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THE EVOLUTION OF BUSINESS
IN THE CYBER AGE
Digital Transformation, Threats, and Security
THE EVOLUTION OF BUSINESS
IN THE CYBER AGE
Digital Transformation, Threats, and Security

Edited by
Divya Gupta Chowdhry
Rahul Verma
Manisha Mathur
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: The evolution of business in the cyber age : digital transformation, threats, and security /
edited by Divya Gupta Chowdhry, Rahul Verma, Manisha Mathur.
Names: Chowdhry, Divya Gupta, editor. | Verma, Rahul, 1989- editor. | Mathur, Manisha, editor.
Description: Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20190215615 | Canadiana (ebook) 20190215658 |
ISBN 9781771888103 (hardcover) | ISBN 9780429276484 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Business enterprises—Computer networks—Security measures. |
LCSH: Confidential business information—Security measures. | LCSH: Computer
security. | LCSH: Information technology—Management.
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About the Editors

Divya Gupta Chowdhry

Director, Jagran Institute of Management, India

Divya Gupta Chowdhry, PhD, is Director at the Jagran Institute of Manage-

ment, established under the benevolence and support of Dainik Jagran
Group, India. She has rich experience in the corporate sector, teaching
experience in academics, and more than 14 years of experience in research.
She has presented more than 35 papers in various international, national
conferences, and seminars in India and abroad. She has published more
than 30 research papers to date. She has edited and contributed various
chapters in several books. Several research scholars have submitted
synopses for PhD degrees under her supervision. She has also chaired
many national and international conferences. She is also an active member
of governing body, BOS, advisory board, R&D boards of various colleges
and institutes, editor of various peer-reviewed prestigious journals, and a
paper setter in the area of management. She is a gold medalist throughout
her academic career.

Rahul Verma
Lecturer, Department of Training and Technical Education, Bhai
Parmanand Institute of Business Studies, India

Rahul Verma, MCom (International Business) & PGDBA (Finance &

Marketing), is a Lecturer in management with the Department of Training
and Technical Education, Government of the National Capital Territory of
Delhi, India, and is pursuing a PhD in Commerce from Mewar University,
India. His research interests include international business, marketing,
and finance. He has attended and presented papers at several national and
international conferences and seminars. He has published more than 19
research papers with prestigious publishers and has edited a book, Radical
Reorganization of Existing Work Structures through Digitalization,
published by IGI Global in 2017. He is also on editorial boards of several
peer-reviewed journals.
vi About the Editors

Manisha Mathur
Information Assistant, National Law University, India

Manisha Mathur, MSc (Information Technology) & MA (Psychology), is

an Information Assistant with the National Law University, India. She is
currently doing research on “Cyber Crimes against Women in Rajasthan”
as a research scholar at Mewar University, India. She has presented
several papers at national and international conferences and seminars
and has published several papers in prestigious national and international
journals. She has also delivered many guest lectures at various institutions.
Her chapter on “Digitization’s Impact on Work Culture” was published
in the book Radical Reorganization of Existing Work Structures through
Digitalization. She has a keen interest in research in various fields,
including social work.
Contents

Contributors ......................................................................................................... ix
Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... xi
Foreword ........................................................................................................... xvii
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................ xix
Preface ............................................................................................................... xxi
Editorial Advisory Board .................................................................................xxvii

PART I: DIGITAL BUSINESS TRANSFORMATION .............................. 1

1. Digital Workplace: The Human Interface ................................................ 3
Debashis Ghosal and Shulagna Sarkar

2. Helping Entrepreneurs and Small Businesses Make the

Digital Transformation ............................................................................. 39
Sugandha Soni Chopra

3. Digital Transformation Using ICT Tools for Blended

Teaching and Learning ............................................................................. 53
S. Karkuzhali and S. Senthilkumar

4. A Critical Analysis of E-HRM as a Strategic Capability Builder......... 73

B. C. Sinha

5. 3Cs of International Market Penetration Through IMC:

Culture, Change, and Connect ................................................................ 91
Jyoti Kukreja

6. Internet of Things (IoT) and the Digital Business Environment:

A Standpoint Inclusive Cyber Space, Cyber Crimes, and
Cybersecurity ..........................................................................................111
Anand Nayyar, Rudra Rameshwar, and Arun Solanki

7. Big Data: Analytics, Technologies, and Applications ........................... 153

E. Sweetline Priya
viii Contents

PART II: CYBER THREAT AND CYBERSECURITY......................... 173

8. Cyber Threat Detection and Secured Alternative Technology:
A Survey ................................................................................................... 175
S. Anitha and Hemanth G. Kumar

9. Ransomware Evolution: Solving Ransomware Attack Challenges .... 193

Muhammad Ubale Kiru and Aman Jantan

10. Global Challenges and Role of ICT in Empowerment of Teachers.... 231

Shweta Tripathi

11. Cybersecurity and the Internet of Things: Anticipating the

Leverage of Cyber Crimes with Interconnected Devices .................... 263
A. Reyes-Menendez, J. R. Saura, and P. Palos-Sanchez

12. Cloud Computing and Security ............................................................. 293

Dinesh Goyal and R. S. Rajput

13. Unpacking Cybersecurity Trends .......................................................... 321

Vannie Naidoo and Rahul Verma

Color insert of illustrations ........................................................................ A – H

Index ................................................................................................................. 339

Contributors

S. Anitha
ACS College of Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, #207, ACS College of Engineering,
Kambipura, Mysore Road, Bangalore, Karnataka – 560079, India,
E-mail: dranithasammilan@gmail.com
Sugandha Soni Chopra
Rama University, Management, EWS-4111, AWAS Vikas-3, Panki Road, Kalyanpur, Kanpur,
U.P. – 208017 / 676-A, Near Canara Bank, Gandhi Nagar, Jammu – 180004, India,
E-mail: sugandhasoni101984@gmail.com

Debashis Ghosal
Crossover Leadership Partner, 104, Coral Block, Sri Sairam Manor, 8-3-678, Pragathi Nagar,
Yousufguda PO, Hyderabad, Telangana – 500045, India, E-mail: debg2006@gmail.com

Dinesh Goyal
Professor, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Center for Cloud Infrastructure & Security,
Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Mahal, Jagatpura, Jaipur, Rajasthan – 302017, India,
E-mail: dinesh8dg@gmail.com

Aman Jantan
University of Science, School of Computer Science, Penang, Pulau Pinang – 560079, Malaysia,
E-mail: aman@usm.my

S. Karkuzhali
Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Computer Science and Engineering,
Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Tamilnadu – 626126, India, E-mail: vijikarkuzhali@gmail.com
Muhammad Ubale Kiru
University of Science, School of Computer Science, Penang, Pulau Pinang – 560079, Malaysia,
E-mail: muhd.kiru@student.usm.my

Jyoti Kukreja
Jagannath International Management School, Management, MOR, Pocket-105, New Delhi – 110019,
India, E-mail: jyoti.kukreja@jagannath.org

Hemanth G. Kumar
ACS College of Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, #207, ACS College of Engineering,
Kambipura, Mysore Road, Bangalore, Karnataka – 560079, India, E-mail: hemumanju@gmail.com

Vannie Naidoo
University of KwaZulu – Natal, South Africa, E-mail: Naidoova@ukzn.ac.za

Anand Nayyar
Duy Tan University, Graduate School, Viet Nam, Room No: 102, 254 Nguyen Lan Vinh Street,
Da Nang, Vietnam, NA, Da Nang – 550000, Vietnam, E-mail: anandnayyar@duytan.edu.vn

P. Palos-Sanchez
University of Seville, Department of Business Administration and Marketing,
Avda. Ramón y Cajal 1, Seville – 41018, Spain, E-mail: ppalos@us.es
x Contributors

E. Sweetline Priya
Madras Christian College, Department of Computer Application (BCA), F1 B Block,
Shahin Villas, Rajiv Nagar 4th Street, Kovilampakkam, Chennai, Tamilnadu – 600117, India,
E-mail: sweetlinepriya.edwin@gmail.com
R. S. Rajput
Research Scholar, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Center for Cloud Infrastructure & Security,
Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Mahal, Jagatpura, Jaipur, Rajasthan – 302017, India,
E-mail: rajpoot.rs@gmail.com

Rudra Rameshwar
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, L.M Thapar School of Management,
Thapar School of Management, Thapar University, Patiala, NA, Patiala, Punjab – 147004, India,
E-mail: rudrarameshwar@gmail.com

A. Reyes-Menendez
King Juan Carlos University, Business Economics, Pº Artilleros s/n, Madrid – 28032, Spain,
E-mail: ana.reyes@urjc.es

Shulagna Sarkar
Institute of Public Enterprise, Plot No. 98, Road No. 3, Surya Enclave, Tirumalgiri,
Secunderabad, Telangana – 500013, India, E-mail: shulagnasarkar@gmail.com
J. R. Saura
King Juan Carlos University, Business Economics, Pº Artilleros s/n, Madrid – 28032, Spain,
E-mail: joseramon.saura@urjc.es

S. Senthilkumar
Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College, Chemistry, Srivilliputtur Main Road, Sivakasi,
Tamilnadu – 626124, India, E-mail: senthilkumar@anjaconline.org

B. C. Sinha
Rakshpal Bahadur College of Engineering and Technology, Management, Knowledge Park,
Part III, Greater Noida, U.P. – 201310, India, E-mail: sinhachandra99@gmail.com

Arun Solanki
Gautam Buddha University, School of Information and Communication Technology,
School of ICT, Noida, NA, Noida, U.P. – 201312, India, E-mail: ymca.arun@gmail.com

Shweta Tripathi
Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India, E-mail: shwetatrip02@gmail.com

Rahul Verma
Department of Training and Technical Education, Bhai Parmanand Institute of Business Studies,
India
Abbreviations

ABE attribute-based encryption

ACC American College of Cardiology
AI artificial intelligence
AICPA American Institute of Certified Public Accountants
AIDC automatic identification and data capture
AM application master
AMD-V AMD-virtualization
AMQP advanced message queuing protocol
APIs application programming interfaces
AWS Amazon web services
BL blended learning
BLE Bluetooth low energy
BoF buffer overflow
BPI business performance innovation
BYOD bring your own device
CA certificate authority
CARP channel aware routing protocol
CBSE Central Board for Secondary Education
CDR call detail record
CDU channel distribution usage
CEA Cotton Egypt Association
CERT computer emergency response team
CHIP cognitive human interface personality
CISO Chief Information Security Officers
CoAP constrained application protocol
CON confirmable message
CPS cyber-physical systems
CRC checksum and cyclic redundancy check
DAC discretionary access control
DACL discretionary access control list
DAGs directed acyclic graphs
DAO destination advertisement object
DCPS data-centric publish-subscribe
xii Abbreviations

DDM download dropper method

DDoS distributed denial of service
DDS data distribution service
DECT digital enhanced cordless telecommunications
DER distributed energy resources
DI direct instruction
DIS DODAG information solicitation
DLRL data-local reconstruction layer
DNS domain name system
DODAG destination-oriented directed acyclic graph
DoS denial of service
DSOs distribution system operators
EC2 elastic compute cloud
EHEA European Higher Education Area
EMI English-medium instructors
EMIS Education Management Information Systems
EPC electronic product code
EPS endpoint security
ETL extract, transform, and load
FC flipped classroom
FCM flipped classroom model
FFD full functional device
GDPR general data privacy regulations
GST goods and services tax
HBR Harvard Business Review
HCM human capital management
HDFS Hadoop distributed file system
HIPAA Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
HR human resources
HTTP-DDoS hypertext transfer protocol-distributed denial of service
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
IaaS infrastructure as a service
ICT information and communication technology
IEEE electrical and electronics engineers
IETF internet engineering task force
IGL inquiry guided learning
IIoT industrial internet of things
ILAs interactive learning activities
Abbreviations xiii

IMC integrated marketing communication

IOC indicators of compromise
IoT internet of things
IoT-A internet of things-architecture
IP internet protocol
IPDR internet protocol detail record
ISMS information security management system
IT information technology
ITRC identity theft resource center
ITU international telecommunication unit
JiTT just-in-time teaching
KM knowledge management
LbD learning by doing
LeD learning dialogs
LxI learning experience interaction
MAB multi-armed bandits
MAC mandatory access control
MBR master boot record
MFA multi-factor authentication
MFC model-based flipped classroom
MOODLE modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment
MQTT message queuing telemetry transport
MTC machine type communication
N-AIM National-Artificial Intelligence Mission
NCCP National Cybersecurity Policy
NCRB national crime records bureau
NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation-
Infrastructure Protection
NICE National Cybersecurity Education Initiative
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NJCCIC New Jersey Cybersecurity and Communications
Integration Cell
NON nonconfirmable message
NOSQL not only SQL
NSA national security agency
OC option count
OMG object management group
OSI open systems interconnection
xiv Abbreviations

OTF on-the-fly
OTrP open trust protocol
PaaS platform as a service
PB petabytes
PBL problem-based learning
PINs personal identification numbers
PKI public key infrastructure
PLTL peer-led team learning
PMO Prime Minister’s Office
PRAW periodic restricted access window
RaaS ransomware as a service
RBAC role-based access control
RDBMS relational database management system
RDS rural development strategy
RFD restricted functional device
RFID radio-frequency identification
RGB returnable glass bottles
RM resource manager
ROI return on investment
ROLL routing over low-power and lossy links
RPL routing protocol for low
SaaS Software as a Service
SEO search engine optimization
SII simply industrial internet
SMAC social, mobility, analytics, and cloud
SMEs small and medium enterprises
SMQTT secure MQTT
STEM science, technology, environment, and management
SVG scalable graphics file
TB terabytes
TBL task-based learning
TDMA time division multiple access
TEE trusted execution environment
TIE The Indus Entrepreneurs
TIM traffic indication map
TSCH time-slotted channel hopping
UAC user account control
UAVs unmanned aerial vehicles
Abbreviations xv

UPI unified payment interface

UTAUT Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
VUCA volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous
WHO world health organization
WSN wireless sensor network
XML-DDoS extensible markup language distributed denial of service
XMPP extensible messaging and presence protocol
XSS cross-site scripting
YARN yet another resource negotiator
Foreword

Digital business is accelerating and changing the business environment.

Doing business in a digital age must evolve to meet the challenge. In
cyberspace, businesses have a ballpark figure worth of the global economy
of about $445 billion, and businesses have lost productivity and time as
well as sensitive financial and personal information due to cybercriminal
activities because conducting criminal activity in cyberspace has gotten
easier. Business recovery from cyberattacks may perhaps be complex and
more costly than imagined, and it is necessary to get a deeper look at
the business impact of cyberattacks. Therefore, businesses cannot ignore
the threat of cyberattacks, and thus, businesses need to implement their
own crackdown on cyberattacks as the fact remains that we cannot ignore
technology.
Security in cyberspace is a greatly multifaceted cross-disciplinary area
that includes a computer system, software engineering, infrastructure of
network, the infrastructure of management, policymaking, law-making,
enforcement, and crimes investigation. The Internet today is a widespread
business information infrastructure, and therefore, cybersecurity is a major
area of concern. Consequently, a multifaceted approach to solutions needs
to be presented.
This book provides a valuable window on the digital business environ-
ment and covers the necessary components from detecting cyber threats
to securing mobile communication devices. In this new age of global
interdependence and interconnectivity, it is necessary to provide security
practitioners, students and professionals with state-of-the-art knowledge
on the frontiers of the digital business environment. This book is a good
step in that direction.
— Vijay Kumar Vaidya
Vice-Chancellor,
Mewar University, Rajasthan, India
Acknowledgment

The editors would like to acknowledge the help of all the people involved
in this project and, more specifically, to the authors and reviewers who
took part in the review process. Without their support, this book would not
have become a reality.
First, the editors would like to thank each one of the authors for their
contributions. Our sincere gratitude goes to the chapter’s authors, who
contributed their time and expertise to this book.
Second, the editors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions
of the reviewers regarding the improvement of quality, coherence, and
content presentation of chapters. Most of the authors also served as
referees; we highly appreciate their double task.

— Divya Gupta Chowdhry

Rahul Verma
Manisha Mathur
Preface

Cyberspace, or the virtual world, came into existence as the result of

the evolution and progression of digital communication technologies.
Cyberspace became a vital vehicle of communication via the Internet. The
Internet opened the door to a treasure trove of information. Information
technology (IT) deals with information systems, data storage, data access,
data analyzing, data modification, intelligent decision-making, and so
many field related areas of data and information. However, the emergence
of technologies expands the exploitation of technology. Most people have
been the victim of cybercrime in cyberspace, and cybercriminals and
threats are on the rise.
The aim of this book is to study and analyze cyberattacks that are
increasing every day. Cyber threats are illicit doings or unlawful acts, and
cyberattacks are through digital means or the Internet in which computers
or digital devices are either tools or targets or both. Therefore, we need to
acknowledge that cyberattacks and the challenges they present are part of
the future of cyberspace. It is important to know how technologies can be
exploited by invaders, which is drastically detrimental to our society, busi-
nesses, finances, etc. Protecting yourself and your business and providing a
secure environment from these threats has become a major area of concern.
The public is not aware of the latest cyber-secure technologies; there is an
important need to develop an awareness of cyber technologies and threats.
Cyber threats and cybersecurity as a subject of technical, legal, and social
study are not only advancing but mind-blowing too, as it is comprised of
new concepts and challenges.
In this digital era, cyberattacks are the reckless nurturing zones of
crime. Cybercrime masterminds are exploiting the vulnerabilities of cyber
technologies and creating a hazardous milieu in cyberspace. Our modern
digital society needs to identify and understand cyberattacks, cybercrimi-
nals, and cyber technologies.
The question arises of how to protect a business or organization from
cyberattacks? In the light of all this, authoring a book on cyberattacks,
cybersecurity, and cyber challenges is really a hard nut to crack.
xxii Preface

Protection and a secure business environment should be provided

on cyberspace, which is a very difficult task due to the weakness of the
infrastructures of technologies and laws. Today’s need is to provide secure
cyber business environments for users on various sectors, and for law
enforcement to play a key role in providing strong evidence. This is also a
primary objective of this book.
With this book in hand, readers will be able to develop a clear concept
and have a better understanding of cyber technologies, cyberattacks, and
cyber business environment.
The scope of the book takes into account the major cyberattacks being
undertaken in the business world. This book explains in detail the possible
data breaches and crimes. This book even explains the facts of cyberattacks
prevailing at present. It includes the basic business threats in cyberspace
and how businesses can protect themselves in the cyber world.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The book is organized into two sections, namely “Digital Business

Transformation,” consisting of seven chapters; and “Cyber Threats and
Cybersecurity,” consisting of six chapters. A brief description of each of
the chapters follows:

• Chapter 1 introduces the concept of digitalization in the context

of people and the workplace. The chapter aims to highlight the
attempt of digitalization of the workplace and also elaborates on
the concepts associated with artificial intelligence (AI) revolution.
The authors set the scene for discussing the factors that determine
the scope of AI in replacing human interface in organizations. In
particular, the chapter identifies various cases in successful digita-
lization implementation across the globe.
• Chapter 2 establishes that how entrepreneurs of small and medium
enterprises (SMEs) with insufficient capabilities and limited
resources drove digital transformation in their companies. The
author of this chapter expands our understanding of both digital
entrepreneurship and digital transformation. This chapter also pres-
ents the new capacity to gain an accurate into how digital platform
service providers can help SMEs appearance and strive to gain.
Preface xxiii

• Chapter 3 analyses and compares the advantages of online learning

and traditional classroom learning environments, and presents the
notion of ‘blended learning (BL),’ which is a new learning environ-
ment. The authors identify that the role of teachers is increasingly
important in the new cultural and educational environments that
are being created and to be created with the help of information
communication and technology (ICT).
• Chapter 4 in its endeavor examines the role of E-HRM as a tool in
increasing the competitive edge of Indian organizations, and the
response has been sought after from employees of eight organiza-
tions using the structured questionnaire as an instrument. Based on
a survey, the author reveals that all attributes of financial contribu-
tion are not above the test value and there exists a difference in
level for some attributes in context to private vis-a-vis public and
manufacturing vis-a-vis services.
• Chapter 5 takes the philosophical orientation and debates that when
change usually occurs, things fall apart, but the culture to connect
for any marketing strategist is pertinent. The author in this piece of
writing includes a case let and a case study on the marketing strate-
gies for successful global industry pie. The chapter sets the scene
for a discussion on the point that technology is not a choice but
more of a necessity nowadays. The author contends that technology
‘makes’ or ‘breaks’ marketers.
• Chapter 6 outlines an in-depth overview of Internet of Things (IoT)
like technical details and enabling technologies followed by an
in-depth technical overview of protocols enabling IoT—a device-
to-device communication. The authors address the cybersecurity
issues surrounding IoT to enable researchers and developers to
speed-up research in these areas, along with an overview of various
simulation tools available for carrying out research on IoT.
• Chapter 7 presents a brief introduction to big data and big data
analytics, the various categories of big data, the characteristics that
determine the big data, how different technologies are involved in
big data analytics, and a brief introduction on the tools involved
handling big data. The author also identifies the applications of big
data in various fields like health care, banking, marketing, politics,
meteorological department, finance, and so on.
xxiv Preface

• Chapter 8 systematically reviews various threats in different fields

of business and the various existing methods to overcome the said
threats. Based on a survey focused on users’ practices in internet
banking, the authors propose a survey model conducted on internet
banking in various countries. The authors proposed model bridges
the gap by increasing the responsibility of banks to reduce cyberse-
curity risks for users.
• Chapter 9 focuses on the world’s most frightening cybersecurity
threat known as ransomware. The overall aim of the chapter is
vested upon uncovering the underlying mysteries behind the sudden
growth and popularity of ransomware and how to fight and stop
it. The authors seek to bring together the collective professionals’
views and recommendations on how to set up the strategic defense-
in-depth for fighting against ransomware.
• Chapter 10 sets the scene for discussions presented by various
authors dealing with the role of technology in teaching and learning,
the role of teachers in making aware their students towards cyber-
crime and cybersecurity, and empowerment of teachers thereof.
• Chapter 11 aims to identify the challenges the Digital Business
Environment has to face and to propose viable solutions that
would allow avoiding cyberattacks and result in a reinforcement
of cybersecurity in the IoT. To this end, in order to deepen the
impact that cybersecurity has on the IoT for individuals, society,
nations, and global humanity, the authors systematically review the
literature and perform an exploratory analysis of the results on this
ubiquitous topic.
• Chapter 12 sets the scene for a discussion about the factors leading
to cloud being vulnerable to threats and attacks and also on the
methods and solutions to make secure cloud system. In particular,
the chapter identifies that cloud security can be implemented into
four sections, namely cloud security behind the virtualization,
securing data over the cloud, cloud channel security, and securing
cloud system management.
• Chapter 13 concludes and explores crucial issues associated with
cyber trends, namely cybersecurity, cybercriminals, cybercrimes,
cyberethics, cybersecurity techniques, social media, and cyberse-
curity and challenges faced in implementing cybersecurity. The
authors contend that cybersecurity is vital in the Fourth Industrial
Preface xxv

Revolution, which can cause a major technology disruption and

affect the lives in ways we never thought possible.

—Divya Gupta Chowdhry

Rahul Verma
Manisha Mathur
Editorial Advisory Board

Punita Duhan, Meera Bai Institute of Technology, India

Rakhi Gupta, Banaras Hindu University, India
Prabhat Mathur, Lachoo Memorial College of Science and Technology,
India
Subodh Nalwaya, Mewar University, India
Komal Singh, Meera Bai Institute of Technology, India
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Venetian merchant, proposes to stand security for a friend who
wants to borrow three thousand ducats of the Jew, on Antonio’s
bond. Even while negotiating the loan, the Christian reviles the Jew
as “an evil soul, a villain with a smiling cheek,” a whited sepulchre.
Shylock now reminds him of all the insults and invectives he used to
heap upon him in the Exchange:

“You call me misbeliever, cut-throat dog,

And spit upon my Jewish gaberdine,

and yet you solicit my help.” The Christian answers:

“I am as like to call thee so again,

To spit on thee again, to spurn thee too,”

and asks him to lend the money as to an enemy. The Jew pretends
to forgive and forget; but he takes Antonio at his word, and playfully
demands a forfeit “for an equal pound of your fair flesh, to be cut off
and taken in what part of your body pleaseth me.” The bond is
sealed, and it proves a fatal bond. Antonio’s ships are wrecked at
sea, and, when the term expires, he finds himself unable to pay the
Jew.
Shylock, like Barabas, has an only daughter, Jessica, whom he
cherishes and trusts above all human beings. All the love that he can
spare from his ducats is lavished upon this daughter. Fair as Abigail,
Jessica lacks the filial loyalty and sweet grace which render the
daughter of Barabas so charming a contrast to her father. Jessica is
“ashamed to be her father’s child.” She detests him, and to her her
own home “is hell.” Enamoured of a Christian youth, she enters into
a shameless intrigue with him to deceive and rob her father, and,
disguised as a boy, she runs away with her lover, carrying a quantity
of gold and jewels from the paternal hoard. The discovery of his
daughter’s desertion throws Shylock, as it did Barabas, into despair.
He never felt his nation’s curse until now.
 While in this mood he hears of Antonio’s losses and rejoices
exceedingly thereat. The news of his enemy’s mishap acts as a
salve for his own domestic woes. His old grudge against the
Christian, embittered by his recent misfortune, steels him against
mercy. He recalls the indignities and injuries of which he had been
the recipient at Antonio’s hands, all because he was a Jew, and
vows to exact the full forfeit: to have the Christian’s flesh. Antonio is
taken to prison and implores Shylock for pity; but the latter grimly
answers: “I’ll have my bond. Thou call’dst me dog before thou hadst
a cause; but since I am a dog, beware my fangs. I will have my
bond.”
The Venetian law was strict on the subject of commercial
transactions. The prosperity of the Republic depended on its
reputation for equity and impartiality, and not even the Doge could
interfere with the course of Justice. The trial commences. Antonio
appears in court, and Shylock demands justice. He is not to be
softened by prayers from the victim’s friends, or by entreaties from
the Duke. He will not even accept the money multiplied three times
over; but he insists on the due and forfeit of his bond. Thus matters
stand, when Portia, the betrothed of Antonio’s friend, appears on the
scene in the guise of a young and learned judge. She first
endeavours to bend the Jew’s heart; but on finding him inflexible,
she acknowledges that there is no power in Venice that can alter a
legally established claim: “The bond is forfeit, and lawfully by this the
Jew may claim a pound of flesh.”
Antonio is bidden to lay bare his breast, and Shylock is gleefully
preparing to execute his cruel intent; the scene has reached its
climax of dramatic intensity, when the tables are suddenly turned
upon the Jew. The young judge stays his hand with these awful
words:

“This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood.

Take thou thy pound of flesh;
But, in the cutting it, if thou dost shed
One drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goods
 Are, by the laws of Venice, confiscate
Unto the state of Venice.”

Shylock has scarcely recovered from this thunderclap, and

expressed his willingness to accept the money offered to him at first,
when the judge interrupts him: “The Jew shall have all justice—
nothing but the penalty”—just a pound of flesh, not a scruple more or
less. If not, “thou diest and all thy goods confiscate.”
Shylock is now content to accept only the principal. But the judge
again says: “Since the Jew refused the money in open Court, he
shall have merely justice and his bond—nothing but the forfeiture,”
under the conditions already named.
Shylock offers to give up his claim altogether. But no! the judge
again says:

“The law hath yet another hold on you.

It is enacted in the laws of Venice—
If it be proved against an alien
That by direct or indirect attempts
He seek the life of any citizen,
The party ’gainst the which he doth contrive
Shall seize one half his goods; the other half
Comes to the privy coffer of the State;
And the offender’s life lies in the mercy
Of the Duke only, ’gainst all other voice.
In which predicament, I say, thou stand’st.
Down, therefore, and beg mercy of the Duke.”

Antonio intercedes on behalf of his enemy, and allows him to

retain the use of one half of his goods, on condition that he become
a Christian and bequeath his property to his Christian son-in-law and
his daughter. The Jew perforce accepts these terms, leaves the
Court crestfallen, and every good man and woman is expected to
rejoice at his discomfiture.
 Such is the Jew in Shakespeare’s eyes, or rather in the eyes of
the public which Shakespeare wished to entertain. Yet, despite the
poet’s anxiety to interpret the feelings of his audience, his own
humanity and sympathetic imagination reveal themselves in the
touching appeal put into the victim’s mouth: “Hath not a Jew eyes?
hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections,
passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons,
subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed
and cooled by the same winter and summer, as a Christian? if you
prick us, do we not bleed? if you tickle us, do we not laugh? if you
poison us, do we not die? and, if you wrong us, shall we not
revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that.”
But few, if any, of Shakespeare’s contemporaries shared his own
broad sense of justice. The Jew was popularly regarded as the
quintessence of all that is foul, grim, and greedy in human form. In
him the Elizabethan Englishman saw all the qualities that he
detested: covetousness, deceitfulness, and cruelty. Moreover, the
Jew was still identified with the typical usurer, and usury continued to
be regarded in England with all the superstitious horror of the Middle
Ages. It was not until the reign of Henry VIII. that a law
1546
was reluctantly passed, fixing the interest at 10 per
cent. But the prejudice against lending money for profit was so
strong that the law had to be repealed in the following reign. All loans
at interest were again pronounced illegal under Edward VI. by an Act
which defeated its own purpose, and was in its turn repealed during
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when, despite the law, the rate of
interest was 14 per cent. A second Act, passed in 1571, while
violently condemning usury, in the modern sense of the term, permits
an interest of 10 per cent. This rate remained in force under James I.
Bacon has recorded for us the opinions and the sentiments of
his contemporaries on the subject. In his essay Of Seditions and
Troubles, written some time between 1607 and 1612, he says:
“Above all things, good Policie is to be used, that the Treasure and
Moneyes, in a State, be not gathered into few Hands. For otherwise,
a State may have a great Stock, and yet starve.... This is done,
chiefly, by suppressing, or at least, keeping a strait Hand, upon the
Devouring Trades of Usurie, etc.” In this passage Bacon objects to
usury on economic grounds. Elsewhere he sets forth objections of a
totally different nature. In the essay Of Riches, published in 1625, he
says: “Usury is the certainest Meanes of Gaine, though one of the
worst; As that, whereby a Man doth eate his Bread; In sudore vultûs
alieni; and besides, doth Plough upon Sundaies.” Aristotle’s
mischievous metaphor was still quoted as an argument against
usury. It is mentioned by Bacon among the many “witty invectives
129
against usury” current in his time, and it is embodied by
Shakespeare in the phrase that usurers “take a breed for barren
130
metal.”
At that time the question was engrossing public attention. In
1621 a Bill for the abatement of usury had been brought into
Parliament, and two years later a second Bill to the same effect
passed the Commons. Bacon seized the opportunity for the
publication of his essay Of Usurie, which appeared in 1623. In a
letter to Secretary Conway he states that his object in writing it was
to suggest means, whereby “to grind the teeth of usury and yet to
make it grind to his Majesty’s mill in good sort, without discontent or
perturbation.” In consonance with this view, Bacon describes usury
as an evil, indeed, but as an inevitable evil: “For since there must be
Borrowing and Lending, and Men are so hard of Heart, as they will
not lend freely, Usury must be permitted.” He proceeds to balance
the advantages and disadvantages of the practice and comes to the
conclusion that it should be recognised and controlled by the State,
for “It is better to mitigate Usury by Declaration, than to suffer it to
rage by Connivance.” Bacon’s advocacy was not wasted. In the
1624
following year Usury was once more sanctioned by the
Legislature and interest was reduced to 8 per cent. But
this measure did not obliterate the deep-seated hatred of the money-
lender, nor did it weaken the popular idea that usury was the peculiar
attribute of a Jew. Bacon in the same essay tells us that there were
among his contemporaries men who recommended “that Usurers
should have Orange-tawney Bonnets, because they doe Judaize.”
 However, the abhorrence of the Jew was that which is inspired
by a repulsive abstraction rather than by a concrete individual. The
Jew in the flesh was practically an unknown creature to the ordinary
English man and woman of the age. If he was hated as a blood-
sucking ghoul, he was not more real than a ghoul. But scarcely had
the generation that hissed Barabas and Shylock on the stage passed
away, when the Jew reappeared as a human reality upon the soil
which his fathers had quitted more than three centuries before.
Meanwhile a great change had come over England. The protest
against authority, both in its intellectual and in its spiritual form, had
crossed the Channel and been welcomed by responsive souls on
our shores. When Erasmus came to England in 1498, he found here
more than he brought with him. Grocyn had learnt his Greek in Italy,
and Colet had returned from that country breathing scorn for the
“ungodly refinements” of theology. In these scholars, and scholars
like these, Erasmus found kindred spirits; hearty allies in the struggle
for light. Colet enchanted him with his Platonic eloquence, and Sir
Thomas More with the sweetness of his temper. And the band of
these three noble men—Colet, Erasmus and More—all eager for
reform and for purification of mind and soul, sowed the seed from
which was to spring a plant that even they little dreamed of. The
characteristic compromise between the new and the old under Henry
VIII., grew into the purer Protestantism of Elizabeth and James I.,
and, though in Shakespeare we still see a world essentially Catholic
in tone and ideas, it is a world that is fast dying away. Yet a few
years more and Protestantism, under its most militant and morose
aspect, has banished the last vestiges of mediaeval Catholicism and
merriment from Merry England. King Charles is gone, and Oliver
Cromwell has inherited the realities, if not the pomp, of royalty.
 CHAPTER XVIII

RESETTLEMENT

There was much in Cromwell’s followers to dispose them favourably

towards Israel. Their history, their theology, their character, their
morals, and their ideals were all as Hebraic as anything could be that
had not had its birth in Asia. The Puritans boasted, as the Jews had
always done, that they themselves were the only pure Church, and
hated all others as idolaters. They believed, as the Jews had always
done, that they were the favourite people of Heaven, selected by the
Almighty to bear testimony to His unity, to fight His battles and to
exterminate His enemies: “Destroy the Amalekites, root and branch,
hip and thigh,” was the burden of the Puritan preachers. They
dreamed of a Theocracy, as the Jews had always done; of a state in
which the civil should be subordinated to religious authority. The
spiritual arrogance of the Jew met with its other half in the spiritual
arrogance of the Puritan. If the Jew held that for him Jehovah had
spoken on Mount Sinai, the Puritan was equally certain that for him
God had suffered on the hill of Calvary. If the Jew applied to himself
the prophecies of the Old Testament, the Puritan was as eager to
appropriate the fulfilments of the New. They both walked with their
heads in the skies, but with their feet firm upon solid earth. The daily
contemplation of eternal interests did not disqualify either of them for
the successful pursuit of temporal ends. Spiritual at once and
practical, they saw in material prosperity a proof of divine
approbation. Believing, as they did, that “thrift is blessing,” they
strove to earn the fruits of thrift by excessive piety. And, while they
established their own rule, they had no doubt that they were
promoting the Kingdom of God.
 The resemblance can be traced to the minutest details. The
Puritan’s detestation of the fine arts, of ecclesiastical decoration, and
of sacerdotal foppery was not less sincere than that of the Jew.
Equally strong was the hatred entertained by both sects towards
public amusements. Under the reign of the Puritans the playhouses
were closed, masques were anathematised, maypoles demolished;
all beauty was denounced as a sin, all pleasure punished as a crime.
Even so at the same period (about 1660) a Rabbi of Venice
expressed his horror at the establishment of theatres by Venetian
Jews, wherein men, women, and children of the chosen people
assisted at frivolous performances, and regretted his inability to
suppress the graceless and godless gatherings. Both Jews and
Puritans in the seventeenth century were ready to subscribe to the
words of the Talmudic sage of the first: “I give thanks to thee, O Lord,
my God and God of my fathers, that thou hast placed my portion
among those who sit in the House of Learning and the House of
Prayer, and didst not cast my lot among those who frequent theatres
and circuses. For I labour, and they labour; I wait, and they wait; I to
131
inherit paradise, they the pit of destruction.”
Lastly, both Puritans and Jews had suffered sorely for dissent,
and they had both made others suffer as sorely for the same reason.
The heroic fortitude of both sects under affliction was disgraced by
their fierce intolerance when in power.
This close similarity in temperament and ideas found expression
in many ways, more or less marvellous, more or less amusing. It
originated that partiality to the Old Testament which was responsible
for most of the Puritans’ peculiarities and sins. The Lord’s Day in
their mouths became the Sabbath; their children were baptized by
the uncouth names of ancient Hebrew patriarchs and prophets; their
everyday conversation was a compound of sanctity and Semitism.
Hebrew was revered as the primitive tongue of mankind, and it was
held that a child brought up in solitude would naturally speak Hebrew
at four years of age. Not only were their notions on social and moral
questions derived from the code of Moses, but even in matters
judicial that code was gravely recommended as a substitute for
English jurisprudence, and the extreme Puritans, who migrated to
America, actually adopted the Mosaic law in Massachusetts, acted
Hebrew masquerades in the island of Rhode, and called the
members of the Constitutional Committee of New Haven “The seven
pillars hewn out for the House of Wisdom.” Last, but most important
of all, Cromwell’s Ironsides found in the Old Testament precedent
and sanction for deeds which are utterly abhorrent to the teaching of
the New.
Under the circumstances, it is not surprising that, while the
persecution of Papists and Episcopalians was at its highest in
England, the public attitude towards the Jews should have
undergone a marked change for the better. Members of the race
were already established in London, though secretly. On January 5,
1649, two inhabitants of Amsterdam presented to Fairfax and the
Army a petition for the repeal of the banishment of the Jews under
Edward I., and they must have found the public mind not unprepared
for their request. The question of the rehabilitation of the Jews
formed about this time the subject of earnest consideration in certain
circles. Edward Nicholas, ex-Secretary to Parliament, advocated it
with fervour and biblical erudition, declaring his belief that the
tribulations which England had endured for a generation were a
punishment for the expulsion of God’s people. A newspaper,
published on May 6, 1652, contains the account of a visit to a
synagogue in Leghorn by a friendly sailor, ending with the appeal,
“Shall they be tolerated by the Pope, and by the Duke of Florence,
by the Turks, and by the Barbarians and others, and shall England
132
1652 still have laws in force against them?” When Dr.
John Owen drew up his scheme for a national Church
and submitted it to Parliament, Major Butler and some others
attacked it as not liberal enough. Not only did they denounce
interference on the part of the State in matters spiritual and doctrinal,
but they asked: “Is it not the duty of magistrates to permit the Jews,
whose conversion we look for, to live freely and peaceably amongst
us?” Roger Williams was strongly on the same side, and so was
Whalley, the gallant Major of Naseby fame, both on religious and on
practical grounds.
 As a result of this agitation in favour of Israel, four conferences
were publicly held for a discussion of the matter. The last of these
occurred on Wednesday, December 12th, 1655, at Whitehall, under
the presidency of the Protector. It was a great event, and it created a
deep sensation throughout the country. All the highest authorities of
the Church and the State assisted at the consultation, and argued
out the question whether the Jews should be permitted to settle and
trade in England again.
The proposer was Manasseh Ben Israel, a Rabbi of Amsterdam,
the son of a Marrano of Lisbon, who had suffered at the hands of the
Inquisition. Manasseh was a true patriot: rich in nothing but
Rabbinical and Cabbalistic lore, a fluent speaker, and a prolific
writer; withal a firm believer in the approaching advent of the
Messiah, and in his own divinely appointed mission to promote that
advent. Indeed, he had a family interest in the matter; for he had
married a descendant of the House of David, and entertained hopes
that, in accordance with the ancient prophecies, the King of Israel
might be among his own offspring. Manasseh, thinking that the
establishment of the Puritan Commonwealth and of liberty of
conscience in England, as well as the enormous attention paid by
the European world at that time to questions of biblical prophecy,
afforded an opportunity for the readmission of his co-religionists, had
already approached the English Puritans and Millennarians, and had
made several attempts to obtain a hearing of Parliament; but he had
failed until Cromwell’s accession to the head of affairs. Manasseh, in
his declaration to the Commonwealth of England, dwelt at great
length and with great historical knowledge on the loyalty shown by
the Jewish people in the countries where they were treated kindly.
Among other examples he quoted the heroic fidelity of the Jews of
133
Burgos to the fallen King of Castile, Don Pedro. But his principal
argument was that by the admission of the Jews into England the
biblical prophecies concerning the Messianic era—namely, that it
would not dawn until the Israelites had been dispersed through all
the nations of the earth—would be fulfilled, and thus the era itself
brought materially nearer. It was an argument well calculated to
appeal to an audience thirsting for the Millennium and the Fifth
Monarchy of the Apocalypse, and terribly anxious to pave the way
for the Redeemer.
Cromwell himself—whether influenced by Messianic
expectations, by the desire to win over the Jews to Christianity
through kindness, by broad principles of religious toleration, or by the
less aërial motive of making use of the Jews as a means of obtaining
intelligence on international affairs and of profiting by their wealth
and commercial ability—was earnestly in favour of Manasseh’s
proposal, and supported it with great eloquence. But it was not to be.
Though the conference decided that there was no legal obstacle to
the settlement of Jews in England, public opinion, and religious
sentiment more especially, were not yet ripe for so revolutionary a
measure. Despite the enlightened example of leaders like Cromwell
and Milton, the majority thought otherwise. Liberty of conscience?
they said. Yes, but within certain limits. So, after a long and
wearisome controversy, in which prophecies and statutes were
solemnly quoted by both sides, weighed and rejected, prejudice
prevailed over reason and Christian charity; and Manasseh Ben
Israel was obliged to depart—not quite empty-handed; for Cromwell
rewarded his labours in the good cause with an annual allowance of
one hundred pounds, which, however, the rabbi did not live to enjoy.
He died on the way to Amsterdam; like Moses, denied the
satisfaction of witnessing the fruit of his zeal. For, though a public
and general admission of his co-religionists was found impracticable,
it was understood that individual members of the race could settle in
the country by Cromwell’s private permission. Many availed
themselves of this privilege, in the teeth of strong opposition on the
part of the Christian merchants of the city, and soon a humble
synagogue and a Jewish cemetery were seen in London—nearly
four hundred years after their confiscation by Edward I.
1657
This return is still celebrated by English Jews as Re-
settlement Day, its anniversary constituting one of the few “red-letter
days” in their calendar. Nor is the man forgotten who practically
secured the boon. Manasseh’s memory is held in deservedly high
honour among Hebrews, and the English Jewish community in 1904
celebrated the 300th anniversary of his birth.
 When, a few years after the settlement, the
1660
Commonwealth was overthrown by the Restoration,
the Jewish community survived their protector. Charles II., too needy
to despise the Jews, not bigoted enough to persecute them, followed
the tolerant policy of his great predecessor, and, though from entirely
different motives, granted to them the benefit of an unmolested, if
legally unrecognised, residence in his dominions. Mr. Pepys visited
their synagogue in London on October 13th, 1663, and seems to
have been greatly amazed, amused, and scandalised by what he
saw therein:
“After dinner my wife and I, by Mr. Rawlinson’s conduct, to the
Jewish Synagogue: where the men and boys in their vayles, and the
women behind a lettice out of sight; and some things stand up, which
I believe is their law, in a press to which all coming in do bow; and at
the putting on their vayles do say something, to which others that
hear the Priest do cry Amen, and the party do kiss his vayle. Their
service all in a singing way and in Hebrew. And anon their Laws that
they take out of the press are carried by several men, four or five
several burthens in all, and they do relieve one another; and whether
it is that every one desires to have the carrying of it, thus they carried
it round about the room while such a service is singing. And in the
end they had a prayer for the King, in which they pronounced his
name in Portugall; but the prayer, like the rest, in Hebrew.
“But, Lord! to see the disorder, laughing, sporting, and no
attention, but confusion in all their service, more like brutes than
people knowing the true God, would make a man forswear ever
seeing them more; and indeed I never did see so much, or could
have imagined there had been any religion in the whole world so
absurdly performed as this.”
Such was the impression which the Jewish congregation
produced on that keen observer of the surface of things.
The inference to be drawn from these sprightly comments is that
the Jew was far from having outlived his unpopularity. Though the
doctrine of toleration, for which Cromwell had fought and Milton
suffered, was still preached by divines like Taylor and expounded by
philosophers like Locke, the English public was far from recognising
every man’s right to think, act and worship as seemed good to him.
So hard it is even for the faintest ray of light to pierce the mists of
prejudice.
To Mr. Pepys we also owe a curious glimpse of the vigour with
which the Messianic Utopia was cherished at this time amongst us.
The fame of Sabbataï Zebi had reached England, and the Prophet of
Smyrna found adherents even in the city of London. We are in 1666,
on the eve of the mystic era fixed by enthusiasts as the year that
was to see the restoration of Israel to the Holy Land. Under date
February 19th, Mr. Pepys makes the following entry in his Diary;—“I
am told for certain, what I have heard once or twice already, of a Jew
in town, that in the name of the rest do offer to give any man £10 to
be paid £100, if a certain person now at Smyrna be within these two
years owned by all the Princes of the East, and particularly the
Grand Segnor, as the King of the world, in the same manner we do
the King of England here, and that this man is the true Messiah. One
named a friend of his that had received ten pieces in gold upon this
score, and says that the Jew hath disposed of £1,100 in this manner,
which is very strange; and certainly this year of 1666 will be a year of
great action; but what the consequences of it will be, God knows!”
1689 But the Messiah did not come; and twenty-four
years later, under William and Mary, an attempt was
made to fleece the unpopular race in London. It was proposed in the
Commons that £100,000 should be exacted from the Jews; and the
proposition impressed the House as tempting. But the Jews
presented a petition pleading their inability to comply and declaring
that they would rather leave the kingdom than submit to such
treatment. Their protest was seconded by statesmen who, be their
personal feelings towards the Jews what they might, objected to the
measure as contrary to the spirit of the British Constitution; and after
some discussion the project was abandoned, though not the
prejudice which had made such a proposal possible.
Sober Protestantism did not in the least share the Puritan
preference for Hebrew ideals. If the Spectator may be taken as a
mirror of public opinion on the subject, in the reign of Queen Anne,
English Protestants objected to “the Multiplicity of Ceremonies in the
Jewish Religion, as Washings, Dresses, Meats, Purgations, and the
like.” Addison states that the reason for these minute observances,
adduced by the Jews, was their anxiety to create as many occasions
as possible of showing their love to God, by doing in all
circumstances of life something to please Him. However, this
explanation does not seem convincing to the critic, who goes on to
remark that Roman Catholic apologists use similar arguments in
defence of their own rites, and concludes, “But, notwithstanding the
plausible Reason with which both the Jew and the Roman Catholick
would excuse their respective Superstitions, it is certain there is
something in them very pernicious to Mankind, and destructive to
134
Religion.” Accordingly, a statute of Queen Anne encouraged
conversion to Christianity by compelling Jewish parents to support
their apostate children.
Addison, elsewhere, recognises the advantages, commercial
and other, which the world owes to the Jews’ dispersion through the
nations of the earth; but he quaintly observes: “They are like the
Pegs and Nails in a great Building, which, though they are but little
valued in themselves, are absolutely necessary to keep the whole
135
Frame together.” He is impressed by the multitude of the Jews,
despite the decimations and persecutions to which they had been
exposed for so many centuries, no less than by their world-wide
dissemination and firm adherence to their religion; and he
endeavours to explain these remarkable phenomena by several
reflections which deserve to be quoted, not only on account of the
intrinsic sound sense of some of them, but also for the sake of the
picture which they present of the Jewish nation in the early days of
the eighteenth century, as it appeared to a highly cultured Gentile,
and of the highly cultured Gentile’s attitude towards the nation:
“I can,” says the Spectator, “in the first place attribute their
numbers to nothing but their constant Employment, their Abstinence,
their Exemption from Wars, and, above all, their frequent Marriages;
for they look on Celibacy as an accursed State, and generally are
married before Twenty, as hoping the Messiah may descend from
them.”
Their dispersion is explained as follows:
“They were always in Rebellions and Tumults while they had the
Temple and Holy City in View, for which reason they have often been
driven out of their old Habitations in the Land of Promise. They have
as often been banished out of most other Places where they have
settled.... Besides, the whole People is now a Race of such
Merchants as are Wanderers by Profession, and, at the same time,
are in most if not all Places incapable of either Lands or Offices, that
might engage them to make any part of the World their Home. This
Dispersion would probably have lost their Religion had it not been
secured by the Strength of its Constitution: For they are to live all in
a Body, and generally within the same Enclosure; to marry among
themselves, and to eat no Meats that are not killed or prepared their
own way. This shuts them out from all Table Conversation, and the
most agreeable Intercourses of Life; and, by consequence, excludes
them from the most probable Means of Conversion.
“If, in the last place, we consider what Providential Reason may
be assigned for these three Particulars, we shall find that their
Numbers, Dispersion, and Adherence to their Religion, have
furnished every Age, and every Nation of the World, with the
strongest Arguments for the Christian Faith, not only as these very
Particulars are foretold of them, but as they themselves are the
Depositories of these and all the other Prophecies, which tend to
their own Confusion. Their Number furnishes us with a sufficient
Cloud of Witnesses that attest the Truth of the Old Bible. Their
Dispersion spreads these Witnesses thro’ all parts of the World. The
Adherence to their Religion makes their Testimony unquestionable.
Had the whole Body of the Jews been converted to Christianity, we
should certainly have thought all the Prophecies of the Old
Testament, that relate to the Coming and History of our Blessed
Saviour, forged by Christians, and have looked upon them, with the
Prophecies of the Sybils, as made many Years after the Events they
pretended to foretell.”
 This cold-blooded habit of drawing from the sufferings of fellow-
men an assurance of our own salvation is still cultivated by many
good Christians. It is a comfortable doctrine, though not particularly
complimentary to Providence.
1723 But if the progress of reason is slow, it is sure. A
few years after the publication of Addison’s essay, the
Jews already established in England were recognised as British
subjects. Two years later a Jewish mathematician was
1725
made Fellow of the Royal Society, and not long after a
Jew became secretary and librarian of the Society. Judges also
refrained from summoning Jewish witnesses on the Sabbath. The
concession of 1723 was followed, thirty years later, by
1753
the right of naturalisation. But, even then, though the
Commons passed the Bill, the Lords and the Bishops endorsed it,
and King George II. ratified it, so loud an outcry from traders and
theologians arose thereat that the gift had to be revoked. “No more
Jews, no wooden shoes,” was the elegant refrain in which the British
public sang its sentiments on the subject, and the effigy of an
enlightened Deacon, who had defended the Act, was burnt publicly
at Bristol. England, which in the Middle Ages had been induced to
persecute and expel the Jews by the example of the Continent, was
once more to be influenced by the Continental attitude towards the
race. Fortunately, this influence was now of a different kind.
 CHAPTER XIX

THE EVE OF EMANCIPATION

About the middle of the eighteenth century a new spirit had arisen
on the Continent of Europe; or rather the spirit of the Renaissance,
suppressed in Italy, had re-asserted itself in Central Europe under a
more highly developed form. Seventeen hundred years had passed
since the heavenly choir sang on the plain of Bethlehem the glorious
anthem, “Peace on earth, good-will toward men.” And the message
which had been blotted out in blood, while the myth and the words
were worshipped, was once more heard in a totally different version.
Those who delivered it were not angels, but men of the world; the
audience not a group of rude Asiatic shepherds, but the most
polished of European publics; and the tongue in which it was
delivered not the simple Aramaic of Palestine, but the complex
vehicle of modern science. Once more man, by an entirely new
route, had arrived at the one great truth, the only true
commandment: “Love one another, O ye creatures of a day. Bear
with one another’s faults and follies. Life is too brief for hatred;
human blood too precious to be wasted in mutual destruction.”
It was the age of Voltaire, Diderot and Jean Jacques Rousseau
in France; of Lessing and Mendelssohn in Germany. The doctrine of
universal charity and happiness which, like its ancient prototype, was
later to be inculcated at the point of the sword and illustrated by
rape, murder, fire and famine, as yet found its chief expression in
poetical visions of freedom and in philosophical theories of equality
promulgated by sanguine Encyclopaedists. It was a period of lofty
aspirations not yet degraded by mediocre performance; and the
Jews, who had hitherto passively or actively shared in every stage of
Europe’s progress, were to participate in this development also.
Unlike the earlier awakenings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
this call for tolerance did not die away on the confines of
Christendom. The time had come for the question to be put: “Sind
Christ and Jude eher Christ und Jude als Mensch?” Israel was
destined to receive at the hands of Reason what Conscience had
proved unable to grant. And in this broader awakening both Teuton
and Latin were united. The French philosophers served the cause of
toleration by teaching that all religions are false; the German by
teaching that they are all true.
But, ere this triumph could be achieved, the Jews had to
overcome many and powerful enemies. Among these were the two
most famous men of the century.
1740–86 Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and ardent
friend of philosophy, appears anything but great or
philosophical in his policy towards the children of Israel. Under his
reign the prohibitive laws of the Middle Age were revived in a
manner which exceeded mediaeval legislation in thoroughness,
though it could not plead mediaeval barbarism as an excuse. Only a
limited number of Jews were permitted to reside in Frederick’s
dominions. By the “General Privilege” of 1750 they were divided into
two categories. In the first were included traders and officials of the
Synagogue. These had a hereditary right of residence restricted to
one child in each family. The right for a second child was purchased
by them for 70,000 thalers. The second division embraced persons
of independent means tolerated individually; but their right of abode
expired with them. The marriage regulations were so severe that
they condemned poor Jews to celibacy; while all Jews, rich and poor
alike, were debarred from liberal professions, and they all were
fleeced by taxes ruinous at once and ludicrous.
Voltaire, the arch-enemy of Feudalism, yet defended the feudal
attitude towards the Jews. His enmity for the race did not spring
entirely from capricious ill-humour. He had a grudge against the
Jews owing to some pecuniary losses sustained, as he complained,
through the bankruptcy of a Jewish capitalist of the name of Medina.
The story, as told by the inimitable story-teller himself, is worth
repeating: “Medina told me that he was not to blame for his
bankruptcy: that he was unfortunate, that he had never been a son
of Belial. He moved me, I embraced him, we praised God together,
and I lost my money. I have never hated the Jewish nation; I hate
136
nobody.”
1750–51 But this was not all. Whilst in Berlin, Voltaire waged
a protracted warfare against a Hebrew jeweller. It was
a contest between two great misers, each devoutly bent on over-
reaching the other. According to a good, if too emphatic, judge,
“nowhere, in the Annals of Jurisprudence, is there a more despicable
thing, or a deeper involved in lies and deliriums,” than this Voltaire-
137
Hirsch lawsuit. It arose out of a transaction of illegal stock-
jobbing. Voltaire had commissioned the Jew Hirsch to go to Dresden
and purchase a number of Saxon Exchequer bills—which were
payable in gold to genuine Prussian holders only—giving him for
payment a draft on Paris, due after some weeks, and receiving from
him a quantity of jewels in pledge, till the bills were delivered. Hirsch
went to Dresden, but sent no bills. Voltaire, suspecting foul play,
stopped payment of the Paris draft, and ordered Hirsch to come
back at once. On the Jew’s arrival an attempt at settlement was
made. Voltaire asked for his draft and offered to return the diamonds,
accompanied with a sum of money covering part of the Jew’s
travelling expenses. Hirsch on examining the diamonds declared that
some of them had been changed, and declined to accept them. It
was altogether a mauvaise affaire, and to this day it remains a
mystery which of the two litigants was more disingenuous.
The case ended in a sentence which forced Hirsch to restore the
Paris draft and Voltaire to buy the jewels at a price fixed by sworn
experts. Hirsch was at liberty to appeal, if he could prove that the
diamonds had been tampered with. In the meantime he was fined
ten thalers for falsely denying his signature. Voltaire shrieked
hysterically, trying to convince the world and himself that he had
triumphed. But the world, at all events, refused to be convinced. The
scandal formed the topic of conversation and comment throughout
the civilised world. Frederick’s own view of the case was that his
friend Voltaire had tried “to pick Jew pockets,” but, instead, had his
own pocket picked of some £150, and, moreover, he was made the
laughing-stock of Europe in pamphlets and lampoons innumerable—
one of these being a French comedy, Tantale en Procès, attributed
by some to Frederick himself; a poor production wherein the author
ridicules—to the best of his ability—the unfortunate philosopher. The
incident was not calculated to sweeten Voltaire’s temper, or to
enhance his affection for the Jewish people. Vain and vindictive, the
sage, with all his genius and his many amiable qualities, never forgot
an injury or forgave a defeat.
On the other hand, the Jews could boast not a few allies. Among
the champions of humanity, in the noblest sense of the term, none
was more earnest than Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, the prince of
modern critics. His pure and lofty nature had met with her kindred in
Moses Mendelssohn, the Jewish philosopher, born within the same
twelvemonth. The friendship which bound these two
1728–9
children of diverse races and creeds together was a
practical proof of Lessing’s own doctrine that virtue is international,
and that intellectual affinity recognises no theological boundaries.
This doctrine, already preached in most eloquent
1779
prose, found an artistic embodiment, and a universal
audience, in Nathan der Weise—the first appearance of the Jew on
the European stage as a human being, and a human being of the
very highest order. The Wise Nathan was no other than Moses
Mendelssohn, scarcely less remarkable a person than Lessing
himself. Years before Mendelssohn had left his native town of
Dessau and trudged on to Berlin in search of a future. A friendless
and penniless lad, timid, deformed, and repulsively ugly, he was with
the utmost difficulty admitted into the Prussian capital, of which he
was to become an ornament. For long years after his arrival in
Berlin, the gifted and destitute youth laboured and waited with the
patient optimism of one conscious of his own powers, until an
unwilling world was forced to recognise the beauty and heroism of
the soul which lurked under that most unpromising exterior; and the
Jewish beggar lad, grown into an awkward, stuttering and
insignificant-looking man, gradually rose to be the idol of a salon—
the eighteenth century equivalent for a shrine—at which every
foreign visitor of distinction and culture, irrespective of religion or