Smart Materials and Structures

Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 (14pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/ad38a7

Thermo-rheological improvement of
magnetorheological foam with the
addition of silica nanoparticles
Rahayu Emilia Mohamed Khaidir1, Nur Azmah Nordin1,∗, Saiful Amri Mazlan1,2,
Ubaidillah Ubaidillah3,6,∗, Hamimah Abd Rahman4, Ainaa Amirah Marzuki1
and Siti Aisyah Abdul Wahab5
1
Engineering Materials and Structures (eMast) ikohza, Malaysia–Japan International Institute of
Technology (MJIIT), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 54100, Malaysia
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Business & Technology
(UBT), PO Box No 21448, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universitas Sebelas Maret, J1. Ir. Sutami 36A, Kentigan, Sukarta
57126, Indonesia
4
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja,
Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
5
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ION2), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
6
Mechanical Engineering Department, Islamic University of Madinah, Madinah Al Munawwarah 42351,
Saudi Arabia

E-mail: nurazmah.nordin@utm.my and ubaidillah_ft@staff.uns.ac.id

Received 17 July 2023, revised 20 February 2024

Accepted for publication 27 March 2024
Published 4 April 2024

Abstract
Magnetorheological (MR) foam has become a potential soft robotic gripper-based material that
can provide a better grasping force and handling objects due to its ability in varying stiffness in
correspond to applied magnetic fields. However, MR foams are facing degradation issue that
may reduce the storage modulus when often exposed to thermal exposure from the operating
system of a device. Therefore, this study focuses on improving the storage modulus and
simultaneously enhancing the thermal properties of MR foam. Hence, silica nanoparticles were
introduced as an additive to achieve the improvement target. MR foams were embedded with
different concentrations of silica nanoparticles from 0 to 5 wt.%, and the corresponding
rheological properties was examined under different temperature conditions from 25 ◦ C to
65 ◦ C. The results revealed that increasing temperatures have reduced the storage modulus of
MR foams, however, the embedded silica has countered the drawbacks by strengthening the
interfacial interactions between CIP-polyurethane foam matrix. In addition, the morphological
characteristics of MR foams also showed less debris or peel-off PU foam with silica
nanoparticles. Besides, the silica nanoparticles have delayed the thermal degradation of MR
foam for approximately 30 ◦ C.
Keywords: magnetorheological foam, carbonyl iron particles, silica nanoparticles,
rheological properties, thermal properties

∗
Authors to whom any correspondence should be addressed.

1 © 2024 IOP Publishing Ltd

Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011
1. Introduction
In response with the growing demands for machinery and
robotic technologies to assist in the daily routines of human
beings, the application of soft robotic grippers and pneumatic
actuators has become an interesting and essential compon-
ent in the robotic industry. Recent development in robotics
have emerged to incorporate adjustable stiffness-based mater-
ial rather than using passive materials for soft robotic grip-
per for better grasp and handling of different objects [1, 2].
This leads to an intriguing interest in the characteristics and
behavior of a magnetorheological (MR) foam as a new soft
solid smart material that can be adjustable and tuneable in
response to applied magnetic fields. MR foam or also known
as magnetic foam is mainly composed of micron-sized mag-
netic particles, specifically carbonyl iron particles (CIPs) that
have been embedded in a low relative density of polymer such
as polyurethane (PU) [3] and polyethylene foam [4]. PU foam
is commonly used and known as a porous polymer matrix that
possess excellent flexibility, good cushioning effect, high dur-
ability, good insulation, low density and reasonably low pro-
duction cost that is widely used for various applications [5–7].
Meanwhile, CIPs is known as the polarizable magnetic filler
normally exhibit high permeability, low remanence magnetiz-
ation and high magnetic saturation [8], which has been util-
ized to fabricate most MR materials. Apparently, CIPs experi-
enced magnetization with induced magnetic field by attract-
ing to one another via magnetic forces in the direction of
magnetic field [9]. Correspondingly, MR foam became stiffer
when respective cell structures began to resist deformation that
led to changes in the modulus, yield point and plateau region
of linear viscoelastic (LVE) [10]. Compared to other type of
MR solid material such as MR elastomer (MRE), MR foam
has a unique porous structure of open (flexible) and closed
(rigid) cells that are created during the foaming process by
trapping gases (bubbles) from the liquid mixtures of polyol
and isocyanate [11]. Due to its high elasticity and light-weight
porous structure, the dimension of MR foam can be shaped-out
according to the shape of object to grasp it, and avoid perman-
ent damage to the fragile object simultaneously.
The illustration design of MR foam-based soft robotic grip-
per is drawn in figure 1. The illustration design shows on
how MR foam would response to induced magnetic field and
becomes a semi-active soft-based material for soft robotic
gripper. As illustrated in figure 1, the magnetic actuator plays
a significant role in using magnetic fields to generate mechan-
ical motion or specific movement in the gripper control sys-
tem. Generally, the conversion of electrical input to magnetic
force occurs through the interaction of electric current from the
power supply with a coil of wire in the ferromagnetic part. The
interaction of electrical currents within the coil would gen-
erate an electromagnetic field around the coil. If the current
flow through the coil has been changed, it induces a change
in the magnetic field. Notably, the stiffness of MR foam also
would be changed, and the value can be varied by manipulat-
ing the strength of magnetic fields. When exposed to a mag-
netic field, the magnetic particles (CIPs) inside the struts of
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R E Mohamed Khaidir et al
MR foam would tend to align following the direction of mag-
netic fields. As the magnetic particles tend to align and form
chain-like structure, it caused a longitudinal change of pores
and simultaneously cause a change in the dimension of the MR
foam. This phenomenon can be related to the principle of mag-
netostriction where a ferromagnetic material when magnetized
would experience a change in its dimension in response to
applied magnetic field [12]. Similarly, the material’s stiffness
or known as storage modulus, as well as other characteristics
would be changed as well. Therefore, the key feature of MR
foam is its tunability characteristics and properties. By adjust-
ing the strength of applied magnetic fields, the longitudinal
change of pores as well as dimension of MR foam could be
controlled. Hence, the design and synthesis of MR foam can
provide a new potential material in developing semi-active soft
robotic gripper that can gently grasped or firmly hold an object
respective to various shapes and sizes of object, in response to
the adjustable magnetic fields.
Despite the aforementioned advantages of MR foam, diffi-
culties would have arisen when there is induced of heat from
the operating system of the machinery devices, where the
storage modulus of MR foam could be further drop with the
change of temperatures. Then, this phenomenon would affect
the characteristics and behavior of MR foam, subsequently
may reduce the performance of the material in robotic grip-
per. In particular, Zhang et al [8] has mentioned that the
thermal degradation of MR foam was dominated from the
struts of PU foam as compared to CIPs, due to low thermal
properties of PU foam [8]. A comparable research has been
done by Gong et al [13] to study on the thermal properties
of flexible MR foam, where at the first stage of degradation
process, the residues after MR foam underwent heat expos-
ure from 40 ◦ C to 350 ◦ C has led to the initial degrada-
tion of the material, and dissociation of urethane from the
PU foam has formed a primary amine, alkene and carbon
dioxide. With a further increase of temperature (second stage
of degradation process), after 600 ◦ C, the weight of CIPs
from the residues were observed to be unchanged, while none
of the PU foam remains. The degradation of the material
was mainly attributed by the open cell structures of flexible
MR foam which allowed gasses and liquid to travel freely
through the foam cells [14]. Consequently, larger surface area
of MR foam would be affected when heat flow from sur-
rounding was in contact with the wall structures of MR foam,
thus causing shrinkage on that structure. Taking this similar
phenomenon into a consideration as induced of current in
the operational system to generate magnetic field, produces
heat that hasten the thermal degradation of the MR foam.
As a result, larger surface area of MR foam will be affected
when the heat flow from surrounding is in contact with the
wall structures. Thus, the generated heat affects the physical
characteristics and weaken the rheological properties of the
material.
Therefore, in order to counter the drawbacks of MR foam,
Zhang et al [8] suggested to add more magnetic particles, par-
ticularly iron particles to enhance the thermal stability of the
MR foam. The thermal stability of 50% weight loss of MR
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011
Figure 1. Illustration design of MR foam as soft-based material for robotic gripper.
foam with 50 and 75 wt.% of CIPs content were at 280 ◦ C
and 287 ◦ C, respectively. The results were in consistent with
previous study, where 70 and 80 wt.% of CIPs has thermal
stability at 370 ◦ C and 381 ◦ C, respectively [13]. In corres-
pondence to the thermal stability improvement, it was due to
the presence of more particles in the PU matrix structure that
hindered the mobility of PU molecular chains thus delaying
the thermal degradation of MR foam. Unfortunately, this par-
ticular method tended to promote non-homogenous mixture of
matrix–filler components that would cause particles aggrega-
tion in the struts [15]. Thus, it weakened the ability of MR
foam to maintain the stability of cellular structure, thus sub-
sequently leads to the collapse of cells during the foaming
process.
In such a way, a different approach has been addressed,
involving the use of an additive as a crosslinker or chain
extender in the matrix structure of PU foam, which influence
the thermal properties of MR foam [16, 17]. The cross-linked
PUs are getting stronger thus, higher amount of energy is
needed to break the chemical bonds of thermally stable struc-
tures. Commonly, the selection of additives would depend on
the desired outcome and the application requirements. In the
past studies of MR materials, the use of additives such as
graphite [18], cobalt ferrite [19], carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
[20] and silica [21] are employed to optimize the rheological,
morphological, thermal, or mechanical characteristics of MR
materials. In 2009, Li et al [18] found that the addition of
graphite has significantly boosted the MRE’s conductivity and
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R E Mohamed Khaidir et al
decreased its resistance by over 85%. However, the graphite
could induce brittleness in MRE which could hastening the
deformation of the material [22]. On the other hand, the study
conducted by Aziz et al [19] has revealed that the incorpora-
tion of cobalt ferrite into MRE has resulted in a 43% higher
storage modulus as compared to the MRE without the cobalt
ferrite. Unfortunately, cobalt ferrite may induce adverse tox-
icity effects towards human and biological systems, potentially
causing cell death and DNA damage. Meanwhile, Kumar and
Lee [20] who added CNTs has demonstrated a noteworthy
increased in the storage modulus of MRE, specifically from
600 to 1200 kPa. Nevertheless, CNTs tend to form agglomer-
ates of clusters of the particles. This can reduce the effective-
ness of dispersion and negatively impact the material’s homo-
geneity performance.
A few researchers have discovered that silica nanoparticles
as a crosslinker additive could result in the enhancement of
thermal and rheological properties due to the enhancement of
intermolecular interactions. For example, Saiz-Arroyo et al [4]
stated that by incorporating 3–9 wt.% of silica nanoparticles
into the polymer composite foam such as low density poly-
ethylene (LDPE) foam capable of improving the thermal sta-
bility by 20 ◦ C. Simultaneously, the rheological properties of
LDPE foam, in terms of storage modulus were also enhanced
by 51% with the addition of 3 wt.% of silica nanoparticles.
Nikje et al [23] obtained a similar result by incorporating
3 wt.% of silica nanoparticles has shifted the temperature for
50 wt.% weight loss to higher temperature by 8 ◦ C. These
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011
findings thus far showed the significant role of silica nano-
particles as a thermal stability agent for polymer composite
foam such as LDPE foam and PU foam. Recently, the interest
in the usage of silica nanoparticles as an additive has been fur-
ther utilized in MR material, particularly in MRE to improve
its respective thermal stability. For example, Rashid et al [21]
proved that with 3–11 wt.% of silica nanoparticles, the thermal
stability of the MRE has been shifted from 209 ◦ C to 234 ◦ C,
showing the increased in the decomposition temperature of the
material. Furthermore, the silica nanoparticles that acted as
an adhesive has strengthened the matrix–filler interactions of
MRE, and simultaneously enhanced the rheological properties
[24].
Although it is feasible, limited research has been reported
on adding silica nanoparticles to improve the thermal stability
of MR materials. Moreover, there are less evidence on utilizing
silica for thermal stability enhancement of MR foam. In such a
way, this successful approach has been brought to the current
study to improve the thermal stability and rheological prop-
erties of MR foam. The research aims to improve the inter-
molecular bonding between the filler–matrix in order to have
a more stable cellular structure of MR foam that leads to higher
thermal stability of the material. Therefore, this study focuses
to investigate the effects of varying compositions of silica nan-
oparticles, ranging from 0 to 5 wt.%, on the rheological and
thermal properties of MR foam, under different magnetic field
strength. The thermo-rheological properties of MR foam were
meticulously examined across a modest temperature spectrum,
ranging from 25 ◦ C to 65 ◦ C, which will be controlled by the
rheometer (Viscotherm). This study aims to enhance the fun-
damental knowledge and provides a deeper insight into poten-
tial ability of MR foam as a based material for soft robotic
gripper, where its storage modulus or stiffness can be varied
by controlling the magnetic fields, under modest temperature
condition.
2. Methodology
2.1. Sample preparation
The fabrication process of MR foam was being done via in-
situ polymerization method. MR foam consists of two main
components of PU foam and magnetic particles. The form-
ing process was specifically to embed the magnetic particles
into the polymer matrix of PU foam. The magnetic particles
used were CIPs of OM-type, with density of 4.5 g cm−3 and
average size of 3–5 µm, purchased from CK Materials Lab
Co. Ltd, Seoul, Korea. Meanwhile, the PU foam was primarily
from a mixture of polyol and isocyanates that were purchased
from Smooth On. Inc, USA. In particular, the polyether poly-
ols (PPG)-based triol has a molecular weight of 6000 g mol−1
and density of 1.03 g ml−1 acted as a chemical agent. While
4,4# -methylene bis (phenyl isocyanate) benzene that has dens-
ity of 1.00 g ml−1 was a chemical reactant that helped the
formation of gas bubbles during the foaming process of the PU
or MR foam. In this experiment, silica nanoparticles powder
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R E Mohamed Khaidir et al
with an average size of 20 nm was obtained from Universiti
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia under a
collaborative engagement.
In the course of the experimental procedure, the fabrica-
tion of MR foam sample without the addition of silica nan-
oparticles played an important role as a control sample. The
foam-based matrix that composed of polyol and isocyanates
was divided into two equal portions from a total weight of
20 g, yielding 10 g each. In the meantime, CIPs as a filler
were weighed to a fixed constant amount of 75 wt.% of the
total weight of foam-based matrix, making it precisely 15 g.
Consequently, the final weight of the MR foam was set con-
stant at 35 g (100 wt.%) without the addition of silica nan-
oparticles. The incorporation of silica nanoparticles was cal-
culated as an addition to the total weight of MR foam. Hence,
0.35 g of silica nanoparticles addition would be corresponding
to 1 wt.%.
The fabrication process of MR foam with silica nan-
oparticles addition using in-situ polymerization method is
shown in figure 2. CIPs and silica nanoparticles were mixed
using mortar and pestle until the mixture was uniformed. Then,
the mixture was mixed with polyol solution using a mech-
anical stirrer of Multimix High Speed Dispersed at constant
speed of 550 rpm for 30 s. Afterwards, the isocyanates solution
was added into the new mixture and stirred for another con-
tinuous 20 s before immediately poured into a 20 mm diameter
cylindrical mold, where foaming process would take place vig-
orously. After the foaming process has completed, the sample
was left to dry at room temperature for 24 h. Finally, the
sample was cut into 1 mm thickness with 20 mm diameter
for characterization. The experimental procedure was repeated
with the addition of silica nanoparticles of approximately 2,
3, 4 and 5 wt.%, which corresponding to 0.70, 1.05, 1.40
and 1.75 g, respectively. Table 1 shows the formulation of
MR foam samples with different compositions of silica nano-
particles.
2.2. Sample testing and characterization
Rheological test was carried out to determine the viscoelastic
properties of MR foam in terms of storage modulus and MR
effect. The samples were tested by using a modular com-
pact rheometer (model MCR302) from Anton Paar, Germany
as shown in figure 3 with magnified area of sample stage.
The rheometer was equipped with a controllable parallel plate
(PP20/MRD/T1/P2) that has a patented Toolmaster™ techno-
logy with a sample stage diameter of 20 mm and a constant
gap of 1 mm, measured by Trugap™ feature that recognize
the real measuring gap. For a strain sweep test, the range of
0.0001%–10% of strain was set with different input currents
from 0 to 4 A, at a constant frequency of 1 Hz. The test was
performed to evaluate the elasticity and deformation range of
MR foams through the analysis of LVE region. The input cur-
rents of 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 A meanwhile were equivalent to the
generated magnetic flux density, B of 0, 0.20, 0.35, 0.53 and
0.73 T to the samples, respectively. For magnetic fields sweep
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 R E Mohamed Khaidir et al

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of in-situ polymerization process of MR foam; (a) weighing process, (b) mixing CIPs with silica
nanoparticles, (c) mixing solid mixture with polyol, (d) mixing isocyanates with polyol mixture, (e) pouring the mixture into cylindrical
mold, (f) foaming process, and (g) fabricated sample.

Table 1. Composition of raw materials to prepare the MR foam samples.

100 wt.% Silica nanoparticles

Sample CIPs (g) PU foam matrix (g) wt.% (g)

S0 15 20 0 0.00
S1 15 20 1 0.35
S2 15 20 2 0.70
S3 15 20 3 1.05
S4 15 20 4 1.40
S5 15 20 5 1.75

test, the storage modulus was obtained by varying the mag-
netic flux density, B at a fixed strain that was primarily identi-
fied from the LVE region analysis. Then, the MR effect would
be projected out accordingly. On the other hand, the influence
of thermal on the storage modulus of MR foams was further
evaluated with the temperature increased from 25 ◦ C to 65 ◦ C,
with the interval of 10 ◦ C. Prior to the purpose, the temperat-
ure setting of the rheometer was controlled and regularized by
Viscotherm, VT2 that has the limitation up to 70 ◦ C.
As a supporting analysis, the physical characteristics of
additive being used were primarily evaluated by using x-ray
diffractometer (XRD), model Empyrean Pan Analytical to
ensure the amorphous structure of as-received silica nano-
particles. The characterization was done using Cu Kα radiation
at 0.154 nm, with an angle from 10◦ to 80◦ and the received
data was further analyzed using a Philip X’Pert software for
phase and structure identifications. Meanwhile, the morpholo-
gical characterization was carried out to evaluate the particle
sizes of silica powder and to observe the homogeneity dis-
tribution of CIPs as well as silica nanoparticles in the MR
foam, including visualizing the surface topography of entire
structure of MR foams. In particular, the nanosized silica was
determined via field emission scanning electron microscopy
(FESEM) with triple detectors, by Zeiss Merlin model. The
resolution was set up at 3.0 kV and the micrograph was mag-
nified and captured at 100 000x. Then, the morphology of
MR foams was carried out by using variable pressure scan-
ning electron microscopy, model JSM-IT300LV from JEOL
Ltd, Tokyo, Japan. The images were taken under various res-
olutions of 50x–2000x magnifications, at 10 kV of supplied
voltage. On the other hand, the thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA) was conducted using a TA Instrument of TGA Q50

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Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 R E Mohamed Khaidir et al

Figure 3. Modular Compact Rheometer (MCR302).

model to determine the chemical decomposition and thermal

degradation of MR foam by 50% weight loss upon increasing
in temperatures. The sample was tested under raising temper-
atures, ranging from 30 ◦ C to 1000 ◦ C with a heating rate of
10 ◦ C min−1 .

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Physical analysis of silica nanoparticles

The x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis for silica nanoparticles

powder was carried out in the range of 2θ = 10◦ –80◦ . Figure 4
shows the broad band with no diffraction peak from 2θ = 15◦
to 2θ = 40◦ , in which similar pattern was reported by Wei
Figure 4. The XRD graph of amorphous silica nanoparticles.
et al [25]. The broad diffraction band with maximum intensity
at 2θ = 22◦ defined a complete amorphous phase structure of
silica, SiO2 , in consistent with Azmi et al [26]. Consequently,
it showed that the as-received silica powder from the collab-
orator possesses high surface area and high content of silica
nanoparticles [27].
Figure 5 shows the micrograph image of silica nano-
particles under 100kx magnification of FESEM. The silica
nanoparticles were observed to have spherical shapes with dia-
meter range of 9–15 nm.

3.2. Strain sweep analysis of MR foam

In this study, strain sweep analysis was conducted to charac-

terize the rheological behavior, particularly the viscoelastic
properties of MR foam under various strain amplitudes of
deformation. The data obtained from the analysis will repres-
ent the output of storage modulus (G# ) in response to different
input strains. By varying the strains (γ), typically expressed Figure 5. The micrograph of silica nanoparticles.
as a percentage (%), valuable insights into the stiffness of MR
foams and their ability to resist deformation can be obtained. subjected to oscillatory strain input. Theoretically, a higher
Therefore, the value of storage modulus (G# ) serves as a meas- storage modulus corresponds to a stiffer material, indicat-
ure of the material’s ability to store deformation energy when ing a greater resistance to deformation. Indeed, increases in

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Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 R E Mohamed Khaidir et al

Figure 6. Strain sweep graphs of MR foam and MR foam with 5 wt.% of silica nanoparticles under different temperatures.

the storage modulus of MR foam are amplified by increas- Table 2. The initial storage modulus, G0 ! (kPa) of MR foam (S0)
ing the magnetic field strengths. However, as the temperature and MR foam with 5 wt.% silica nanoparticles (S5) under different
increases, the storage modulus (G# ) of MR foam will decrease, temperatures condition.
indicating a reduction in the stiffness of the MR foam. Initial storage Difference in initial
Figure 6 shows the strain sweep graphs of MR foam and Temperature modulus, G0 ! (kPa) storage modulus, ∆G0 !
MR foam with 5 wt.% of silica nanoparticles under different (◦ C) S0 S5 ∆S (kPa)
temperatures condition. Respectively, the LVE region of MR
foam samples under strain amplitudes of 0.001%–10%, with a 25 45 145 100
fixed frequency of 1 Hz and at different temperatures of 25 ◦ C 35 39 141 102
and 65 ◦ C would be determined. LVE region is a crucial ana- 45 33 137 104
55 28 134 106
lysis as it represents the deformation range of sample elastic-
65 23 130 107
ally upon applied strains and able to recover to its original pos-
ition when the applied strain was removed. In general, when
a sample is subjected to an applied strain, it is most likely to samples was within the specified ranges respectively, allowing
resist deformation and would be recovered to its original form, the structure to return to its original position after removal of
and the process occurs linearly if the applied strain is still in the applied strains. It can be seen that the MR foam samples
the linear region of the MR foam. However, when the deform- without the addition of silica nanoparticles (S0) could sus-
ation sample exceed its LVE limit upon greater applied strains, tained a longer strain, up to 1% before the graphs began to
the phenomenon causes the sample to undergo transition from show a decline pattern. Meanwhile, MR foam samples that
linear elastic behavior to non-linear elastic behavior. The consist of 5 wt.% silica nanoparticles (S5) exhibited a shorter
deformed microstructure in the MR foam would still return to range of LVE region, up 0.6% indicating more rigid and stiffer
its original position but the process occurs non-linearly or non- structure of MR foam samples attributed to the adhesiveness
proportionally with the applied strains. Therefore, the revers- of silica nanoparticles as an additive. The determination LVE
ible process is difficult to be controlled. Since the responsive- regions for each type of MR foam was based on the method
ness of MR foams occurs in two conditions; linear and non- introduced by Agirre-Olabide et al [28, 29], where the points
linear viscoelastic behavior, it is crucial to clarify the LVE taken by at least 10% deviated from the plateau region of
region as the controlled reversible behavior of MR foam lies the graphs. It is noted as well that the LVE regions of both
in this region. Once the LVE region of MR foams has been MR foam samples, S0 and S5 under different temperatures
determined, the proportional change in soft robotic gripper were remained unchanged, particularly at 1% and 0.6% strains
performance could be controlled within specified ranges of respectively. Nevertheless, prior to commencing other testing
applied strains, magnetic fields, and induced temperatures. including current sweep analysis, the strain value of 0.1% was
Based on the plotted graphs in figure 6, it is observed that chosen, which compromises both elastic regions of MR foams.
the MR foam samples showed a constant storage modulus cor- Table 2 summarizes the initial storage modulus, G0 # of S0
respond to the applied strains from 0.001%–1% for MR foam and S5 samples under different temperature conditions. The
(S0) and constrained to 0.6% for MR foam with 5 wt.% silica temperature condition during the oscillating system was varied
nanoparticles (S5). This demonstrates the elastic region of the in the range of 25 ◦ C–65 ◦ C, with an increment of ∆10 ◦ C for

7
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011
each different sample. It can be observed that the S0 sample at
25 ◦ C exhibits an initial storage modulus of 45 kPa. However,
when the temperature rises to 35 ◦ C, the G0 # of S0 drops
slightly from 45 to 39 kPa, about 6 kPa. Then, as the tem-
perature kept increasing, the G0 # of S0 kept decreasing to
33 kPa, 28 kPa and 23 kPa for the temperature conditions of
45 ◦ C, 55 ◦ C and 65 ◦ C, respectively. The decrement of the
G0 # was about 5–6 kPa for each 10 ◦ C of temperature incre-
ment, indicating the reduced stiffness and the capability of MR
foam to store more deformation energy is decreasing. It also
shows that the rising temperatures have influenced the poly-
mer structure of MR foam and its resultant characteristics.
Besides, a previous study of basic PU foam has stated that
the changed in temperature during service performance have
caused changes in the macroscopic properties of the mater-
ial, such as loss in strength and modulus [30]. The result is
in line with a recent study conducted by Rashid et al [21],
who found that as the temperature increased from 25 ◦ C to
65 ◦ C, G0 # of MRE has reduced from 0.76 to 0.63 MPa. It is
due to the rising temperatures has provided kinetic energy to
the molecular chains of polymer, thus allowing the particles to
slightly move [21]. Therefore, in accordance with the dropped
values of storage modulus of MR foams, it is expected that the
rising temperatures also contributed to the increment in the
kinetic energy of molecular chains of MR foam, resulting in
the particles movement slightly. The slight movement of the
molecular chains of MR foam has implied to the instability
of the interactions between PU matrix and the CIPs, thus res-
ulting in weaker interfacial bonding between the filler–matrix
phases. Consequently, the particle’s motion could lead to a
decreased in the storage modulus of MR foams.
On the other hand, the addition of silica nanoparticles to
the MR foam (S5) is expected to improve the interfacial bond-
ing between the filler–matrix phases of MR foam, even under
rising temperatures condition. As shown in table 2, the G0 # of
MR foam increased from 45 to 145 kPa, for about ∆100 kPa
increment, particularly under the temperature of 25 ◦ C. Then,
as the temperature was kept increasing, the G0 # of S5 were
observed to drop slightly to 141 kPa, 137 kPa, 134 kPa and
130 kPa for the temperature conditions of 35 ◦ C, 45 ◦ C, 55 ◦ C
and 65 ◦ C, respectively. The decrement of the G0 # was about
3–4 kPa only for each 10 ◦ C of temperature increment, show-
ing a small difference of storage modulus decrement after the
samples were added with silica nanoparticles. Although the
S5 showed a decreasing trend in G0 # with elevated temperat-
ures, the difference in ∆S presents the consistent value of stor-
age modulus that can be stored by the sample, around ∆100–
107 kPa with temperatures of 25 ◦ C–65 ◦ C. This shows the
interactions between the matrix-particles for PU matrix-CIPs,
respectively has been improved with silica nanoparticles, thus
improve the thermal stability of MR foam. As stated in previ-
ous study, silica acted as a crosslinking agent by creating sil-
ane coupling bonds during the foaming process of MR foam to
strengthen the interfacial bonding between the filler and mat-
rix of MR foam [31]. Thus, the improved interfacial interaction
between the CIPs and PU matrix has led to the enhancement
of G0 # of S5 and maintain the ∆S that could be stored by the
sample, under different temperatures.
8
R E Mohamed Khaidir et al
3.3. Magnetic field sweep analysis of MR foams
Figure 7 shows the effect of storage modulus of MR foams
that were incorporated with different concentrations of silica
nanoparticles for 1–5 wt.% (S0, S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5), under
various magnetic flux density, and at low and high temper-
atures of 25 ◦ C and 65 ◦ C, respectively. It can be observed
that, at the off-state condition (0 T) particularly at 25 ◦ C, the
storage modulus (G# ) of MR foams has increased respect-
ively as the concentrations of silica nanoparticles increased
from 1 to 4 wt.%. This finding indicated the stiffer structure
of MR foams with more silica nanoparticles. The increase
in concentrations of silica nanoparticles have resulted more
particles were embedded in the matrix structure of PU foam
with constant weight percentage of CIPs. It is noted that the
nanosize of silica possessed a high surface area which contrib-
uted to the well-dispersion of the nanoparticles among filler–
matrix phases of CIP-PU foam [32]. Concurrently, the embed-
ded silica nanoparticles in the PU foam have provided silane
coupling bonds that improved the interfacial bonding between
filler–matrix interactions, thus enhanced the storage modulus
of MR foams. Unfortunately, the results differ when MR foam
has started to show an opposite effect as the storage modulus
has decreased slightly from 155 to 141 kPa when the silica
nanoparticles was further added from 4 to 5 wt.%, respect-
ively. This is because, due to excessive of silica nanoparticles,
particularly at 5 wt.% had caused a non-homogenous of the
particle’s dispersion which subsequently led to the aggregation
of the nanoparticles in the structure of MR foam. As a result,
the dimensional stability of the cellular structure of MR foam
has been disrupted, which is associated with the slight decre-
ment in the storage modulus of MR foam.
Nevertheless, it was observed that as magnetic fields
increased from 0.1 to 0.8 T (on-state conditions), the storage
modulus of all MR foam samples have also increased, regard-
less of any concentration of silica nanoparticles. The gradual
increment in the storage modulus of MR foams with magnetic
fields can also be observed in figure 8. For example, at 25 ◦ C,
the storage modulus of MR foam (S0) at 0 T was found to
be 45 kPa and the value has increased to 51 kPa, by about
∆6 kPa particularly when 0.8 T was applied to the MR foam.
This phenomenon has indicated the increased stiffness of MR
foams, which is attributed to the increase in responsiveness
of the magnetic particles (CIPs) in the MR foam towards the
increased strength of magnetic fields. The increased value of
storage modulus also can be related to the stronger magnetic
forces and interaction between the CIPs in the matrix structure
of PU matrix that resulted in the stiffer cellular structure of the
MR foams [33].
On the other hand, figure 8 illustrates the impact of differ-
ent temperatures (25 ◦ C–65 ◦ C) on the storage modulus of
MR foams, indicating a slight decrease in both off-state and
on-state conditions. The detail changes of the storage modu-
lus of MR foams with temperatures are tabulated in table 3,
particularly at 0 T (off-state) and 0.8 T (on-state). The differ-
ence in the storage modulus can also be clearly observed in
figure 7, as for low (25 ◦ C) and high temperatures (65 ◦ C).
The low temperature of 25 ◦ C was being set up to simulate
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 R E Mohamed Khaidir et al

Figure 7. The effect of storage modulus of MR foams with various concentrations of silica nanoparticles (S0–S5) at different magnetic
fields and with different temperatures (25 ◦ C–65 ◦ C).

Figure 8. Storage modulus of MR foams versus temperatures with different concentrations of silica nanoparticles at off-state (0 T) and
on-state condition (0.8 T).

the ambient temperature condition during the testing, while
65 ◦ C was set up to simulate the elevating temperature in an
operating system of a device. In brief, while the incorpora-
tion of silica nanoparticles (1–5 wt.%) has enhanced the stor-
age modulus of MR foams, the values have slightly decreased
with the introduction of higher temperatures to the material,
ranging from 35 ◦ C to 65 ◦ C. Indeed, at 0 T, S0 has reported a
decrease in the storage modulus of MR foam from 43 to 41 kPa
as the temperature increased from 25 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C. The value
further decreased by about 2–3 kPa with a subsequent rise in
temperature up to 65 ◦ C. This finding indicates a reduction
in the stiffness of MR foam, resulting in a slight decrease in
its ability to store higher deformation energy during shearing.
Similar patterns are observed for other MR foam samples
with different silica nanoparticles (S1–S5), at different tem-
peratures. A study has been done by Rashid et al [21] who
stated that a dropped in the storage modulus of MRE with
increasing temperatures is due to the poor interfacial interac-
tions between the CIPs and elastomer matrix with of induced
heat. Nevertheless, embedding silica nanoparticles in the mat-
rix structure of MR foam can improve the decrement values
of the storage modulus when heat is induced. After all, the
incorporation of silica nanoparticles has enhanced the storage
modulus of MR foam by 46 kPa for 1 wt.% of silica nano-
particles, particularly at 25 ◦ C. This increment value has been
maintained as temperatures further increased from 35 ◦ C to

9
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 R E Mohamed Khaidir et al

Table 3. Storage modulus, G! of MR foams with different concentrations of silica nanoparticles under various temperatures of
25 ◦ C–65 ◦ C, at off-state (0 T) and on-state conditions (0.8 T).
Sample S0 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Magnetic flux density, B (T) Temperature (◦ C) Storage modulus, G! (kPa)

25 43 89 104 110 156 140

35 41 82 102 107 149 136
0.0 T 45 39 81 99 106 146 129
55 36 77 93 104 140 120
65 33 76 85 102 138 117

25 49 96 112 119 167 150

35 47 94 110 117 160 146
0.8 T 45 45 90 107 115 158 137
55 40 81 106 113 154 131
65 39 79 103 112 150 127

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of MR foams for with and without silane coupling bonds under different temperatures condition of (a) 25 ◦ C
and (b) 65 ◦ C.

65 ◦ C, ranging between 41–46 kPa. The storage modulus of
MR foams has shown a gradual increase with the increase
in quantity of silica nanoparticles (2–5 wt.%). This rise can
be attributed to the adhesiveness of silica, providing silane
coupling bonds that strengthen the interfacial interactions
between the CIPs and PU matrix. Consequently, this enhance-
ment contributes to the overall storage modulus of the MR
foam [21].
Figure 9 shows the schematic diagram of MR foam for with
and without silane coupling bonds under different temperat-
ures condition of (a) 25 ◦ C and (b) 65 ◦ C. The diagrams illus-
trate the formation of silane coupling bonds when silica nan-
oparticles was added to the MR foam, which improved and
strengthened the molecular chain structure between the poly-
mer of PU foam and particles (CIPs and silica). A study done
by Burgaz and Kendirlioglu [31] have stated that the reinforce-
ment of silica nanoparticles in the PU foam has provided a
crosslinking H-bonding for ether-oxygen of polyol, which is
also known as silane coupling bonds. With these silane coup-
ling bonds, a new linkage of molecular chains between the
polymer, CIPs and silica have been restructured and more
stable cellular structure of MR foam has been formed. It
also improved the filler–matrix interactions when the sample
undergo deformation with stress, as shown in figure 9(a) where
the MR foam was under ambient temperature of 25 ◦ C. At this
condition, the molecular chains of PU foam and particles are
at their initial state of motion. However, the stable structure
of MR foam with silane coupling bonds would require more
energy to break the bonds attributed to the improved filler–
matrix interactions, and this phenomenon also corresponds to
the increased in the storage modulus of MR foams with silica
nanoparticles.
On the other hand, schematic diagram in figure 9(b) shows
the induced of higher temperature to the MR foams, particu-
larly at 65 ◦ C where the thermal energy would be turned into
kinetic energy which led to the phenomenal of thermal motion
within the MR foams. In particular, when thermal energy
strikes the intermolecular structure of MR foam with the
absence of silica nanoparticles, it imparted kinetic energy that
struck the particles, causing the breakdown of the molecular
chains of polymer [16, 27]. This circumstances also would
lead to the movement of the particles from the original pos-
ition thus weaken the interfacial interactions between filler
and matrix phases [21], correspond to the CIPs and PU foam,
respectively. Nevertheless, with the presence of silica nan-
oparticle in the matrix structure of MR foam, the break up

10
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 R E Mohamed Khaidir et al

bonds by the thermal heat becomes slightly difficult since

the molecular chains between the PU foam, CIPs and silica
have been strengthened by silane coupling bonds. Thus, mobil-
ity of the particles by the thermal motion could be resisted.
With embedding more silica nanoparticles in the MR foams,
more silane coupling bonds would be formed and as a res-
ult, the storage modulus of MR foams has been enhanced.
Although the value of storage modulus was slightly reduced
as compared to the condition at 25 ◦ C, the MR foam how-
ever still maintain its capability to store higher deformation
energy with heat, as compared to the MR foam without silica
nanoparticles.

3.4. Morphological analysis of MR foams

Figure 10 shows the morphological characteristics of (a) MR

foam (S0) and (b) MR foam with 5 wt.% silica nanoparticles
(S5), particularly at high temperature condition of 65 ◦ C. The
samples underwent the oscillatory shear testing with increas-
ing temperatures up to 65 ◦ C that simulated the elevating
temperature condition in an operating system of a device. In
brief, at 65 ◦ C, the S0 sample shows a rough surface indic-
ating a defect has occurred at microscopic level due to pres-
ence of heat [30]. The surface texture of MR foam was seen
to have peeled off and detached from the struts and wall of
the pores, as clearly observed in figure 10(a) and its magni-
fied area of 1000x. This phenomenon also has been stated in
previous study [34] and in line with the study done by Zhang
et al [8] who discussed about the low thermal properties of
PU foam, in which upon heating, the heat flow would cause
the degradation of MR foam starting from the struts area and
cell walls of the PU foam. It is due to the deficient interfacial
bonding between the CIPs and PU matrix to sustain the impact
of shearing force, mainly with heat induced to the MR foam
structure.
On the other hand, the MR foam with silica nanoparticles Figure 10. Micrograph images of (a) MR foam (S0) and (b) MR
(S5) showed a smoother surface, even after shearing effect at foam with silica nanoparticles (S5) with magnified area,
65 ◦ C. No excess or debris of PU foam were observed scat- respectively at high temperature condition of 65 ◦ C.
tering on the struts and cell walls of the MR foam pores,
as shown in figure 10(b). It is expected that the silica nan-
3.5. Thermal properties via TGA of MR foam
oparticles has improved the interfacial interactions between
the CIP-PU foam phases, as illustrated in figure 9 thus The effect of silica nanoparticles on the thermal properties
enhancing the storage modulus of MR foams upon shear- of MR foams was investigated by thermogravimetric ana-
ing test. Correspondingly, more heat is required to cause lyzer (TGA), and the results are shown in thermograms by
the interfacial defects on the MR foam structure by peel- comparing the weight loss of PU foam as a function of temper-
off phenomenon, indicating that the addition of silica nano- atures. Figure 11 shows the thermograms of (a) TG curves and
particles has improved the thermal degradation of MR foams. (b) derivative TG curves of MR foams, for without (S0) and
This result also in line with the previous study done by with 5 wt.% silica nanoparticles (S5). In addition, the thermal
Rashid et al [21], who have stated the role of silica nano- stability of MR foam was characterized in terms of the first
particles in improving and minimizing the interfacial defects degradation temperature (T onset ), 50% weight loss temperature
in MRE from being affected by induced of heat, as com- (T 50% ) and the peak decomposition temperature (T p ), in the
pared to the MRE without silica nanoparticles. These find- presence of nitrogen and air. Table 4 summarizes the thermal
ings nevertheless have shown the effectiveness of silica nan- decomposition temperatures of MR foams, S0 and S5.
oparticles in enhancing the interfacial bonding and properties Initially, the weight percentage (wt.%) of both samples
of MR materials, particularly MR foam under the influence of were measured while the temperatures were ramped from
temperatures. 30 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C, and two notable decomposition stages have

11
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011
Figure 11. (a) TG curves and (b) DTG curves of MR foam (S0) and MR foam with 5 wt.% silica nanoparticles (S5).
Table 4. The results of TGA analysis of S0 and S5.
Sample T onset (◦ C) T 50% (◦ C)
S0 175.40 390.40
S5 160.80 420.60
been observed from the thermogram results. The first decom-
position stage of MR foam for 0 wt.% of silica nanoparticles
(S0) has started at temperature around T onset = 175 ◦ C and
continued to degrade and lose weight until 300 ◦ C, as presen-
ted in figure 11(a). Then, the second decomposition stage of
S0 began at 301 ◦ C until 390.40 ◦ C (T 50% ), accompanied with
dropped in the resultant weight (wt.% loss) of the MR foam.
According to Zhang et al [8], the weight loss in the first decom-
position stage related to the deterioration of hard segments of
isocyanates, while the second decomposition stage related to
the degradation of soft segments of polyol. However, as tem-
perature increased more than 390.4 ◦ C, the resultant wt.%
of S0 was found to slightly increase and left about 57.14%
residue at 600 ◦ C. It is expected that at higher temperature,
the oxidation of iron (Fe) particles took place attributed to the
presence of oxygen and heat during the TGA analysis [8]. This
is in line with the nature phenomenon of Fe particles oxida-
tion, where the oxidized Fe has increased the resultant wt.%
with temperature [35], and cause the increased in the residue
weight of S0 after the degradation process.
On the other hand, MR foam with 5 wt.% of silica nan-
oparticles (S5) has shown that the first decomposition stage
occurred at T onset = 160 ◦ C, about 15 ◦ C earlier than S0.
However, it was later found that the decomposition of S5 in
the first stage has proceeded slower while the temperature
kept rising to a higher temperature of 340 ◦ C, as shown in
figure 10(a) before second decomposition stage took place.
The finding indicated that the first stage of decomposition
of S5 was a bit delayed, within the duration of 180 ◦ C as
compared to S0 that decomposed within 124.6 ◦ C. Then, in
the second decomposition stage of S5, it was noted that the
dropped of the resultant weight (wt.%) has further delayed, by
shifting to higher temperature of 420.6 ◦ C (T 50% ). It shows that
the decomposition of 50% weight loss of S0 (T 50% ) occurred
earlier as compared to S5. The result also showed a signi-
ficant enhancement of the thermal stability of S5, attributed
12
R E Mohamed Khaidir et al
T p (◦ C) Residue in 600 ◦ C (%)
356.42 57.14
364.66 54.20
to the presence of silica nanoparticles in the matrix structure
of MR foam. In addition, Saiz-Arroyo et al [4] who stud-
ied on the composite foam had stated that the incorporation
of silica nanoparticles has improved the thermal stability of
the polymer foam. This finding agrees well with Rashid et al
[21], as the presence of silica nanoparticles in the structure
of MRE has enhanced its thermal stability and it was stated
that the silica nanoparticles has restrained the thermal motion
in the molecular chains of MRE. Respective to current study,
the similar phenomenon was correlated to the delayed of the
decomposition process of MR foam with silica nanoparticles.
Nevertheless, no changed in the resultant weight (wt.%) was
observed beyond the temperature of 420 ◦ C, indicating that the
decomposition process of S5 has completed. The residue left
by S5 at 600 ◦ C was 54.2%, around 3% less than the residue
left by S0 at the same temperature. However, the total wt.%
loss of S0 during the heating ramp was about 48.5% from the
initial weight, meanwhile S5 has lost about 46% from the ini-
tial weight, indicating the slight increase in the thermal sta-
bility of MR foam with the presence of silica in the matrix
structure of MR foam. A similar region has been projected to
derivate T G (DTG) curves from the T G graphs, as shown in
figure 11(b). It shows that the peak temperature (T p ) in respect-
ive to the decomposition region of S0 was in the range of
300 ◦ C–390 ◦ C while T p for S5 has gradually shifted to higher
temperature, particularly in the range of 320 ◦ C–420 ◦ C, indic-
ating slower degradation of the MR foam with the addition of
silica nanoparticles.
4. Conclusion
In this study, the fabrication of MR foams with different con-
centrations of silica nanoparticles, ranging from 1–5 wt.%
were prepared via in-situ polymerization method. The samples
were tested under modest temperatures, ranging from 25 ◦ C
Smart Mater. Struct. 33 (2024) 055011 R E Mohamed Khaidir et al

to 65 ◦ C, to investigate the influence of silica nanoparticles Nur Azmah Nordin  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7423-

towards the enhancement in storage modulus and thermal sta- 4462
bility of MR foams, with different values of magnetic field. Ubaidillah Ubaidillah  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7190-
In brief, the increasing temperatures has reduced the stor- 5849
age modulus of MR foam by 2–4 kPa, but the incorpora-
tion of silica nanoparticles has greatly enhanced the stor-
age modulus by about 43–110 kPa with 1–5 wt.% silica at
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