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The Engineering Design Primer
The Engineering Design Primer

Keith L. Richards
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Richards, Keith L., author.

Title: The engineering design primer / authored by K.L. Richards.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019040887 (print) | LCCN 2019040888 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367210137 (hardback ; acid-free paper) | ISBN 9780429264917 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Product design. | Engineering design.
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658.5/752--dc23
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Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................ xix
About the Author......................................................................................................................... xxi

1. Organisation and Structure of the Drawing Office.........................................................1

1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Purpose of the Drawing Office............................................................................1
1.3 The Importance of the Drawing Office.......................................................................5
1.4 Organisation of a Typical Drawing Office.................................................................6

2. Engineering Drawing Principles.........................................................................................9

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Technical Product Documentation..............................................................9
2.1.2 BS 308...............................................................................................................9
2.1.3 BS 8888:2000.................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Classification of Engineering Drawings................................................................... 10
2.2.1 A Design Layout Drawing (or a Design Scheme).................................... 10
2.2.2 A Detailed Drawing..................................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Tabular Drawing.......................................................................................... 10
2.2.4 Assembly Drawing....................................................................................... 11
2.2.5 Combined Drawing..................................................................................... 11
2.2.6 Arrangement Drawing................................................................................ 11
2.2.7 Diagram Drawing........................................................................................ 11
2.2.8 Items List (Also Referred to as a Parts List).............................................. 11
2.2.9 Drawing List................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Drawing Sheet Sizes.................................................................................................... 11
2.3.1 Metric Sheet Sizes......................................................................................... 11
2.3.2 Requirements of Drawing........................................................................... 12
2.3.3 Title Blocks..................................................................................................... 13
2.3.4 Borders and Frames..................................................................................... 13
2.3.5 Trimming Marks.......................................................................................... 14
2.3.6 Centring Marks............................................................................................. 14
2.3.7 Orientation Marks........................................................................................ 14
2.3.8 Alphanumeric Reference Graduations...................................................... 16
2.3.9 Drawing Scales............................................................................................. 16
2.4 Engineering Drawing Numbers................................................................................ 16
2.4.1 Revision Numbers........................................................................................ 17
2.4.2 Group Technology........................................................................................ 17
2.4.3 Classification and Coding........................................................................... 17
2.5 Manual and Digital Draughting................................................................................ 18
2.5.1 Manual Draughting..................................................................................... 18
2.5.1.1 Freehand Sketches .................................................................... 18
2.5.1.2 Formal Drawing......................................................................... 18
2.5.2 A Precautionary Tale.................................................................................... 20
v
vi Contents

2.6 Projection Methods...................................................................................................... 20

2.6.1 Orthographic Projection.............................................................................. 20
2.6.1.1 Principal View............................................................................22
2.6.2 Axonometric Projection...............................................................................22
2.6.2.1 Isometric.....................................................................................22
2.6.2.2 Trimetric......................................................................................22
2.6.2.3 Dimetric...................................................................................... 23
2.6.2.4 Oblique........................................................................................ 23
2.6.3 Perspective Projections................................................................................ 24
2.6.3.1 Single-Point Perspective........................................................... 24
2.6.3.2 Second-Point Perspective.......................................................... 24
2.6.3.3 Three-Point Perspective............................................................ 25
2.7 Line Types and Thicknesses....................................................................................... 25
2.7.1 Dimension Lines........................................................................................... 26
2.7.2 Leader Lines.................................................................................................. 27
2.7.3 The Decimal Marker.................................................................................... 28
2.8 Sectional Views............................................................................................................ 28
2.9 Lettering, Symbols and Abbreviations..................................................................... 28
2.9.1 Basic Requirements of Lettering................................................................ 28
2.9.2 Classification of Lettering........................................................................... 28
2.9.3 Height of Lettering....................................................................................... 28
2.10 Dimensioning............................................................................................................... 29
2.10.1 Unidirectional............................................................................................... 29
2.10.2 Aligned.......................................................................................................... 29
2.10.3 Tabular........................................................................................................... 30
2.10.4 The Rules for Dimensioning....................................................................... 30
2.10.5 Features That Are Not Drawn to Scale..................................................... 32
2.10.6 Chain Dimensioning.................................................................................... 32
2.10.7 Parallel Dimensioning................................................................................. 33
2.10.8 Running Dimensioning............................................................................... 33
2.10.9 Staggered Dimensioning.............................................................................34
2.10.10 Dimensioning Circles and Diameters.......................................................34
2.10.11 Dimensioning Radii.....................................................................................34
2.10.12 Dimensioning Spherical Radii.................................................................... 36
2.10.13 Dimensioning Curves.................................................................................. 36
2.10.14 Unidirectional and Aligned Dimensions................................................. 37
2.10.15 Angular Dimensions................................................................................... 37
2.10.16 Dimensioning Tapers................................................................................... 38
2.10.17 Dimensioning Two Mating Tapers............................................................ 39
2.10.18 Dimensioning Chamfers............................................................................. 40
2.10.19 Dimensioning Flats or Squares.................................................................. 40
2.10.20 Dimensioning Holes.................................................................................... 41
2.10.20.1 Plain Holes.................................................................................. 41
2.10.20.2 Threaded Holes..........................................................................42
2.10.21 Dimensioning Spotfaces, Countersink
and Counterbores.........................................................................................42
2.10.21.1 Spotface.......................................................................................43
2.10.21.2 Countersink................................................................................43
2.10.21.3 Counterbore................................................................................43
Contents vii

2.11 Tolerances, Limits and Fits......................................................................................... 46

2.11.1 Dimension Tolerances.................................................................................. 46
2.11.2 Limits............................................................................................................. 47
2.11.2.1 Tolerance .................................................................................... 47
2.11.2.2 Allowance................................................................................... 48
2.11.2.3 Upper Deviation........................................................................ 48
2.11.2.4 Lower Deviation........................................................................ 48
2.11.2.5 Fundamental Deviation............................................................ 48
2.11.3 Fit System....................................................................................................... 49
2.11.3.1 Clearance Fit............................................................................... 49
2.11.3.2 Transition Fit............................................................................... 49
2.11.3.3 Interference Fit........................................................................... 49
2.11.4 Standard Limits and Fits Systems.............................................................. 51
2.11.4.1 Standard Tolerances.................................................................. 51
2.11.4.2 Fundamental Deviations.......................................................... 51
2.11.4.3 Consider the Designation: 50H6/g5........................................ 51
2.11.4.4 50g6.............................................................................................. 52
2.11.5 Upper and Lower Deviations..................................................................... 53
2.11.5.1 Shaft Letter Codes c, d, f, g and h............................................ 53
2.11.5.2 Shaft Letter Codes k, n, p, s and u........................................... 53
2.11.5.3 Hole Letter Code ‘H’.................................................................54
2.11.6 Loose Running Fit (Example).....................................................................54
2.11.7 Surface Finish................................................................................................ 55
2.11.8 Selected ISO Fits – Hole basis..................................................................... 55
2.11.9 Interpretation of Limits of Size in Relation to Form............................... 57
2.12 Geometrical Dimensioning and Tolerances............................................................. 58
2.12.1 Early History................................................................................................. 58
2.12.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 59
2.12.3 Application.................................................................................................... 59
2.12.4 Geometrical and Dimensioning and Tolerances..................................... 59
2.12.5 Tolerance Frame............................................................................................ 60
2.13 Examples of the Applications of Geometrical Tolerances...................................... 60
2.13.1 Straightness................................................................................................... 61
2.13.2 Flatness.......................................................................................................... 61
2.13.3 Circularity..................................................................................................... 61
2.13.4 Cylindricity................................................................................................... 61
2.13.5 Profile of a Surface........................................................................................ 62
2.14 Maximum Material and Least Material Principles.................................................63
2.14.1 Maximum Material Conditions and Least Material
Condition.......................................................................................................63
2.15 Surface Finish...............................................................................................................64
2.15.1 Introduction..................................................................................................64
2.15.2 Types of Surface Finish................................................................................ 66
2.15.2.1 Surface Roughness.................................................................... 66
2.15.2.2 Waviness..................................................................................... 67
2.15.2.3 Lay................................................................................................ 67
2.15.3 Methods of Indicating Surface Finish and Texture................................. 67
2.15.3.1 Graphical Symbols to Indicate Surface
Texture......................................................................................... 67
viii Contents

2.16 Checking Drawings..................................................................................................... 69

2.16.1 Drawing Numbering................................................................................... 69
2.16.2 Format for Checking Drawings.................................................................. 69
2.16.3 Read Notes..................................................................................................... 70
2.16.4 Detailed Drawings....................................................................................... 70
2.16.5 Assembly Drawings..................................................................................... 70
2.16.6 General Draughting Rules.......................................................................... 70

3. The Engineering Design Process....................................................................................... 71

3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 71
3.1.2 Design Specification..................................................................................... 71
3.1.3 Concept Development.................................................................................. 71
3.1.4 Feasibility Assessment................................................................................. 71
3.1.5 Complete PDS............................................................................................... 72
3.1.6 Preliminary Design...................................................................................... 72
3.1.7 Detail Design................................................................................................. 72
3.1.8 Manufacture.................................................................................................. 72
3.1.9 Marketing and Sales.................................................................................... 72
3.2 Classification of Design............................................................................................... 72
3.2.1 Adaptive Design........................................................................................... 72
3.2.2 Development Design.................................................................................... 73
3.2.3 New Design................................................................................................... 73
3.2.4 Rational Design............................................................................................ 73
3.2.5 Empirical Design.......................................................................................... 73
3.2.6 Industrial Design.......................................................................................... 73
3.2.7 Product Design............................................................................................. 73
3.2.8 Optimum Design.......................................................................................... 74
3.2.9 System Design............................................................................................... 74
3.2.10 Tooling Design.............................................................................................. 74
3.3 New Design Requirements......................................................................................... 74
3.3.1 Update an Existing Product........................................................................ 74
3.3.2 New Product................................................................................................. 74
3.3.3 Market Research........................................................................................... 75
3.3.3.1 Preliminary Market Research.................................................. 75
3.3.3.2 Review Current Competitors and Products.......................... 75
3.3.3.3 Is There a Marketing Opportunity?........................................ 75
3.3.4 Initial Design Review.................................................................................. 75
3.3.5 Preliminary Design Review........................................................................ 76
3.3.6 Product Design Specification...................................................................... 78
3.3.6.1 Performance................................................................................ 79
3.3.6.2 Environment............................................................................... 79
3.3.6.3 Target Production Cost.............................................................80
3.3.6.4 Competition................................................................................80
3.3.6.5 Standards....................................................................................80
3.3.6.6 Packing........................................................................................80
3.3.6.7 Shipping...................................................................................... 81
3.3.6.8 Size............................................................................................... 81
3.3.6.9 Materials..................................................................................... 81
3.3.6.10 Proprietary Items (Bought Out Parts)..................................... 81
3.3.6.11 Maintenance............................................................................... 82
Contents ix

3.3.6.12 Product Lifespan........................................................................ 82

3.3.6.13 Reliability.................................................................................... 82
3.3.6.14 Finishing..................................................................................... 82

4. Product Design Specification..............................................................................................83

4.0 Introduction..................................................................................................................83
4.1 Description of the Product..........................................................................................83
4.1.1 Product Brief (Description and Justification)...........................................84
4.1.2 The Environment the Product Will Be Expected
to Operate in.................................................................................................. 85
4.1.3 Product Safety Requirements..................................................................... 85
4.1.4 Expected Product Reliability Standards
and Requirements........................................................................................ 85
4.1.5 Expected Product Ergonomic Requirements – Customer
Requirement.................................................................................................. 85
4.1.6 Expected Product Aesthetics – Customer
Requirement.................................................................................................. 85
4.1.7 Expected Product Maintenance Requirements........................................ 85
4.1.8 Possible ‘Off-the-Shelf’ Proprietary Parts Are Used?.............................. 86
4.1.9 Material Requirements................................................................................ 86
4.1.10 Product End-of-Life Requirements............................................................ 86
4.1.11 Manufacturing Process Requirements and Limitations........................ 86
4.1.12 Product Packaging Requirements.............................................................. 86
4.1.13 Applicable Codes of Practice and Standards
to Be Checked............................................................................................... 86
4.1.14 Check for Any Patent Infringement.......................................................... 86
4.1.15 Processes to Be Researched and Benchmarked: Special
Fabrication Techniques to Be Researched................................................. 86
4.1.16 Any Special Product or Part Testing Requirements................................ 86
4.2 Marketing Issues.......................................................................................................... 86
4.2.1 Potential Customer Base.............................................................................. 87
4.2.2 Market Constraints on Products................................................................ 87
4.2.3 Expected Product Competition (These Will Be
Benchmarked)............................................................................................... 87
4.2.4 Product Target Price – OEM and MSRP.................................................... 87
4.2.5 Target Production Volume and Potential Market Share......................... 87
4.2.6 Expected Product Distribution Environment.......................................... 87
4.3 Capability Issues.......................................................................................................... 87
4.3.1 Company Constraints on Product Design, Manufacture
and Distribution........................................................................................... 87
4.3.2 Schedule Requirements – Time to Market................................................ 87

5. Conceptual Design................................................................................................................ 89
5.1 Creativity Methods...................................................................................................... 89
5.2 Breaking the Mindset.................................................................................................. 89
5.2.1 Inversion........................................................................................................ 89
5.2.2 Analogy.........................................................................................................90
5.2.3 Empathy......................................................................................................... 90
5.2.4 Fantasy........................................................................................................... 90
5.2.5 Brainstorming...............................................................................................90
x Contents

5.2.6 Problem Definition....................................................................................... 91

5.2.7 Divergence..................................................................................................... 91
5.2.8 Categorisation............................................................................................... 91
5.2.9 Convergence Phase...................................................................................... 91
5.2.10 Individual Brainstorming........................................................................... 91
5.2.11 Group Brainstorming................................................................................... 91
5.2.12 Brainwriting.................................................................................................. 92
5.2.13 Mind Mapping.............................................................................................. 92
5.2.14 SCAMPER...................................................................................................... 92
5.2.15 TRIZ................................................................................................................ 93
5.2.16 Concept Evaluation and Selection............................................................. 99
5.2.17 Criteria for Evaluation............................................................................... 100
5.2.18 Feasibility Judgement................................................................................. 100
5.2.19 Technological Readiness........................................................................... 100
5.2.20 Go/No-Go Screening................................................................................ 100
5.2.21 Decision Matrix.......................................................................................... 101
5.2.22 Feasibility Assessment............................................................................... 101
5.2.23 Technical Feasibility................................................................................... 101
5.2.24 Financial and Market Feasibility.............................................................. 102
5.2.25 Organisational Feasibility......................................................................... 102

6. Design for ‘X’........................................................................................................................ 103

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 103
6.2 Design for Manufacture............................................................................................ 103
6.2.1 Machinability.............................................................................................. 103
6.2.1.1 Machinability Rating.............................................................. 103
6.2.2 Shape............................................................................................................ 105
6.2.3 Tolerances and Surface Finish.................................................................. 105
6.2.3.1 Tolerances................................................................................. 105
6.2.3.2 Surface Finishes....................................................................... 105
6.2.4 Product Design Guidelines 1.................................................................... 105
6.2.4.1 Design Parts to Minimise Machining.................................. 105
6.2.4.2 Essential Reasons for Machining.......................................... 106
6.2.5 Product Design Guidelines II................................................................... 106
6.3 Design for Quality..................................................................................................... 107
6.3.1 Defining Quality......................................................................................... 107
6.3.2 The Importance of Design for Quality.................................................... 107
6.3.3 Design for Quality...................................................................................... 108
6.3.4 Benefits of Design for Quality.................................................................. 108
6.3.5 Design Reviews.......................................................................................... 108
6.3.6 The Importance of Formal Design Reviews........................................... 109
6.3.7 Types of Design Reviews........................................................................... 109
6.3.7.1 Design Requirements Review................................................ 109
6.3.7.2 Conceptual Design Review.................................................... 110
6.3.7.3 Preliminary Design Review................................................... 110
6.3.7.4 Critical Design Review........................................................... 110
6.3.7.5 Qualification Readiness Review............................................ 110
6.3.7.6 Final Design Review............................................................... 110
6.3.8 The Design Review Team.......................................................................... 110
Contents xi

6.3.9 Design Review Input Data........................................................................ 110

6.3.10 Design Review Reports............................................................................. 111
6.3.11 Design Review Follow-Up......................................................................... 111
6.3.12 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis........................................................ 111
6.3.12.1 A Brief History......................................................................... 111
6.3.12.2 Purpose of FMEA.................................................................... 111
6.3.12.3 Steps to Carry Out an FMEA................................................. 111
6.3.13 Summary..................................................................................................... 114
6.4 Design for Reliability................................................................................................. 114
6.4.1 Reliability and the Bathtub Curve........................................................... 114
6.4.1.1 Causes of Component Failure................................................ 114
6.4.2 Safety Critical Design................................................................................ 115
6.4.3 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA).......................................................................... 117
6.4.3.1 Drawing Fault Trees: Gates and Events................................ 117
6.4.4 General Procedure for Fault Tree Analysis............................................ 118
6.4.5 Rules to Fault Tree Construction.............................................................. 119
6.4.5.1 Example..................................................................................... 120
6.4.6 Fault Tree Construction............................................................................. 121
6.5 Fault Tree Evaluation................................................................................................. 122
6.5.1 The ‘OR’ Gate.............................................................................................. 123
6.6 Robust Design............................................................................................................. 123
6.6.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 123
6.6.2 Sources of Variation................................................................................... 124
6.6.2.1 Material Properties.................................................................. 124
6.6.2.2 Applied Forces......................................................................... 124
6.6.2.3 Temperature............................................................................. 124
6.6.2.4 Environmental Factors............................................................ 125
6.6.2.5 Assembly Methods.................................................................. 125
6.6.2.6 Kinematic Effects..................................................................... 125
6.6.2.7 Manufacturing Processes....................................................... 125
6.6.2.8 Classify the Variables.............................................................. 125
6.6.3 Taguchi’s Loss Function............................................................................ 126
6.6.4 P-Diagram (Parametric Diagram)............................................................ 127
6.6.5 Taguchi Concepts....................................................................................... 127
6.6.5.1 An Example of Robust design via
the Taguchi Method................................................................ 128
6.6.6 The Taguchi Loss Function....................................................................... 128
6.6.7 Signal-to-Noise Ratio................................................................................. 130
6.7 Design for Maintenance............................................................................................ 131
6.7.1 Standardisation........................................................................................... 131
6.7.1.1 Authors Note............................................................................ 132
6.7.2 Modularisation........................................................................................... 132
6.7.3 Functional Packaging................................................................................ 132
6.7.4 Interchangeability...................................................................................... 132
6.7.5 Accessibility................................................................................................ 132
6.7.6 Malfunction Annunciation....................................................................... 132
6.7.7 Fault isolation.............................................................................................. 132
6.7.8 Identification............................................................................................... 133
6.7.9 Summary..................................................................................................... 133
xii Contents

6.8 Design for the Environment..................................................................................... 133

6.8.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 133
6.8.2 The Importance of Design for the Environment.................................... 133
6.8.2.1 Non-Toxic Processes and Production Methods................... 134
6.8.2.2 Minimum Energy Utilisation................................................ 134
6.8.2.3 Minimum Emissions............................................................... 134
6.8.2.4 Minimum Waste, Scrap and By-Products............................ 134
6.8.3 Design for Environmental Packaging Involving
the Following Considerations................................................................... 134
6.8.3.1 Minimum of Packaging Materials........................................ 134
6.8.3.2 Reusable Pallets, Totes and Packaging................................. 135
6.8.3.3 Recyclable Packaging Materials............................................ 135
6.8.3.4 Bio-Degradable Packaging Materials.................................... 135
6.8.4 Design for Disposable and Recyclability Involving
the Following Considerations................................................................... 135
6.8.5 Design for Disassembly............................................................................. 136
6.9 Design for Life Cycle Costs....................................................................................... 136
6.9.1 Manufacturing Costs................................................................................. 137
6.9.2 Life Cycle Costing...................................................................................... 138

7. Feasibility Assessment....................................................................................................... 139

7.1 Strategic Management............................................................................................... 139
7.2 Technical Feasibility.................................................................................................. 139
7.3 Financial and Market Feasibility............................................................................. 139
7.4 Organisational Feasibility......................................................................................... 140
7.5 Marketing Feasibility................................................................................................ 140
7.5.1 Potential Market Size................................................................................. 140
7.5.2 Market Trends............................................................................................. 140
7.6 Critical Issues.............................................................................................................. 140
7.6.1 SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats)....................... 140
7.6.2 Pest (Political, Economic, Social, Technological).................................... 141
7.7 Technical Feasibility.................................................................................................. 142
7.7.1 Summary..................................................................................................... 142
7.7.2 Prepare an Outline..................................................................................... 142
7.7.3 Calculate Material Requirements............................................................. 142
7.7.4 Calculate Labour Requirements............................................................... 142
7.7.5 Transportation and Shipping Requirements.......................................... 142
7.7.6 Calculate Marketing Requirements......................................................... 143
7.7.7 The Physical Location of the Business..................................................... 143
7.7.8 Technology Requirements........................................................................ 143
7.7.9 Target Dates................................................................................................. 143
7.7.10 Financial Information................................................................................ 143

8. Decision-Making................................................................................................................. 145
8.1 What Is Decision-Making......................................................................................... 145
8.1.1 Intuition....................................................................................................... 145
8.1.2 Reasoning.................................................................................................... 145
8.1.3 Applying Both Intuition and Reasoning................................................ 145
8.1.4 What Can Prevent Effective Decision-Making?..................................... 145
Contents xiii

8.1.4.1 Too Much Information............................................................ 146

8.1.4.2 Too Many People...................................................................... 146
8.1.4.3 Emotional Attachments.......................................................... 146
8.1.4.4 No Emotional Attachment..................................................... 146
8.1.4.5 Identifying Possible Solutions/Options............................... 146
8.2 Setting a Time Scale and Deciding Who Is Responsible for the Decision......... 146
8.2.1 Responsibility for the Decision................................................................ 147
8.2.2 Whenever possible, and if it is not obvious, a better formal
agreement is needed to identify who is responsibility
for a decision............................................................................................... 147
8.3 Information Gathering.............................................................................................. 147
8.3.1 Before Making Any Decision, All Relevant
Information Needs to Be Gathered.......................................................... 147
8.4 Weighing the Risks Involved................................................................................... 147
8.5 Deciding on Values.................................................................................................... 148
8.6 Weighing Up the Pros and Cons............................................................................. 148
8.7 Making the Decision.................................................................................................. 148
8.8 Having Made the Decision ….................................................................................. 148
8.9 Introduction to Constructing Decision Trees........................................................ 149
8.9.1 What Is a Decision Tree?........................................................................... 149
8.9.2 Decision Tree Symbols............................................................................... 149
8.9.3 How to Draw a Decision Tree................................................................... 150
8.9.3.1 Start with the Main Decision................................................. 150
8.9.3.2 Add Chance and Decision Nodes......................................... 150
8.9.3.3 Continue to Expand the Tree until Every
Line Has Reached an Endpoint............................................. 150
8.10 With the Completion of the Decision Tree............................................................. 150
8.10.1 An Example of a Decision Tree Example................................................ 151
8.10.2 Reading Decision Trees............................................................................. 152
8.11 Learning Decision Trees Using Iterative
Dichotomiser 3 (ID3).................................................................................................. 153
8.11.1 Specifying the Problem............................................................................. 153
8.11.2 The Basic Idea.............................................................................................. 154
8.11.3 Entropy......................................................................................................... 154
8.11.4 Information Gain........................................................................................ 155
8.11.5 An Example Calculation............................................................................ 155
8.11.6 The ID3 Algorithm..................................................................................... 156
8.11.7 Worked Example........................................................................................ 157
8.12 Avoiding Overfitting................................................................................................. 160
8.13 Appropriate Problems for Decision Tree Learning............................................... 160

9. Project Management and Planning................................................................................. 161

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 161
9.2 Work Breakdown and Coding................................................................................. 161
9.3 Estimating Techniques.............................................................................................. 162
9.3.1 Gantt Chart.................................................................................................. 164
9.3.1.1 Creating a Gantt Chart........................................................... 165
9.3.2 Critical Path Method.................................................................................. 166
9.3.2.1 Key Steps in the Critical Path Method.................................. 166
xiv Contents

9.3.3 PERT Estimation Technique..................................................................... 168

9.3.3.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 168
9.3.3.2 The PERT Basics....................................................................... 168
9.4 Resource Scheduling................................................................................................. 169
9.5 Project Implementation............................................................................................. 172
9.5.1 Implementation Plan Structure................................................................ 172

10. Engineering Design Economics........................................................................................ 173

10.1 Project/Design Cost Accounting............................................................................. 173
10.1.1 Project/Design Cost Estimating............................................................... 173
10.1.2 Key Components of a Cost Estimate....................................................... 173
10.1.2.1 Direct Costs.............................................................................. 173
10.1.2.2 Indirect Costs........................................................................... 173
10.2 Cost Categories........................................................................................................... 174
10.2.1 Investment Cost.......................................................................................... 174
10.2.2 Operations and Maintenance Cost.......................................................... 174
10.2.3 Fixed and Variable Cost............................................................................. 175
10.2.4 Incremental and Marginal Cost............................................................... 175
10.2.5 Indirect and Direct Costs.......................................................................... 175
10.2.6 Non-recurring and Recurring Costs....................................................... 176
10.3 Cost Accounting......................................................................................................... 176
10.4 Cost Estimating.......................................................................................................... 176
10.5 Payback Period........................................................................................................... 177
10.6 Interest......................................................................................................................... 177
10.7 Cash Flow.................................................................................................................... 178
10.7.1 Definition of ‘Cash Flow’........................................................................... 178
10.7.1.1 Definition.................................................................................. 178
10.7.2 Description.................................................................................................. 178
10.8 Depreciation and Taxes............................................................................................. 179
10.9 Inflation and Deflation.............................................................................................. 179

11. Quality in the Design Process.......................................................................................... 181

11.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 181
11.2 Design Procedures..................................................................................................... 181
11.2.1 Design Control............................................................................................ 182
11.2.1.1 Design Reviews........................................................................ 182
11.2.1.2 Design Requirements Review................................................ 182
11.2.1.3 Conceptual Design Review.................................................... 183
11.2.1.4 Preliminary Design Review................................................... 183
11.2.1.5 Critical Design Review........................................................... 183
11.2.1.6 Qualification Readiness Review............................................ 183
11.2.1.7 Final Design Review............................................................... 183
11.2.1.8 The Design Review Team....................................................... 183
11.2.1.9 Design Review Input Data..................................................... 183
11.2.1.10 Design Review Reports........................................................... 183
11.2.1.11 Design Review Follow-Up...................................................... 184
11.2.1.12 Qualification Tests and Demonstrations.............................. 184
11.2.2 Verification Design Calculations.............................................................. 185
11.2.3 Comparing Similar Designs..................................................................... 185
11.2.4 Changes and Modifications...................................................................... 185
Contents xv

11.3 Quality Assurance and Control............................................................................... 186

11.4 Design Change Control............................................................................................. 187
11.5 Implementing the Change........................................................................................ 187
11.6 The Reason for the Change....................................................................................... 188
11.7 Quality Function Deployment................................................................................. 190
11.7.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 190
11.7.2 What is QFD?.............................................................................................. 190
11.7.3 Why Implement QFD?............................................................................... 190
11.7.4 How to Implement QFD?.......................................................................... 191
11.7.5 Level 1 QFD................................................................................................. 191
11.7.6 Level 2 QFD................................................................................................. 194
11.7.7 Level 3 QFD................................................................................................. 195
11.7.8 Level 4 QFD................................................................................................. 195

12. Design for Optimisation.................................................................................................... 197

12.1 Defining Optimum Design....................................................................................... 197
12.2 Tools for Design Optimisation................................................................................. 198
12.3 Mathematical Models and Optimisation
Methods....................................................................................................................... 198
12.3.1 Differential Calculus Method................................................................... 199
12.3.2 The Lagrange Multiplier Method............................................................ 201
12.4 Search Methods.......................................................................................................... 203
12.5 Fibonacci Search Method.......................................................................................... 203
12.5.1 What Is the Golden Section Method?...................................................... 203
12.5.2 Terminology................................................................................................ 203
12.5.3 Working Method........................................................................................ 204
12.5.3.1 Initialisation Step..................................................................... 204
12.5.4 Main Step..................................................................................................... 204
12.6 Conclusions................................................................................................................. 205

13. Probability............................................................................................................................ 207

13.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 207
13.2 Probability Formula................................................................................................... 207
13.2.1 What is the Formula for Probability?...................................................... 207
13.3 Solving Probability Problems................................................................................... 208
13.4 Numerical Value of Probability............................................................................... 208
13.5 Calculation of Probability......................................................................................... 209
13.5.1 Proportion of Cases Favourable in
an Exhaustive Set........................................................................................ 209
13.5.2 Addition of Probabilities........................................................................... 210
13.6 Permutations and Combinations............................................................................. 212
13.6.1 Permutations............................................................................................... 212
13.6.2 Combinations.............................................................................................. 212
13.6.3 Compound Probability and Multiplication
of Probabilities............................................................................................ 215
13.6.3.1 Compound Events and Dependence.................................... 215
13.7 Binomial, Poisson and Multinomial Laws of Probability.................................... 216
13.7.1 Series of Trials............................................................................................. 216
13.8 The Poisson Distribution.......................................................................................... 218
13.8.1 Formula........................................................................................................ 220
xvi Contents

14. Statistical Methods for Engineers....................................................................................223

14.1 Definitions for Some Terms Used in Statistics.......................................................223
14.1.1 Population....................................................................................................223
14.1.2 Sample..........................................................................................................223
14.1.3 Variate (xr).................................................................................................... 223
14.1.3.1 Continuous Variates................................................................ 223
14.1.3.2 Discrete Variates......................................................................223
14.1.4 Frequency (fr)..............................................................................................223
14.1.5 Mean (M) (Arithmetic Mean Average).................................................... 224
14.1.6 Mode............................................................................................................. 224
14.1.7 Median......................................................................................................... 224
14.1.8 Quartiles, Deciles, Percentiles (Partition Values)................................... 224
14.1.9 Dispersion.................................................................................................... 224
14.1.10 Standard Deviation (σ) (Variance σ2).......................................................225
14.1.11 Range............................................................................................................225
14.1.12 Kurtosis........................................................................................................225
14.1.13 Skewness......................................................................................................225
14.2 Frequency Distribution and Pictorial
Representations..........................................................................................................225
14.2.1 Bar Chart......................................................................................................225
14.2.2 Histogram....................................................................................................225
14.2.3 Frequency Polygon..................................................................................... 227
14.3 Short Method for Calculating the Mean................................................................. 228
14.4 Short Method of Calculating the Standard Deviation.......................................... 228
14.5 Best Equation of a Curve – Method of Least Squares........................................... 229
14.6 Correlation and Lines of Regression....................................................................... 230
14.6.1 Correlation................................................................................................... 230
14.6.2 Positive Correlation.................................................................................... 231
14.6.3 Negative Correlation.................................................................................. 231
14.6.4 Perfect Correlation...................................................................................... 231
14.6.5 Zero Correlation......................................................................................... 231
14.6.6 Standard Error of ‘r’................................................................................... 231
14.6.7 Regression Lines......................................................................................... 231
14.7 Binomial Distribution................................................................................................ 232
14.8 The Poisson Distribution.......................................................................................... 233
14.8.1 Poisson Distribution of Flying Bomb Hits on London
During World War II..................................................................................234
14.9 The Normal Distribution.......................................................................................... 235
14.9.1 Fitting a Normal Curve to a Set of Observations.................................. 236
14.10 Elementary Statistical Quality Control................................................................... 238
14.10.1 Seven Basic Tools of Quality..................................................................... 238
14.10.2 Cause and Effect Diagram........................................................................ 238
14.10.2.1 An Example Fishbone Diagram............................................ 239
14.10.3 Check Sheet................................................................................................. 239
14.10.4 Control Sheet............................................................................................... 240
14.10.4.1 When to Use a Control Chart................................................. 240
14.10.5 Histograms.................................................................................................. 241
14.10.5.1 The Construction of a Histogram
from a Continuous Variable................................................... 241
14.10.6 Pareto Chart................................................................................................ 242
Contents xvii

14.10.7 Scatter Diagram.......................................................................................... 243

14.10.7.1 Discussion................................................................................. 246
14.10.7.2 Pareto Charts............................................................................ 246
14.10.7.3 When to Use a Pareto Chart................................................... 247
14.10.7.4 Pareto Chart Procedure.......................................................... 247

15. An Introduction to Material Selection............................................................................ 251

15.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 251
15.2 Stress-Strain Data....................................................................................................... 251
15.2.1 Definitions of Terms................................................................................... 252
15.2.1.1 Proportional Limit................................................................... 252
15.2.1.2 Yield Strength........................................................................... 253
15.2.1.3 0.2% Offset................................................................................ 253
15.2.1.4 Ultimate Strength....................................................................254
15.2.1.5 Modulus of Resilience (see Figure 15.2)................................ 255
15.2.1.6 Poisson’s Ratio.......................................................................... 257
15.2.1.7 Shear Rigidity........................................................................... 257
15.2.1.8 Ductility.................................................................................... 257
15.2.1.9 Elongation................................................................................. 258
15.2.1.10 Creep......................................................................................... 258
15.3 Things to Consider..................................................................................................... 259
15.3.1 Environment............................................................................................... 259
15.3.2 Strength........................................................................................................ 259
15.3.3 Durability.................................................................................................... 259
15.3.4 Stiffness........................................................................................................ 259
15.3.5 Weight.......................................................................................................... 260
15.3.6 Manufacturing............................................................................................ 260
15.3.7 Cost............................................................................................................... 260
15.3.8 Maintainability........................................................................................... 260
15.3.9 A Model for Material Selection................................................................ 261
15.3.9.1 Geometry.................................................................................. 261
15.3.9.2 Analysis..................................................................................... 261
15.3.9.3 Measurement Evaluation........................................................ 262
15.3.9.4 Material Selection.................................................................... 262
15.3.9.5 Manufacturability.................................................................... 262
15.3.9.6 Adequacy of Design................................................................ 262
15.4 Future Developments................................................................................................ 262
15.4.1 Knowledge-Based Engineering................................................................ 262
15.5 Material Performance Indices.................................................................................. 263

16. Mathematical Modelling and Simulation..................................................................... 265

16.1 What is Mathematical Modelling............................................................................ 265
16.1.1 Modelling: Newton’s Second Law of Motion......................................... 265
16.2 Example of Numerical Modelling........................................................................... 268
16.3 Development of the Mathematical Model.............................................................. 269
16.3.1 Identify the Problem.................................................................................. 269
16.3.2 Formulating the Problem.......................................................................... 269
16.3.3 Collect and Process System Data............................................................. 269
16.4 Simulation Methods.................................................................................................. 270
16.5 Simulation Model Validation................................................................................... 270
xviii Contents

16.6 Problems Suitable for Simulation............................................................................ 270

16.7 Selecting Suitable Simulation Software.................................................................. 270
16.8 Benefits of Mathematical and Simulation Modelling........................................... 271
16.9 Pitfalls to Guard Against When Mathematical and Simulation Modelling........... 271

17. Introduction to Configuration Management................................................................. 273

17.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 273
17.2 Configuration Control and Change Control.......................................................... 273
17.2.1 Change Control........................................................................................... 274
17.3 What Is Change Management?................................................................................ 274
17.4 Three levels of Change Management...................................................................... 274
17.4.1 Individual Change Management............................................................. 274
17.4.2 Organisational/Initiative Change Management................................... 275
17.4.3 Enterprise Change Management Capability.......................................... 275

18. Engineering Communications.......................................................................................... 277

18.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 277
18.2 The Formal Engineering Report.............................................................................. 277
18.2.1 The Abstract................................................................................................ 278
18.2.1.1 The Introduction...................................................................... 278
18.2.2 Technical Approach (Theory)................................................................... 278
18.2.3 Structure...................................................................................................... 279
18.2.4 Presentation................................................................................................. 280
18.2.5 Planning the Report................................................................................... 280
18.2.6 Writing the First Draft............................................................................... 280
18.2.7 Test Set-Up................................................................................................... 281
18.2.8 Revising the First Draft............................................................................. 281
18.2.9 Diagrams, Graphs, Tables and Mathematics.......................................... 281
18.2.10 The Report Layout...................................................................................... 281
18.2.11 Headings...................................................................................................... 282
18.2.12 References to Diagrams, Graphs, Tables and Equations....................... 282
18.2.13 Originality and Plagiarism....................................................................... 282
18.2.14 Finalising the Report and Proofreading................................................. 282
18.2.15 The Summary............................................................................................. 282
18.2.16 References.................................................................................................... 283
18.2.17 Acknowledgements.................................................................................... 283
18.2.18 Appendices.................................................................................................. 283
18.3 Proposed Preparation................................................................................................ 283
18.3.1 Background/Problem Statement.............................................................. 283
18.3.2 Objectives....................................................................................................284
18.3.3 Technical Approach...................................................................................284
18.3.4 Budget..........................................................................................................284
18.3.5 Organisation and Capability....................................................................284
18.4 Oral Communications...............................................................................................284
18.4.1 The Audience.............................................................................................. 285
18.4.2 Planning the Presentation......................................................................... 285
18.4.3 Delivering the Presentation...................................................................... 285
18.4.4 Effective Use of Notes................................................................................ 285
18.4.5 The Use of Visual Aides............................................................................ 286
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 287
Preface

The philosophy behind the engineering design primer is to introduce student engineers
to the world of engineering design. Most student engineers start in the drawing office as
draughtsmen and the majority stay there for the duration of their working lives with little
thought of progressing into design engineering. From the author’s experience, the draw-
ing office lays a very good foundation for a career in design and allows the student to
explore the many facets of design.
The first part of the book introduces the student to the workings of the drawing office
together with the working principles of producing a drawing having sufficient detail to
enable the part to be manufactured. Chapter 3 covers the principles of the design process
followed by the design specification or PDS. This is the singular most important document
in the design process as it lays down the definition of the design in so far as what the com-
pany will produce and most importantly what the customer is expecting.
Chapter 6 covers ‘Design for “X”’ discussing such items as manufacture, reliability,
robustness, maintainability and serviceability. Life cycle costing is also discussed in this
chapter.
Quality is discussed in Chapters 6 and 11. It is important for the producer that the cus-
tomer has the utmost confidence that the product they buy will meet all their expectation.
I make no apology for discussing probabilities and engineering statistics as these items
are important when discussing reliability.
The book is rounded off with chapters on material selection, mathematical modelling
and configuration management, the later covering change controls. Communication is an
important attribute for the budding designer to stand up and confidently and clearly to put
his case across for the adaptation of his/her design.
The author wishes the readers every success in their respective design careers and hopes
it will provide them many years of employment as, it has for him.

xix
About the Author

Keith L. Richards i s a retired mechanical engineer with industry experience of over

55 years. He served an indentured apprenticeship with BSA Tools that manufactured a
wide range of machine tools including the Acme Gridley, a multi-spindle automatic lathe
built under licence, and single-spindle automatic lathes; these were built in Britain and
widely exported all around the world.
On leaving the BSA, he served as a freelance engineering designer in a wide range of
industries, including aluminium rolling mill design, industrial fork lift trucks and was a
lead engineer for the mooring system for the Hutton tension leg platform. In later years he
became more involved in stress analysis that led to working in the aerospace industry cov-
ering landing gear and environmental control systems for both military and commercial
aircraft and trailing wing components for the Airbus A380.

xxi
1
Organisation and Structure of the Drawing Office

1.1 Introduction
Over the last few years the ‘drawing office’ has seen a massive revolution. Digital draught-
ing has replaced the original method of paper and manual drawing, and alongside this
major change there has been a technological revolution in the way drawing prints are now
processed and the way data is now transferred to the multi-axis machining centres on the
shop floor.
Drawing offices used to be quite noisy with general chatter and heated discussions,
now all this has been replaced by a quiet environment with only the clatter of key-
boards to be heard. Any major discussions are carried out in side offices to the main
drawing area.
Figures 1.1 to 1.5 show typical drawing offices from 1900 to the present day, and the
changes that have taken place can be seen. This has been reflected across the engineering
industry in the United Kingdom.

1.2 The Purpose of the Drawing Office

The purpose of the drawing office has not measurably changed over the years. In a manu-
facturing organisation it still serves as the hub between the sales, service, procurement,
engineering and manufacturing, as shown in Figure 1.6. Its prime function is to provide
working drawings, for the designs developed by the engineering department, to be trans-
mitted to the manufacturing departments.
The drawing office has a number of responsibilities including:

• The preparation of working drawings to a consistent standard

• Checking drawings
• The register of drawing numbers
• Maintaining a register of all drawing revisions and modifications
• Maintaining a reprographics section
• Printing and issuing drawings
• Ensuring quality control is maintained within the department

1
2 The Engineering Design Primer

FIGURE 1.1
A drawing office in early 1900s.

FIGURE 1.2
1923 drawing office.
FIGURE 1.3
1963 drawing office.

FIGURE 1.4
A typical computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) drawing office in 1986.

FIGURE 1.5
A computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) drawing office in 1991.
4 The Engineering Design Primer

FIGURE 1.6
Relationship between the drawing office and other departments.

• Preparing and maintaining drawing standards

• Preparing data sheets
• Drawing issue and drawing transmittal outside the department
• Drawing storage
• Drawing security
• Maintaining and keeping up to date a technical and standards library

The earliest British Standard relating to engineering appeared in 1903 and covered
a range of sizes for metal bars, sheet, nuts and bolts and flanges, etc. The first British
Standard relating to drawing office practice was published in 1927 and covered the fol-
lowing factors:

• Sizes of drawings, tracings and widths of tracing cloth and paper

• Position of drawing number, date and name of draughtsman
• Indication of scale
• Method of projection
• Types of line and text
• Colour of lines
• Dimensioning figures
• Relative importance of dimensions
• Indication of materials used
• A variety of degrees of finish
• Screw threads
• Flats and squares
• Machine tapers
• Abbreviations used on drawings
Organisation and Structure of the Drawing Office 5

In addition to the above, there were five figures depicting:

• Methods of projection
• Types of lines
• Views and sections
• Screw threads
• Tapers

First angle projection was the preferred method for the illustrations, and the publication
was printed on A5 sheets of paper.
In the early days prior to World War I, manufacturers simply fitted components together
without due regard to future replacement when any wear took place. The dimensions used
were those as used in the prototype part. When manufacturing industry was faced with
the introduction of quantity production as led by the gun trade where components had
to be manufactured at various manufacturing sites, measurements had to be more pre-
cise and methods devised to measuring the parts more easy. As each factory had devel-
oped its own standard methods, it became clear and imperative that a National Standard
was essential. British Standards published a comprehensive Limits and Fits standard. The
National Physical Laboratory was first founded in 1900 and it was obvious that this should
be the custodian of the measuring standards. All companies were required to have their
measuring equipment certified and calibrated by the laboratory to ensure a consistent
measuring system is applied across the industry.
There are two clear aspects that need to be considered for the specification of a compo-
nent drawing:

1. The drawing is required to show all relevant dimensions for the part in three
planes projections.
2. The metrologist produces an evaluation of the part with regard to limits and fits.

1.3 The Importance of the Drawing Office

The drawing office is considered to be the centre of any manufacturing organisation and
is generally responsible for the following activities:

1. Development
2. Research
3. Manufacturing investigations, including metallurgy, heat treatments, etc.
4. Project planning
5. Field testing of products

Sales and marketing:

The drawing office may receive requests for assistance in connection:

1. General assembly drawings or layouts for prospective customers

2. Illustrations for technical publications
6 The Engineering Design Primer

3. Modifications to an existing product to meet a specific customer request

4. Installation diagrams
5. Feasibility studies

Service:
The service department provides a prompt and efficient response to any service calls.
Any work the drawing office receives from this department is associated with:

1. Maintenance tools and special equipment and tooling

2. Service kits for any overhauls
3. Repair or modification work resulting from field knowledge

Manufacturing:
This department is the recipient of all the drawing office manufacturing drawings that
have been approved for manufacture. The drawing office supplies all working drawings,
schedules and purchase requests for all proprietary items.

1. Working drawings of all the company’s current products

2. Amended or revised drawings
3. Drawings of any jigs and fixtures to aid production

1.4 Organisation of a Typical Drawing Office

Figure 1.7 depicts a typical organisation structure of a drawing office. The function of the
chief draughtsman is to take overall control of all the activities carried out within the office
and to monitor the work being currently carried out. He/she receives all the work coming
into the office, sets all the timescales and distributes the work to the section leaders.
The section leader is responsible for all the work carried out within the section by the
team of draughtsmen under his/her direct control. The team is made up of a range of skills
of various grades from senior to junior levels.
When the work has been carried out to his/her satisfaction the work is then passed over
to the checking section. The Standard section scrutinises each drawing to ensure that all
the appropriate standards have been addressed correctly.
All the administration work is carried out by the technical clerks who produce all the
schedules, lists of equipment relating to the design and general routine work. When all the
work has been completed and is ready for approval, it is passed back to the chief draughts-
man by the individual section leader.
These days the majority of drawings are produced digitally using computer-aided design
(CAD) and these are stored on the servers. It is the responsibility of the IT department to
ensure all the files are safely and securely backed up using a number of redundant servers
as appropriate. It is not unusual for paper prints to be stored as belts and bracers in the
event of a power failure and inability to access the servers. It is not unheard of a computer
file being lost and the paper print coming to the rescue.
Another random document with
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 supply or medical departments is known to have been court
martialed or even censured. Yet I do not hesitate to say that
the summary dismissal from the service, in the beginning, of
two or three quartermasters and commissaries, including the
gentlemen who were the cause of sending thousands of cars to
Tampa without invoices or anything on the outside of them to
indicate their contents, would have saved the lives of
hundreds of our soldiers. Under these circumstances it is most
lamentable to find that the awful experiences which have made
so many homes desolate, and so many of our best young men
invalids, have borne no practical fruit. Both the army
officials and Congress are like the Bourbons, they 'have
learned nothing and forgotten nothing.'"

G. W. Wingate,
What the Beef Scandal Teaches
(Independent, April 6, 1899).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898-1899.

Joint High Commission for settlement of
pending questions with Canada.

See (in this volume)

CANADA: A. D. 1898-1899.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898-1899 (October-October).

Military government of Porto Rico.

See (in this volume)

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898-1899 (OCTOBER-OCTOBER).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898-1899 (December-January).

Instructions by the President to General Otis,
Military Governor of the Philippines.
Their proclamation by the latter in a modified form.
The effect.
 See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-JANUARY).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (January).

The case of Commissary-General Eagan.

A court-martial, sitting in January, 1899, for the trial of

Commissary-General Eagan, on the charge that he had been
guilty of "conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, and
conduct to the prejudice of good order and military
discipline," in the abusive language that he had applied to
the commanding general of the army, in the course of his
testimony before the Commission to investigate the conduct of
the War Department found the accused officer guilty, and
imposed the inevitable penalty of dismissal from the service,
but recommended executive clemency in his case.

See:
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898-1899.

The sentence was commuted by the President to suspension from

rank and duty for six years. This involved no loss of pay,
and, at the end of six years, General Eagan will go on the
retired list.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (January).

Appointment of the First Commission to the Philippines.
The President's instructions to the Commissioners.

See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (January-February).

The Treaty of Peace in the Senate.
Its ratification.

The Treaty of Peace with Spain, signed at Paris December 10,

1898, was sent by the President to the Senate on the 4th of
January, 1899, and held under debate in that body until the
6th of February following. The opposition to it was very
strong, being especially directed against the acquisition of
the Philippine Islands, involving, as that acquisition did,
the embarkation of the Republic in a colonial or imperial
policy, of conquest and of government without the consent of
the governed, which seemed to a great number of thoughtful
people, not only incongruous with its constitution, but a
dangerous violation of the principles on which its republican
polity is founded. But even those most opposed to the
acquisition of the Philippine Islands were reluctant to reopen
the state of war by rejection of the treaty, and directed
their efforts mainly towards the securing of a definite
declaration from Congress of the intention of the government
of the United States to establish independence in the islands.

"Even before the signing of the treaty at Paris, on the 6th of

December, when the demand of the American commissioners for
cession of the Philippines was known, the opposition expressed
itself in the following resolution, introduced by Senator
Vest, of Missouri:

"Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the

United States of America in Congress assembled. That under the
Constitution of the United States no power is given to the
Federal Government to acquire territory to be held and
governed permanently as colonies. The colonial system of
European nations can not be established under our present
Constitution, but all territory acquired by the Government,
except such small amount as may be necessary for coaling
stations, correction of boundaries, and similar governmental
purposes, must be acquired and governed with the purpose of
ultimately organizing such territory into States suitable for
admission into the Union."

This resolution became the ground of much senatorial debate

 during the following weeks. The arguments opposed to it, and
supporting the policy of the administration, are represented
fairly by the following passage from a speech made by Senator
Platt, of Connecticut, on December 16:

{635}

"I propose to maintain that the United States is a nation;

that as a nation it possesses every sovereign power not
reserved in its Constitution to the States or the people; that
the right to acquire territory was not reserved, and is
therefore an inherent sovereign right; that is a right upon
which there is no limitation, and with regard to which there
is no qualification; that in certain instances the right may
be inferred from specific clauses in the Constitution, but
that it exists independent of these clauses; that in the right
to acquire territory is found the right to govern it; and as
the right to acquire is a sovereign and inherent right, the
right to govern is a sovereign right not limited in the
Constitution, and that these propositions are in accordance
with the views of the framers of the Constitution, the
decisions of the Supreme Court, and the legislation of
Congress.

"Mr. President, this is a nation. It has been called by

various names. It has been called a Confederated Republic, a
Federal Union, the Union of States, a league of States, a rope
of sand; but during all the time these names have been applied
to it it has been a nation. It was so understood by the
framers of the Constitution. It was so decided by the great
judges of the Supreme Court in the early days of the
Constitution. It is too late to deny it, and, Mr. President,
it is also too late to admit it, and not have faith in it.
Intellectual assent to the doctrines of Christianity does not
make a man a Christian. It is saving faith that makes the
Christian. And a mere intellectual assent to the doctrine that
we are a nation does not make the true patriot. It is high
time that we come to believe without qualification, to believe
in our hearts, in the exercise of patriotic faith, that the
United States is a nation. When we come to believe that, Mr.
President, many of the doubts and uncertainties which have
troubled men will disappear.

"It is time to be heroic in our faith and to assert all the

power that belongs to the nation as a nation. … The attempt to
shear the United States of a portion of its sovereign power is
an attempt which may well be thoroughly and fully discussed.
In the right to acquire territory is found the right to
govern, and as the right to acquire is sovereign and
unlimited, the right to govern is a sovereign right, and I
maintain is not limited in the Constitution. If I am right in
holding that the power to acquire is the sovereign power
without limitation, I think it must be admitted that the right
to govern is also sovereign and unlimited. But if it is sought
to rest the right to govern upon that clause of the
Constitution which gives Congress the power to dispose of or
make 'all needful rules and regulations' for the government of
the territory of the United States, I submit there is no
limitation there. There is no qualification there."

On the 4th of January the Senate received the treaty from the
President. On the 7th, Senator Mason, of Illinois, introduced
the following resolution, and, subsequently, spoke with
earnestness in its support:

"Whereas all just powers of government are derived from the

consent of the governed: Therefore, be it

"Resolved by the Senate of the United States, That the

Government of the United States of America will not attempt to
govern the people of any other country in the world without
the consent of the people themselves, or subject them by force
to our dominion against their will."
On the 9th an impressive speech was made by Senator Hoar, of
Massachusetts, mainly in reply to Senator Platt. He spoke
partly as follows:

"Mr. President, I am quite sure that no man who will hear or

who will read what I say today will doubt that nothing could
induce me to say it but a commanding sense of public duty. I
think I dislike more than most men to differ from men with
whom I have so long and so constantly agreed. I dislike to
differ from the President, whose election I hailed with such
personal satisfaction and such exulting anticipations for the
Republic. I dislike to differ from so many of my party
associates in this Chamber, with whom I have for so many years
trod the same path and sought the same goal. I am one of those
men who believe that little that is great or good or permanent
for a free people can be accomplished without the
instrumentality of party. And I have believed religiously, and
from my soul, for half a century, in the great doctrines and
principles of the Republican party. I stood in a humble
capacity by its cradle. I do not mean, if I can help it, to
follow its hearse. I am sure I render it a service; I am sure
I help to protect and to prolong the life of that great
organization, if I can say or can do anything to keep it from
forsaking the great principles and doctrines in which alone it
must live or bear no life. I must, in this great crisis,
discharge the trust my beloved Commonwealth has committed to
me according to my sense of duty as I see it. However
unpleasant may be that duty, as Martin Luther said, 'God help
me. I can do no otherwise.'

"I am to speak for my country, for its whole past and for its
whole future. I am to speak to a people whose fate is bound up
in the preservation of our great doctrine of constitutional
liberty. I am to speak for the dead soldier who gave his life
for liberty that his death might set a seal upon his country's
historic glory. I am to speak for the Republican party, all of
whose great traditions are at stake, and all of whose great
 achievements are in peril. …

"The question with which we now have to deal is whether

Congress may conquer and may govern, without their consent and
against their will, a foreign nation, a separate, distinct,
and numerous people, a territory not hereafter to be populated
by Americans, to be formed into American States and to take its
part in fulfilling and executing the purposes for which the
Constitution was framed, whether it may conquer, control, and
govern this people, not for the general welfare, common
defense, more perfect union, more blessed liberty of the
people of the United States, but for some real or fancied
benefit to be conferred against their desire upon the people
so governed or in discharge of some fancied obligation to
them, and not to the people of the United States.

"Now, Mr. President, the question is whether the men who

framed the Constitution, or the people who adopted it, meant
to confer that power among the limited and restrained powers
of the sovereign nation that they were creating. Upon that
question I take issue with my honorable friend from
Connecticut.
{636}
I declare not only that this is not among the express powers
conferred upon the sovereignty they created, that it is not
among the powers necessarily or reasonably or conveniently
implied for the sake of carrying into effect the purposes of
that instrument, but that it is a power which it can be
demonstrated by the whole contemporaneous history and by our
whole history since until within six months they did not mean
should exist—a power that our fathers and their descendants
have ever loathed and abhorred—and that they believed that no
sovereign on earth could rightfully exercise it, and that no
people on earth could rightfully confer it. They not only did
not mean to confer it, but they would have cut off their right
hands, everyone of them, sooner than set them to an instrument
which should confer it. …
"The great contemporaneous exposition of the Constitution is
to be found in the Declaration of Independence. Over every
clause, syllable, and letter of the Constitution the
Declaration of Independence pours its blazing torch-light. The
same men framed it. The same States confirmed it. The same
people pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred
honor to support it. The great characters in the
Constitutional Convention were the great characters of the
Continental Congress. There are undoubtedly, among its burning
and shining truths, one or two which the convention that
adopted it were not prepared themselves at once to put into
practice. But they placed them before their countrymen as an
ideal moral law to which the liberty of the people was to
aspire and to ascend as soon as the nature of existing
conditions would admit. Doubtless slavery was inconsistent
with it, as Jefferson, its great author, has in more than one
place left on record. But at last in the strife of a great
civil war the truth of the Declaration prevailed and the
falsehood of slavery went down, and at last the Constitution
of the United States conformed to the Declaration and it has
become the law of the land, and its great doctrines of liberty
are written upon the American flag wherever the American flag
floats. Who shall haul them down?"

Two days later (January 11) the following resolutions were

introduced by Senator Bacon, of Georgia:

"Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the

United States of America in Congress assembled,

First, That the Government and people of the United States

have not waged the recent war with Spain for conquest and for
the acquisition of foreign territory, but solely for the
purposes set forth in the resolution of Congress making the
declaration of said war, the acquisition of such small tracts
of land or harbors as may be necessary for governmental
purposes being not deemed inconsistent with the same.

"Second. That in demanding and in receiving the cession of the

Philippine Islands it is not the purpose of the Government of
the United States to secure and maintain dominion over the
same as a part of the territory of the United States, or to
incorporate the inhabitants thereof as citizens of the United
States, or to hold said inhabitants as vassals or subjects of
this Government.

"Third. That whereas at the time of the declaration of war by

the United States against Spain, and prior thereto, the
inhabitants of the Philippine Islands were actively engaged in
a war with Spain to achieve their independence, and whereas
said purpose and the military operations thereunder have not
been abandoned, but are still being actively prosecuted
thereunder, therefore, in recognition of and in obedience to
the vital principle announced in the great declaration that
governments derive 'their just powers from the consent of the
governed,' the Government of the United States recognizes that
the people of the Philippine Islands of a right ought to be
free and independent; that, with this view and to give effect
to the same, the Government of the United States has required
the Government of Spain to relinquish its authority and
government in the Philippine Islands and to withdraw its land
and naval forces from the Philippine Islands and from the
waters thereof.

"Fourth. That the United States hereby disclaim any

disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty,
jurisdiction, or control over said islands, and assert their
determination when an independent government shall have been
duly erected therein entitled to recognition as such, to
transfer to said government, upon terms which shall be
reasonable and just, all rights secured under the cession by
Spain, and to thereupon leave the government and control of
the islands to their people."
 On the 13th, Senator McLaurin, of South Carolina, returned to
the question of constitutional power in the government of the
United States to hold territory in a permanently subject
state, and spoke against the view maintained by Senator Platt,
of Connecticut: "To hold," he said, "that there is an inherent
power of sovereignty in the nation, outside of the
Constitution, to do something not authorized by that
instrument is to place this 'inherent sovereignty' above the
Constitution and thus destroy the very foundation upon which
constitutional government rests. Judge Gray in the
Chinese-exclusion case, said: 'The United States are a
sovereign and independent nation, and are invested by the
Constitution with the entire control of international
relations and with all the powers of government necessary to
maintain that control and make it effective.' While holding
that the United States are a sovereign and independent nation,
it will be seen that he also holds that the sovereignty of the
nation is vested by the Constitution; and if so, it can only
be exercised in the mode pointed out in the Constitution and
is controlled by the words of the grant of this sovereignty.
There was no nation of the United States until the adoption of
the Federal Constitution; hence before that time there could
be no sovereignty of the nation. What conferred this
sovereignty? Clearly the States, by and through the Federal
Constitution. If so, then there can be no inherent right of
sovereignty except that conferred by the Constitution.

"The Senator further contends that we are a sovereign nation,

and as such have the same inherent right to acquire territory
as England, France, Germany, and Mexico. I controvert that
proposition. The sovereignty of the nation of Great Britain
and the others is vested in the people, and has never been
delegated and limited as in our country. These Governments
enjoy sovereignty in its elementary form.
{637}
What the government wills it may do without considering the
act or its consequences in the light of an organic law of
binding obligation. Our Government is in a very different
position. The Federal Constitution is the embodiment of the
sovereignty of the United States as a nation, and this
sovereignty can only be exercised in accordance with the
powers contained in its provisions. Great Britain can do
anything as a nation in the way of the exercise of
governmental functions. There is nothing to prohibit or
restrict the fullest exercise of her sovereignty as a nation.
Hence there is no analogy, and the sovereignty of the United
States as a nation differs widely from that of Great Britain.

"It is further contended that a sovereign right can not be

limited and that all our Constitution can do is to prescribe
the manner in which it can be exercised. If, as already shown,
the sovereignty of the United States was conferred by the
States through the Federal Constitution, it is clear that, in
conferring the power and prescribing the manner of its
exercise, they did set a limit in the very terms of the
instrument itself. I deny, therefore, that the United States
as a nation has a sovereign, inherent right and control
outside of the grant of such power in the Constitution. This
is not an essential element of nationality so far as our
nation is concerned, although it may be in England or Russia,
where the nationality and sovereignty incident to it are not
created and limited by a written constitution."

On the 14th of January, Mr. Hoar submitted the following:

"Resolved, That the people of the Philippine islands of right

ought to be free and independent; that they are absolved from
all allegiance to the Spanish Crown, and that all political
connection between them and Spain is and ought to be totally
dissolved, and that they have, therefore, full power to do all
acts and things which independent states may of right do; that
it is their right to institute a new government for
themselves, laying its foundation on such principles and
organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most
likely to effect their safety and happiness; and that with
these rights the people of the United States do not propose to
interfere."

On the 18th, Mr. Bacon amended his resolutions, given above,

by changing the phrase "an independent government" to "a
stable and independent government," and then spoke upon them
with force, saying, among other things: "The simple fact that
we went to war with Spain did not devolve upon us any
obligation with reference to the Philippine Islands. We went
to war with Spain not for the purpose of correcting all the
evils with which her people were afflicted; we went to war
with Spain not to break the chains of tyranny with which she
might be binding her different colonies: we did not undertake
to be the great universal benefactor and to right all the
wrongs of all the world, or even all the wrongs that Spain
might be inflicting upon any of her people. "We went to war
because a particular colony which she was afflicting lay at
our doors; we went to war because the disorders of that
Government affected the peace of our community and were
injurious to our material interest. We said there was a
condition of affairs which was unbearable and that we would
put an end to it.

"To that extent and to that alone we claimed and avowed the
reason for the declaration of war. So it follows that the mere
declaration of war did not affect in any manner our relations
with the Philippine Islands except to put us in a state of war
with them as a part of the Spanish domain, and in no manner
laid any obligations upon us as to those islands. We were not
charged with the duty of preserving order in Asia. We were not
charged with the obligations of seeing that they had a stable
and orderly government in any part of that hemisphere. No such
duty rested upon us. None such was assumed by us. Therefore
the simple declaration of war did not lay any obligation upon
us as to the Philippine Islands, and I desire that any Senator
will put his finger upon the act which laid us under any
obligations to the Philippine Islands outside of the fact that
in the war which ensued we took those who were the insurgents
in those islands to be our allies and made a common cause with
them.

"Now, Mr. President, all that grows out of that—all that grows
out of the fact of that cooperation and that alliance—is to
impose upon us a single obligation which we must not ignore.
How far does that obligation go? Does it require that we shall
for all time undertake to be the guardians of the Philippine
Islands? Does that particular obligation lay upon us the duty
hereafter, not only now but for years to come, to maintain an
expensive military establishment, to burden our people with
debt, to run the risk of becoming involved in wars in order
that we may keep our hands upon the Philippine Islands and
keep them in proper condition hereafter? I am unable to see
how the obligation growing out of the fact that they were our
allies can possibly be extended to that degree. No Senator has
yet shown any reason why such an obligation rests upon us, and
I venture to say that none which is logical will or can be
shown."

The practical considerations, of circumstance and expediency,

which probably had more influence than those of law or
principle, were strongly urged by Senator Lodge, of
Massachusetts, who said, on the 24th:

"Suppose we ratify the treaty. The islands pass from the

possession of Spain into our possession without committing us
to any policy. I believe we can be trusted as a people to deal
honestly and justly with the islands and their inhabitants
thus given to our care. What our precise policy shall be I do
not know, because I for one am not sufficiently informed as to
the conditions there to be able to say what it will be best to
do, nor, I may add, do I think anyone is. But I believe that
we shall have the wisdom not to attempt to incorporate those
 islands with our body politic, or make their inhabitants part
of our citizenship, or set their labor alongside of ours and
within our tariff to compete in any industry with American
workmen. I believe that we shall have the courage not to
depart from those islands fearfully, timidly, and unworthily
and leave them to anarchy among themselves, to the brief and
bloody domination of some self-constituted dictator, and to
the quick conquest of other powers, who will have no such
hesitation as we should feel in crushing them into subjection
by harsh and repressive methods. It is for us to decide the
destiny of the Philippines, not for Europe, and we can do it
alone and without assistance. …

{638}

"During the campaign of last autumn I said in many speeches to

the people of my State that I could never assent to hand those
islands back to Spain; that I wanted no subject races and no
vassal States; but that we had by the fortunes of war assumed
a great responsibility in the Philippines; that we ought to
meet it, and that we ought to give to those people an
opportunity for freedom, for peace, and for self-government;
that we ought to protect them from the rapacity of other
nations and seek to uplift those whom we had freed. From those
views I have never swerved, and I believed then, as I believe
now, that they met with the approbation of an overwhelming
majority of the people of Massachusetts. …

"Take now the other alternative. Suppose we reject the treaty

or strike out the clause relating to the Philippines. That
will hand the islands back to Spain; and I cannot conceive
that any American should be willing to do that. Suppose we
reject the treaty: what follows? Let us look at it
practically. We continue the state of war, and every sensible
man in the country, every business interest, desires the
re-establishment of peace in law as well as in fact. At the
same time we repudiate the President and his action before the
whole world, and the repudiation of the President in such a
matter as this is, to my mind, the humiliation of the United
States in the eyes of civilized mankind and brands us a people
incapable of great affairs or of taking rank where we belong,
as one of the greatest of the great world powers.

"The President cannot be sent back across the Atlantic in the

person of his commissioners, hat in hand, to say to Spain,
with bated breath, 'I am here in obedience to the mandate of a
minority of one-third of the Senate to tell you that we have
been too victorious, and that you have yielded us too much,
and that I am very sorry that I took the Philippines from
you.' I do not think that any American President would do
that, or that any American would wish him to."

Senator Harris, of Kansas, submitted the following on the 3d

of February:

"Resolved by the Senate of the United States of America, That

the United States hereby disclaim any disposition or intention
to exercise permanent sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control
over the Philippine Islands, and assert their determination,
when a stable and independent government shall have been
erected therein entitled to recognition as such, to transfer
to said government, upon terms which shall be reasonable and
just, all rights secured under the cession by Spain, and to
thereupon leave the government and control of the islands to
their people."

The following was offered on the 27th of January by Senator

Sullivan, of Mississippi:

"Resolved, That the ratification of the pending treaty of

peace with Spain shall in no wise determine the policy to be
pursued by the United States in regard to the Philippines, nor
shall it commit this Government to a colonial policy; nor is
it intended to embarrass the establishment of a stable,
independent government by the people of those islands whenever
conditions make such a proceeding hopeful of successful and
desirable results."

On the same day a joint resolution was proposed by Senator

Lindsay, of Kentucky:

"Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the

United States of America in Congress assembled, That the
acquisition by the United States, through conquest, treaty, or
otherwise, of territory, carries with it no constitutional
obligation to admit said territory, or any portion thereof,
into the Federal Union as a State or States.

"Section 2.
That it is against the policy, traditions, and interests of
the American people to admit states erected out of other than
North American territory into our union of American States.

"Section 3.
That the United States accept from Spain the cession of the
Philippine Islands with the hope that the people of those
islands will demonstrate their capacity to establish and
maintain a stable government, capable of enforcing law and
order at home and of discharging the international obligations
resting on separate and independent States, and with no
expectation of permanently holding those islands as colonies
or provinces after they shall demonstrate their capacity for
self-government, the United States to be the judge of such
capacity."

None of the resolutions given above obtained favorable

consideration in the Senate. On the 6th of February the treaty
was ratified, by one vote in excess of the two-thirds which
the constitution requires. It received 57 votes against 27, or
61 against 29 if account be taken of senators absent and
paired. Of the supporters of the treaty, 42 were Republicans;
 of its opponents, 24 were Democrats. It was signed by
President McKinley on the 10th of February, and by the Queen
of Spain on the 17th of March.

After the ratification of the treaty, the Senate, by 26 votes

against 22, adopted the following resolution, offered by Mr.
McEnery of Louisiana:

"Resolved, That by the ratification of the treaty of peace

with Spain it is not intended to incorporate the inhabitants
of the Philippine islands into citizenship of the United
States, nor is it intended to permanently annex said islands
as an integral part of the territory of the United States. But
it is the intention of the United States to establish on said
islands a government suitable to the wants and conditions of
the inhabitants of said islands, to prepare them for local
self-government, and in due time to make such disposition of
said islands as will best promote the interests of the
citizens of the United States and the inhabitants of said
islands."

Congressional Record,
December 6, 1898—February 6, 1899.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (January-November).

Attack on Americans at Manila by Aguinaldo's forces.
Continued hostilities.
Progress of American conquest.

See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY-NOVEMBER).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (March).

Appointment of the Isthmian Canal Commission.

See (in this volume)

CANAL, INTEROCEANIC: A. D. 1889-1899.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (May).
Modification of Civil Service Rules by President McKinley.

See (in this volume)

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1899.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

See (in this volume)

PEACE CONFERENCE.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (June-October).

Arbitration and settlement of the Venezuela boundary question.

See (in this volume)

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1896-1899.

{639}

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (July).

Cabinet change.

General Russel A. Alger resigned his place in the President's

Cabinet as Secretary of War, in July, and was succeeded by the
Honorable Elihu Root, of New York.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (July).

Provisional government established in the island of Negros.

See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (MARCH-JULY).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (October).

Report of conditions in Cuba by the Military Governor.
 See (in this volume)
CUBA: A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-OCTOBER).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (October).

Modus Vivendi fixing provisional boundary line between Alaska
and Canada.

See (in this volume)

ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (November).

Death of Vice-President Hobart.

Honorable Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President of the United

States, died November 21. Under the Act provided for this
contingency, the Secretary of State then became the successor
to the President, in the event of the death of the latter
before the expiration of his term.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (November).

Re-arrangement of affairs in the Samoan Islands.
Acquisition of the eastern group, with Pago Pago harbor.

See (in this volume)

SAMOAN ISLANDS.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899-1900 (September-February).

Arrangement with European Powers of the commercial policy
of the "open-door" in China.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1899-1900 (SEPTEMBER-FEBRUARY).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899-1900 (November-

November).
Continued military operations in the Philippines.
 See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899-1900.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899-1901.

Reciprocity arrangements under the Dingley Tariff Act,
not ratified by the Senate.

The Dingley Tariff Act, which became law on the 24th of July,
1897, authorized the making of tariff concessions to other
countries on terms of reciprocity, if negotiated within two
years from the above date. At the expiration of two years,
such conventions of reciprocity had been arranged with France
and Portugal, and with Great Britain for her West Indian
colonies of Jamaica, Barbadoes, Trinidad, Bermuda, and British
Guiana. With France, a preliminary treaty signed in May, 1898,
was superseded in July, 1899, by one of broader scope, which
opens the French markets to an extensive list of American
commodities at the minimum rates of the French tariff, and
cuts the American tariff from 5 to 20 per cent. on many French
products, not inclusive of sparkling wines. In the treaty with
Portugal, the reduction of American duties on wines is more
general. The reciprocal reduction on American products extends
to many agricultural and mineral products. The reciprocal
agreement with the British West Indies covers sugar, fruits,
garden products, coffee and asphalt, on one side, and flour,
meat, cotton goods, agricultural machinery, oils, etc., on the
other.

None of these treaties was acted upon by the United States

Senate during the session of 1899-1900, and it became
necessary to extend the time for their ratification, which was
done. Some additional reciprocity agreements were then
negotiated, of which the following statement was made by the
President in his Message to Congress, December 3, 1900:

"Since my last communication to the Congress on this subject

special commercial agreements under the third section of the