Forming - Rolling
In the lagging Zone:

𝑉𝑅 −𝑉𝑜 𝑉 𝐻
Percentage of backward slip = × 100 = 1 − 𝑉𝑜 × 100 = 1 − 𝐻𝑛 × 100
𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑜

In the leading Zone:

𝑉𝑓 −𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑓 𝐻𝑛
Percentage of forward slip = × 100 = − 1 × 100 = − 1 × 100
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅 𝐻𝑓

∆𝐻
𝐼𝑛 ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵 ⇒ = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑂𝐵 2𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑂𝐴 ⇒ ∆𝐻 = 2𝑅 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
∆𝐻
𝑅− 2 ⇒ 𝐻𝑜 − 𝐻𝑓 = 2𝑅 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑅
∆𝐻 ⇒ 𝐻𝑜 = 𝐻𝑓 + 2𝑅 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 −
2𝑅 Thickness of plate at neutral point,
∆𝑯
𝑩𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆, 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝟏−
𝟐𝑹 𝑯𝒏 = 𝑯𝒇 + 𝟐𝑹 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒏 )

In the lagging zone: Friction on the plate is in the forward direction.

In the leading zone: Friction on the plate is in the backward direction.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Q.1 For D = 680 mm, 𝜎𝑜 = 300 Mpa, 𝐻𝑜 = 30 mm, 𝐻𝑓 = 14 mm. Find backward and forward slips. The
neutral point is at 1.69° from exist.
𝑉𝑅 −𝑉𝑜 𝑉 𝐻
Percentage of backward slip = × 100 = 1 − 𝑉𝑜 × 100 = 1 − 𝐻𝑛 × 100
𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑜

𝐻𝑛 = 𝐻𝑓 + 2𝑅 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑛 = 14 + 2340 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠1.69 = 14.296 𝑚𝑚

𝐻𝑛 14.296
= 1− × 100 = 1 − × 100 = 52.35%
𝐻𝑜 30

𝐻𝑛
Similarly, percentage of forward slip = − 1 × 100
𝐻𝑓

14.296
= − 1 × 100
14

= 2.11%
 Metal Forming - Rolling
For self-entry of a plate in a deformation zone:
𝜇 > 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
At limiting condition, 𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

Maximum possible draft, ∆𝐻 = 𝜇2 𝑅

Approximate analysis of rolling power:

Roll separating force, 𝐹 = 𝜎𝑚𝑓 × 𝑤 × 𝐿

𝐿
Torque on one roll, 𝜏1 = 𝐹 × 2

2𝜋𝑁𝜏1
Power per roll, 𝑃1 = 60

Total rolling power, 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑃1

𝐾𝜖𝑛+1
(a) For materials having strain hardening, 𝜎𝑚𝑓 = 𝑛+1
(b) For rigid plastic material, 𝜎𝑚𝑓 = 𝜎𝑦
• If µ↑ then Neutral point shifts towards entry
• If 𝐻𝑜 ↑ then Neutral point shifts towards entry
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Von-Mises theory:
1
𝐸= 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2
+ 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2
12𝐺
Where, E = Shear Strain Energy and G= Shear modulus

2 2 2
12𝐸𝐺 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1

⇒ 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Case 1: Deformation under uniaxial tensile loading.

𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜎3 = 0

⇒ 𝐶 = 2𝜎𝑦2
Case 2: Deformation under pure torsion.
𝜎1 = 𝐾, 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜎3 = −𝐾

⇒ 𝐶 = 6𝐾 2
Where, K = Yield shear strength
Under plane strain condition
2𝜎𝑦2 = 6𝐾 2
𝜎𝑦 2
⇒𝐶=
3
 Metal Forming - Rolling
When the average roll force acts on the strip for the rolling operation, an equal and opposite reaction force is
produced by the strip that acts on the rolls which is trying to separate the rolls.

Methods possible to reduce roll separate force:

1. Reduce yield strength of material/strip
2. Reduce friction coefficient until 𝛼 = 𝛽 The best preferable method of reducing the Favg is 1-3-4-2

3. Reduce roll radius

➢ As the roll diameter is reduced, the load-carrying capacity of the roll will reduce and the rolling system
may fail.
➢ To counter this backup or supporting rolls are used.
4. Backward and forward tensile stress
➢ When back and front tensions are applied along the length direction of the strip the tensile stress are
induced in the length direction which induces compressive stresses in the thickness direction due to
Poisson’s ratio effect of the material.
➢ Hence without applying the load by rollers, the compressive stresses are induced in the thickness
direction. In this way, the force to be applied by the rollers will be reduced.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Rolling mills

• Two high rolling mill: This type of rolling mill consists of two rolls rotating in opposite directions.

✓ Roll diameters: 0.6 to 1.4 m

✓ Types: either reversing or non-reversing.

✓ Non-reversing mill: rolls rotate only in one direction, and the slab always move from entry to exit side.

✓ Reversing mill: direction of roll rotation is reversed, after each pass, so that the slab can be passed
through in both the directions. This permits a continuous reductions to be made through the same pairs
of rolls.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
• Three high rolling mill: In this case, there are three rolls one above the
other. At a time, for single pass, two rolls will be used. The roll direction
will not be changed in this case.

✓ The top two rolls will be used for first reduction and the sheet is shifted to
the bottom two rolls and further reduction is done. This cycle is continued
till actual reduction is attained.

✓ Disadvantage: automated mechanism is required to shift the slab.

• Four high rolling mill: This consists of two small rolls for thickness
reduction and two large backing rolls to support the small rolls.

✓ The small rolls will reduce the roll force required as the roll-sheet contact
area will be reduced.

✓ The large backing rolls are required to reduce the elastic deflection of
small rolls when sheet passes between them.
 Metal Forming - Rolling

• Cluster rolling mill: This uses smaller rolls for rolling

• Tandem rolling mill: This consists of series of rolling stations of the order of 8 to 10. In each station,
thickness reduction is given to the sheet. With each rolling station, the work velocity increases.

✓ This is fully used in industry practice, along with continuous casting operation. This results in reduction
in floor space, shorter manufacturing lead time.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
• Thread rolling

✓ Thread rolling is used to create threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies as shown
in figure.

✓ It is used for mass production of external threaded parts like bolts and screws.

Thread rolling
 Metal Forming - Rolling
• Ring rolling is a forming process in which a thick-walled ring part of smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-
walled ring of a larger diameter.

✓ As the thick-walled ring is compressed, the deformed material elongates, making the diameter of the
ring to be enlarged.

✓ Application: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, rings for pipes, pressure
vessels, and rotating machinery
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Roll Bending:
• Strip will come out with constant thickness throughout the width if there is no roll bending.

Volume constancy:
𝑤 × 𝑉𝑜 × 𝐻𝑜 = 𝑤 × 𝑉𝑓 × 𝐻𝑓
For constant width
1
𝑉𝛼
𝐻
𝑉𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 > 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 , 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 < 𝐻𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
• Due the roll bending, the outgoing sheet becomes thicker
at the centre and thinner near the edges.
• This results in variable flow velocity of material
throughout the width, i.e., material near the edges flow
faster as compared to the material near the centre.
• Hence, centre material restricts the flow of material near
the edges leading to a defects named wavy edges.
• To avoid this, a pair of camber rolls are used.
• The camber is equal to the amount of bending undergone
by the roll in the opposite direction.
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Insufficient camber: Over cambering:
 Metal Forming - Rolling
Rolling Defects:

1. Surface defects:- It results due to improper preparation of surface of input material such as presence of
scales, dirt and rust. Formation of scales during hot rolling can also result in surface defects.

• Lap: It occurs after multiple passes and appears as a seam caused by folding over hot metal, fins or
sharp corners and then rolling them into the surface but not welding them.

• Mill-shearing: It is a feathering type light surface lap.

• Rolled-in scale: Surface oxides that were initially present on surface are pressed back into the
surface during rolling resulting in this defect.

• Scabs: Elongated patches of loosened metal which have been rolled into the surface.

• Seems: Open, broken surface that runs in straight longitudinal lines. It is caused by the presence of
oxides near the surface

• Silvers: Surface ruptures similar to skin laminations.

 Metal Forming - Rolling
2. Structural defects:- It caused by the rolling process itself and are more difficult to eliminate.

• Wavy edges: The edges of the rolled part get thin and experience compressive stresses resulting in
wavy edges. It caused by roll bending.

• Zipper crack: It also caused by roll bending and it observed at the center due to tensile stresses set
up in the rolled part.

• Edge crack: It caused by non-homogenous plastic deformation of metal across the width. Due to
surface deformation, while the center of slab remains uniform, the edges get the plastic deformation
in the form of a lateral spread. It is more towards the edge of the part that results in edge cracks.

• Alligatoring: Due to friction present between the roll surface and workpiece surface in contact, the
top and bottom of rolled product experience less elongation than the middle. If this condition
becomes sever, it may result into opening up at the free end of the outgoing sheet.

• Laminations: If the ingot used for rolling has a piping or blowholes and they do not get completely
welded during rolling, it will results lamination defect.
 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Extrusion

Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or compressed to flow through a die
hole to produce a desired cross-sectional shape. Example: squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube.

Advantages :
- Variety of shapes are possible, especially using hot extrusion
- Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm extrusion
- Close tolerances are possible, mainly in cold extrusion

Types of extrusion: Direct or forward extrusion, Indirect or backward extrusion

Direct extrusion: - A metal billet is first loaded into a container having die holes. A ram compresses the
material, forcing it to flow through the die holes.

- Some extra portion of the billet will be present at the end of the process that cannot be extruded and is
called butt. It is separated from the product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.
 Metal Forming - Extrusion

- In direct extrusion, a significant amount of friction exists between the billet surface and the container
walls, as the billet is forced to slide toward the die opening. Because of the presence of friction, a
substantial increase in the ram force is required.

- In hot direct extrusion, the friction problem is increased by the presence of oxide layer on the surface of
the billet. This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product.

- In order to address these problems, a dummy block is used between the ram and the work billet. The
diameter of the dummy block is kept slightly smaller than the billet diameter, so that a thin layer of billet
containing the oxide layer is left in the container, leaving the final product free of oxides.
 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Hollow sections like tubes can be made
using direct extrusion setup shown in
above figure. The starting billet is
prepared with a hole parallel to its axis.
As the billet is compressed, the material
will flow through the gap between the
mandrel and the die opening.
Indirect extrusion: - In this type, the die is mounted to the
ram and not on the container. As the ram compresses the
metal, it flows through the die hole on the ram side which is
in opposite direction to the movement of ram.

- Since there is no relative motion between the billet and

the container, there is no friction at the interface, and
hence the ram force is lower than in direct extrusion.

- Limitations: lower rigidity of the hollow ram, difficulty in

supporting the extruded product at the exit Indirect extrusion: solid and hollow billet
 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Extrusion dies

- Two important factors in an extrusion die are: die angle, orifice shape.

- For low die angles, surface area of the die is large, resulting in increased friction at the die-billet
interface. Higher friction results in higher ram force.

- For a large die angle, more turbulence in the metal flow is caused during reduction, increasing the ram
force required.

- The effect of die angle on ram force is a U-shaped function, shown in Figure. So, an optimum die angle
exists. The optimum angle depends on various factors like work material, billet temperature, and
lubrication.
 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Load calculation:

1. Forward extrusion:

𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑡 × 𝐴𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑜 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

2. Backward extrusion:

a. Solid ram 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑡 × 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑒

b. Hollow ram 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑡 × 𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓

3. Extrusion ratio:
𝐴𝑜
𝑅=
𝐴𝑓
 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Die materials

• For hot extrusion - tool and alloy steels.

✓ Important properties of die materials are high wear resistance, high thermal conductivity to remove
heat from the process.

• For cold extrusion - tool steels and cemented carbides. Carbides are used when high production rates,
long die life, and good dimensional control are expected.
 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Other extrusion processes

Impact extrusion:
- It is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes. The billet is extruded through the die by impact
pressure and not just by applying pressure.
- But impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion, backward extrusion, or a combination of these.

- Impact extrusion is carried out as cold forming. Very thin walls are possible by backward impact
extrusion method. Eg: making tooth paste tubes, battery cases.

- - Advantages of IE: large reductions and high production rates

 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Hydrostatic extrusion:

• In hydrostatic extrusion, the billet is surrounded with fluid inside

the container and the fluid is pressurized by the forward motion
of the ram.

• There is no friction inside the container because of the fluid, and

friction is minimized at the die opening. If used at high
temperatures, special fluids and procedures must be followed.

• Hydrostatic pressure on the work and no friction situation increases the material’s ductility. Hence this
process can be used on metals that would be too brittle for conventional extrusion methods.

• This process is also applicable for ductile metals, and here high reduction ratios are possible.

• The preparation of starting work billet is important. The billet must be formed with a taper at one end to
fit tightly into the die entry angle, so that it acts as a seal to prevent fluid leakage through die hole
under pressure.
 Metal Forming - Extrusion
Defects during extrusion

Center-burst:
- This is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile stresses along the center
axis of the workpiece during extrusion. A large material motion at the outer regions
pulls the material along the center of the work. Beyond a critical limit, bursting occurs.

- Conditions that promote this defect are: higher die angles, low extrusion ratios, and
impurities in the work metal. This is also called as Chevron cracking.

Piping:
It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet. This is minimized by the
usage of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less than that of the billet.

Surface cracking:
This defect results from high workpiece temperatures that cause cracks to develop at
the surface. They also occur at higher extrusion speeds, leading to high strain rates
and heat generation. Higher friction at the surface and surface chilling of high
temperature billets in hot extrusion also cause this defect.
Metal Forming - Extrusion
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
• Cutting and forming thin sheets of metal is usually performed as cold working
• Sheet metal = 0.4 to 6 mm thick
• Plate stock > 6 mm thick
• Advantage - High strength, good dimensional accuracy, good surface finish, economical mass
production (low cost).
• Cutting, bending, drawing

• Product:
➢ Car bodies
➢ Aircraft fuselages
➢ Trailers
➢ Office furniture appliances
➢ Fuel tanks
➢ Cookware
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Basic Operations
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Analysis:
Clearance - 4-8% but sometimes 1% of the thickness
Too small–fracture does not occur, so more force is required
Too large–Get pinched and cause an excessive burr
Clearance: c = a × t = 0.003 × 𝜏 × t
Where a is the cutting allowance (0.003), 𝜏 is shear strength and t is
the sheet thickness

For around blank,

Blank punch diameter= Db-2c
Blank die diameter = Db
For around hole,
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter= Dh+2c

Angular clearance of 0.25°to1

 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Cutting force: (F) = Ssh × t × l = 0.7 × Ts × t × l
Where Ssh = Shear strength (kN), t = thickness (mm), l = length of cutting edge (mm),
TS = Ultimate tensile strength (kN)

Example: A circular blank of 30 mm diameter is to be cut from a 2 mm thick steel sheet. Determine the
die and punch sizes. Also, estimate the punch force and stripping force needed. You may assume the
following for the steel Tensile strength 410 Mpa; shear strength 310 Mpa.

Solution: For cutting a black, die size = blank size

So, die size = 30 mm
Clearance = 0.003 × t × l = 0.003 × 2 × 310 = 1.86 mm
Punch size = Blank size - 2 × Clearance = 30 – (2×1.86) = 26.28 mm
Punch force = Ssh × t × l = 𝜋 × 30 × 2 × 310 = 58.5 kN
Stripping force = 0.02 × l × t = 0.02 × 𝜋 × 30 × 2 = 3.77 kN
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Progressive Die:
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Strip layout:
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Strip layout:
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Compound Die:
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Bending Die:

In V-bending, the sheet metal is bent

between a V-shaped punch and die
setup. The included angles range from
very obtuse to very acute values.

In edge bending, cantilever loading of

the sheet is seen. A pressure pad is
used to apply a force to hold the sheet
against the die, while the punch forces
the sheet to yield and bend over the
edge of the die.
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Basic bending operations:

Operation’s Name Symbol

Flanging
Hemming
Seaming
Curling
Channel

U-bending

Offset bending
Corrugating
Tube bending

Air Bending
Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Spring back in sheet metal bending:

At the end of the bending operation, the

bent part retains some of its elasticity
which is recovered after the punch is
removed.

Preventing Methods: Mechanics:

• Stretch forming
• Overbending
• Bottoming
• Ironing
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Maximum bending force:
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Blank size calculation: 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
Conditions Value of ‘c’
R < 2t 0.33t
R = 2t to 4t 0.4t
R > 4t 0.5t

2𝜋𝑁
𝐴= 𝑅+𝑐 , where N is bend angle
360

𝑐 = 0.33𝑡 = 0.33 × 3 = 0.99

2𝜋90
𝐴 = 4 + 0.99 = 7.83
360

𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐴 + 𝐿2

= 18 + 7.83 + 53

= 78.83 ≈ 79
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Bending load , die angle and radius calculation: 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
Bending load :
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑇𝑠 = 35 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑚2
𝐾𝑏𝑓 × 𝑇𝑠 × 𝑤 × 𝑡 2
𝐹= 𝐷 = 𝑅𝑃 + 𝑅𝐷 + 𝐶 = 4 + 7 + 3 = 14
𝐷

1.33 × 35 × 30 × 32
𝐹= = 897.75 𝑘𝑔
14
Die angle :
𝛼 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0.94 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐾=
𝛼1
𝛼 = 𝑃𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
90
0.94 = , 𝛼1 = 95.75 ≈ 96°
𝛼1 𝛼1 = 𝐷𝑖𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
Die radius :
𝑡
𝑅1 + 2
𝐾= 𝑡 ,
𝑅+2
3
𝑅1 +
0.94 = 2, 𝑅1 = 3.67 ≈ 3.7
3
4+2
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Strip layout and shearing load calculation:
Strip Layout:
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒: −𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔(2 𝑁𝑜𝑠. )

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒: −𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑡 (2 𝑁𝑜𝑠. )

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒: −𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔

Shearing load:

𝐹𝑠ℎ = 𝑆𝑠ℎ × 𝑡 × 𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑆𝑠ℎ

= 75 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑚2
= 75 × 3 × { 79 + 30 + 79 + 30 + 2𝜋𝑑}

= 3698282.87 𝑘𝑔 = 3.7 × 106 𝑘𝑔

 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Forming Die: For Cup shape
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Redrawing Die: (Deep draw)

When drawn from a flat blank, a cylindrical shell diameter (d) can be expressed as a percentage of the original blank
diameter (D), or percent-reduction, as follows:
% reduction = 1 - (d/D) x100

For example, a 60 mm diameter cup produced from a 100 mm diameter blank equals a 40-percent reduction in
diameter:
1 - (6/10) x100 = 40 percent.
Likewise, if this 60 mm cup is redrawn to 45 mm, its diameter decreases by 25 percent.
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Reverse-redrawing Die:
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Maximum drawing force:

𝐷𝑏
𝐹 = 𝜋 𝐷𝑝 𝑡 𝑇𝑠 − 0.7
𝐷𝑝

Where F = Drawing force (kN)

t = original blank thickness (mm)
Ts = Tensile strength (kN)
Db = Blank diameter (mm)
Dp = Punch diameter (mm)

Increasing the draw ratio (DR) will increase the punch force, and this will result in excessive thinning or
even fracture in the cup wall.
DR < LDR, LDR – the limiting drawing ratio
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Blank diameter for cup:
i. Algebraic method
ii. Simple Graphical method Where
D = Blank diameter (mm)
iii. Center of gravity method
t = Original blank thickness (mm)
iv. Layout method h = Hight of the cup (mm)
v. Area of element method or Area segment method r = inside corner radius (mm)
d = Outer diameter of cup (mm)

i. Algebraic method:

𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑 2 + 4𝑑ℎ, when d/r is 20 or more

𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑 2 + 4𝑑ℎ − 0.5𝑟, when 15 = d/r = 20

𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑 2 + 4𝑑ℎ − 𝑟, when 10 = d/r = 15

𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑 − 2𝑟 2 + 4𝑑 ℎ − 𝑟 + 2𝜋 𝑑 − 0.7𝑟 , when d/r <10

 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Reduction factor:

𝐷−𝑑 𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = =1− in %
𝐷 𝐷
𝐷
Since, Draw ratio 𝛽 = 𝑑

𝑑 1
Let, 𝑚=𝐷=𝛽

1
𝑅 =1−𝑚 =1−𝛽

1
Or 𝛽 = 1−𝑅
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Defects in a drawing:
Wrinkling in flange and cup wall: This is like ups and
downs or waviness that is developed on the flange. If the
flange is drawn into the die hole, it will be retained in the
cup wall region.

Tearing: It is a crack in the cup, near the base, happening

due to high tensile stresses causing thinning and failure of
the metal at this place. This can also occur due to sharp
die corners.
Earing: The height of the walls of
drawn cups have peaks and
valleys called earing. There may
be more than four ears. Earing
results from planar anisotropy
(ΔR), and ear height and angular
position correlate well with the
angular variation of R.
Surface scratches: Usage of rough punch, die sand
poor lubrication cause scratches in a drawn cup.
 Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
Trimming Die:
Metal Forming – Sheet Metal Working
𝓞𝓶 𝓝𝓪𝓶𝓪𝓱 𝓼𝓱𝓲𝓿𝓪𝔂…

Thank you !!!