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Green Energy and Technology

Wojciech Stanek Editor

Thermodynamics
for Sustainable
Management
of Natural
Resources
Green Energy and Technology
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059
Wojciech Stanek
Editor

Thermodynamics
for Sustainable Management
of Natural Resources

123
Editor
Wojciech Stanek
Institute of Thermal Technology
Gliwice
Poland

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

Green Energy and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-48648-2 ISBN 978-3-319-48649-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48649-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017937130

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Wojciech Stanek

Part I Fundamentals
2 Resources. Production. Depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Wojciech Stanek, Alicia Valero, Guiomar Calvo
and Lucyna Czarnowska
3 Fundamentals of Exergy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Wojciech Stanek, Jan Szargut and Sergio Usón
4 “Input-Output” Approach to Energy Production Systems . . . . . . . . 81
Andrzej Ziębik
5 Cumulative Calculus and Life Cycle Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Wojciech Stanek, Lucyna Czarnowska and Paweł Gładysz
6 Thermodynamic Methods to Evaluate Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Wojciech Stanek, Alicia Valero, Antonio Valero, Javier Uche
and Guiomar Calvo
7 Theory of Exergy Cost and Thermo-ecological Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Antonio Valero, Sergio Usón, César Torres and Wojciech Stanek
8 The Thermodynamic Rarity Concept for the Evaluation of
Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Antonio Valero, Alicia Valero and Adriana Domínguez
9 Externalities Burdening Production Processes and Systems . . . . . . . 233
Lucyna Czarnowska

v
vi Contents

Part II Applications
10 Computable Examples of the Application of “Input-Output”
Models of Energy Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Andrzej Ziębik and Paweł Gładysz
11 Application of Thermo-ecological Cost (TEC) as Sustainability
Measure for Useful Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Wojciech Stanek, Jan Szargut and Lucyna Czarnowska
12 Integrating the Thermo-ecological and Exergy Replacement
Costs to Assess Mineral Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Adriana Domínguez, Alicia Valero and Wojciech Stanek
13 Application of Thermo-economic Analysis (TEA) to Industrial
Ecology (IE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Sergio Usón and Wojciech Stanek
14 Assessment of Water Resources by Exergy Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Javier Uche, Amaya Martínez and Beatriz Carrasquer
15 Exergo-ecological Assessment of Multi-generation Energy
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Wojciech Stanek, Wiesław Gazda, Wojciech Kostowski
and Sergio Usón
16 Thermo-ecological Evaluation of Advanced Coal-Fired Power
Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Paweł Gładysz and Andrzej Ziębik
17 Cumulative Green-House Gasses (GHG) Emissions as Total
Measure of Global Warming Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Ryszard Białecki and Wojciech Stanek
18 Thermo-ecological System Analysis as a Tool Supporting the
Analysis of the National Energy and Environmental Policy . . . . . . . 489
Andrzej Ziębik, Wojciech Stanek and Paweł Gładysz
Chapter 1
Introduction

Wojciech Stanek

Abstract Our civilization is based mainly on the non-renewable natural resources.

Depletion of these resources is accelerated by an increasing consumption level of
society. We should aiming at minimization of depletion of non-renewable resour-
ces. Within such minimization an objective criterion based on the physical laws has
to be applied. Such ecological criterion should become more and more important.
Thermodynamics offers as advanced tools to measure the quality of resources as
well as efficiency of resources transformation in local and global scale. Exergy can
be applied both as a measure of quality of resources as well as measure of real
losses appearing in chains of production processes. Exergy analysis integrated with
system approach represents the thermodynamic tool for sustainable management of
natural resources. Within the book a series of advanced exergetic tools for
assessment of efficiency of natural resources transformations are presented. First
part of book (part A) is mainly focused on methodology, while the second part (part
B) includes examples of practical applications in wide range of ecological
problems.

Our civilization is based mainly on the non-renewable natural resources. Depletion

of these resources is accelerated by an increasing consumption level of society.
From the economic point of view the increase of consumption level is the base for
further development. However it has to be taken into account that there are many
examples of ancient civilizations that collapsed because they had exhausted local
natural resources, for example the act of cutting off forests in Easter Islands, the
depletion of fresh water in Central America, the depletion of agricultural area in
South-East Asia. At present, the symptoms of depletion of natural resources can be
also observed it can be concluded that the mentioned above examples of resources
exhaustion should not be underestimated nowadays. Some experts state that in the
future non-renewable resources can be replaced by the renewable ones. However,

W. Stanek (&)
Institute of Thermal Technology (ITT), Silesian University of Technology,
Gliwice, Poland
e-mail: wojciech.stanek@polsl.pl

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

W. Stanek (ed.), Thermodynamics for Sustainable Management
of Natural Resources, Green Energy and Technology,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48649-9_1
2 W. Stanek

sober thinking leads to the conclusion that our economy will be still for decades
depend on the non-renewable natural resources of fuels. For this reason we should
aiming at minimization of depletion of non-renewable resources. Within such
minimization an objective criterion based on the physical laws has to be applied.
Such ecological criterion should become more and more important.
Thermodynamics offers as advanced tools to measure the quality of resources as
well as efficiency of resources transformation in local and global scale. Exergy can
be applied both as a measure of quality of resources as well as measure of real
losses appearing in chains of production processes. Exergy analysis integrated with
system approach represents the thermodynamic tool for sustainable management of
natural resources. Within the book a series of advanced exergetic tools for
assessment of efficiency of natural resources transformations are presented. Within
the book detailed presentations of theory as well as applications of these methods
are given. First part of book (Part I) is mainly focused on methodology, while the
second part (Part II) includes examples of practical applications in wide range of
ecological problems. The presented applications clearly demonstrated the potential
of exergy analysis in the assessment of resources efficiency transformations.
The presentations of different thermodynamics methods and its application is
preceded by characteristic of resources and its availability. Chapter 2 devoted to
resources its production and depletion presents short characteristic of primary
energy, mineral and water resources. Moreover the current state of production and
consumption as well as life time of these resources are given. Next Chap. 3 is
devoted to the fundamentals of exergy analysis. For complete information the
presentation on direct exergy analysis is supplemented with fundamentals of on first
and second law of thermodynamics. In the Chap. 3 two examples illustrating the
rules of exergy balances are included. As the exergy methods for resources
assessment presented in the book integrate the direct exergy analysis and system
analysis the next two chapters are devoted to fundamentals of “input-output”
approach to energy production systems (Chap. 4) and cumulative calculus and life
cycle evaluation (Chap. 5).
The next important issue is the explanations how to apply thermodynamics and
especially exergy analysis for the assessment of natural resources. Natural resources
have at least two physical features which make minerals or fresh water for example
unusual: a particular composition which differentiates them from the surrounding
environment and a distribution which places them in a specific concentration. These
intrinsic properties can be in fact evaluated from a thermodynamic point of view in
terms of exergy. Chapter 6 explained in details fundamentals of chemical exergy
calculation with focus of importance of reference environment assumption. Next
important part of this chapter is the explanations how the mineral resources energy
is determined. The authors presented additionally the methods to calculate nuclear
exergy as well as exergy of solar radiation and it transformation to heat and elec-
tricity. Important part of Chap. 6 is the explanation how water resources can be
expressed in terms of exergy. Presented methodology for exergetic assessment of
resources are illustrated with series of calculation examples.
1 Introduction 3

The influence of human activities on the depletion of natural resources can be

evaluated by means of the calculus of cumulative consumption of exergy of
non-renewable natural resources. For this reason Chap. 7 presents in details fun-
damentals of theory of exergy cost and its extension to the concept of
thermos-ecological cost. The second defined as a cumulative consumption of
non-renewable exergy connected with the fabrication of a particular product
including additionally the consumption resulting from the necessity of compensa-
tion of environmental losses caused by the rejection of harmful substances to the
environment can be applied as common thermodynamic measure of influence of
production processes upon the depletion of non-renewable resources. After that the
thermodynamic rarity concept for the evaluation of mineral resources can be
introduced. Chapter 8 presents the baseline for calculating the concentration exergy
of mineral resources as well as the concept of exergy replacement costs defined as
the total exergy required to concentrate the mineral resources from reference
environment, with the best available technologies. It can aptly explain and measure
the degree of depletion which occurs as a direct result of Man’s activities. The
integration of thermos-ecological cost and energy replacement cost, presented in
Part II of the book, will represent the comprehensive tool to evaluate the mineral
resources within the whole cycle. Another important factor that has to be taken into
account within the presented methodology based on exergy cost is how to include
the effects of rejection waste harmful substances on the depletion of resources. The
authors proposed to connect the concept of external environmental costs with
exergy and include them into thermo-ecological cost evaluation. Details of this
concept are presented in Chap. 9 devoted to externalities burdening production
processes and systems.
Chapters 3–9 are focused mostly on fundamentals of direct and system exergy
analysis with explanation how to apply them to evaluate resources. In the next part
of the book within Chaps. 10–18 a comprehensive presentation how to apply the
proposed method for assessment of different production systems is given.
Chapter 10 illustrates how to apply system “input-output” analysis. Four com-
putable examples concerning the application of “input-output” models of energy
production systems have been presented and discussed. Chapter 11 presents variety
of application of thermo-ecology that fundamentals were introduced in Chap. 7. In
details analysis devoted to thermo-ecological cost of hard coal with inclusion of the
whole life cycle chain, thermo-ecological cost of heat and electricity,
thermo-ecological assessment of nuclear power plant life cycle, exergy and
thermo-ecological (TEC) evaluation of industrial systems and possibility of appli-
cation thermo-ecological cost for optimization are presented. The Chap. 11 is
closed with the example in which the authors proposed the application of exergy for
determination of pro-ecological taxes. Next important tool discussed previously in
Chap. 6 is the exergy replacement cost. In Chap. 12 the authors demonstrate how to
integrate the thermo-ecological and exergy replacement costs to assess mineral
processing. The Chapter presents an examples of thermo-ecological replacement
cost analysis for several metallurgical technologies as aluminium, chromium,
copper, gold, iron and manganese production. Basing on these examples the authors
4 W. Stanek

proved that If ERC are added to the TEC methodology, TEC values increase due to
the additional energy associated to the natural concentration energy of minerals in
mines in the same way, the index of sustainability and proved the necessity of
integration of these two thermodynamics methods for resources evaluation. One of
the application of exergy and thermo-ecological cost (fundamentals presented in
Chap. 7) can be evaluation of so called industrial ecology (IE). The concept of IE is
closely connected with the idea that sustainable resource flows in biological
ecosystems provide an exemplary model of resource management in industry. The
aim of IE is to achieve a more rational and balanced industrial organization. In
Chap. 13 the example how to apply exergy cost and thermo-ecological cost for IE
in the case of ironwork is presented. Among fuel and mineral resources water is
important resource for humankind. After the presentation in Chap. 6 how to assess
water by exergy the Chap. 14 presents practical application of this concept. The
authors presented among others exergy cost of water technologies (pumping,
desalinations), exergy assessment of hydrological cycles and exergy evaluation of
river watersheds. Nowadays the multigeneration energy systems are developed. The
next Chap. 15 is devoted to demonstration how to apply exergy methods for
comprehensive evaluation of such systems as adsorption chiller system supplied
with cogeneration and solar energy, CCHP plant supported with renewable energy
or natural gas expansion plant integrated with a gas engine based co-generation
module. In this examples the authors demonstrated again the purposefulness of
application of exergy and necessity of system approach. Chapter 16
thermo-ecological evaluation of advanced power technologies are presented and in
Chap. 18 thermo-ecological system analysis as a tool supporting the analysis of the
national energy and environmental policy are discussed. System analysis based on
cumulative calculus is important also from the point of view of full picture of
emissions burdening production systems. It is especially important when
green-house gasses (GHG) are taken into account. Chapter 17 presents an example
of such analysis for comparison of GHG emissions for coal and natural gas. The
authors demonstrated here that inclusion only local emissions can lead often to
wrong conclusions and demonstrated again the necessity of application of system
analysis. Presented in the book thermodynamics method can be applied for many
different systems. Detailed presentations of methodology in Part I and practical
examples of application in Part II should let the reader efficiently make use of the
presented tools.
 Part I
Fundamentals
Chapter 2
Resources. Production. Depletion

Wojciech Stanek, Alicia Valero, Guiomar Calvo

and Lucyna Czarnowska

Any activity around the world as well as further development of humankind relies
on natural resources. The primary deposits, which represent the work that nature
offers us, are essential for current and future civilizations. There are several
examples of ancient civilizations that collapsed due to the depletion of local natural
resources; the most significant include depletion of the forests in Easter Islands, the
depletion of fresh water in Central America or the depletion of the agricultural areas
in South-East Asia [1]. Nowadays, these examples should not be underestimated
and a rational resource management should be enhanced.
Primary resources are used within the chains of interconnected production
processes, where they are transformed into final useful products. Rational man-
agement of resources is dependent on the efficiency of particular production pro-
cesses, as well as on the efficiency of the whole production system. These
efficiencies are evaluated based on the physical laws and take into account the real
losses in the components of the production systems. The economy and ecology of
natural resources management is directly related to these losses.
Primary resources can be divided into non-renewable and renewable ones.
Non-renewable natural resources include the following groups:

W. Stanek (&)
L. Czarnowska

Institute of Thermal Technology (ITT), Silesian University of Technology,
Gliwice, Poland
e-mail: wojciech.stanek@polsl.pl
L. Czarnowska
e-mail: lucyna.czarnowska@polsl.pl
A. Valero
G. Calvo
Research Centre for Energy Resources and Consumption (CIRCE),
Campus Río Ebro, Saragossa, Spain
e-mail: aliciavd@unizar.es
G. Calvo
e-mail: gcalvose@fcirce.es

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 7

W. Stanek (ed.), Thermodynamics for Sustainable Management
of Natural Resources, Green Energy and Technology,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48649-9_2
8 W. Stanek et al.

• primary energy sources in the form of fossil fuels (hard coal, lignite, crude oil,
natural gas),
• primary metallic sources (metal ores),
• construction and building materials (e.g. gravel, clay, sandstone, limestone,
granite, basalt).
Solar energy, wind, waves, water, geothermal and biomass energy are consid-
ered renewable. In general, the usage of renewable energy is not loaded with the
burden of apprehension of resources exhaustion. Yet biomass can be an exception
to this, since in the case of wood biomass, if the degree of regeneration is lower
than one it should not be qualified as renewable.
Non-renewable primary energy resources as coal or crude oil also come from
solar energy; however, they were formed millions of years ago. Their usage is
connected with several constraints as limited accessibility, the possibility of
exhaustion in a relatively short time, or rejection of different harmful wastes during
transformation. Moreover, it should be pointed out that part of them are localized in
rather unstable regions of the world.
Despite of the significant progress in renewable power technologies, the majority
of production is still based on non-renewable energies. Additionally, industrial
activities are strongly connected with the utilization of non-energy non-renewable
raw materials such as metal ores. In this case, contrary to primary energy sources,
the recovery and recycling processes are possible. Moreover, they can significantly
extend the lifetime of those resources.
Non-renewable resources are depleted faster when the degree of national or
regional development is higher. Additionally, enhancement of consumption is one
of the important factors accelerating the depletion of non-renewable resources.
There is a good correlation between the indices characterizing human development
and per capita energy consumption. Such correlation can be illustrated by the
Human Development Index (HDI) dependent on electricity consumption per capita
[2]. The dependence is presented in Fig. 2.1.
Fresh water is a fundamental natural resource which is necessary for human life.
Water covers 71% of our planet’s surface, but 97% of it is in oceans, in the form of

1.1
HDI, Human Development

Germany Australia USA Canada

1.0
Poalnd
0.9
Argentina
0.8
Index

Russia
0.7
0.6 India
0.5 Pakistan
0.4
Congo
0.3
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Electricity consumption per capita, kWh/year

Fig. 2.1 Dependence of HDI index on electricity consumption (based on [2])

2 Resources. Production. Depletion 9

saline water. About 3% is fresh water, whereas only 0.5% can be considered as
drinking water (see Fig. 2.2).
The water deficit issue becomes more severe every year. Water scarcity issue is
observed when annual water supplies drop below 1000 m3 per person and year. In
1955 there were only five countries with such a problem, 35 years later in 1990,
there were 13 countries affected, and currently more than 40 countries face this
issue. By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with
absolute water scarcity [2–4].
Production of consumer goods, connected with energy carrier transformation, is
always accompanied by the generation of harmful waste products (gas, solid and
liquid) discharged into the environment, leading to losses in the environment.
Prevention or compensation of these losses leads to an increased demand of
non-renewable natural resources. These expenses can be considered as external
environmental costs of the human activity, resulting from the necessity of com-
pensation of losses which arise due to the rejection of harmful waste substances [5,
6]. These losses occur within the following areas: human health, losses in infras-
tructure and losses in agriculture and forestry. Moreover, compensation of these
losses requires an additional demand of resources, e.g. for construction and

Fig. 2.2 Characteristic of water resources

Fig. 2.3 Environmental costs

costs

and environmental protection

costs of environmental losses
means
costs of
environmental
protection

k0

x0 environmental
protection means
10 W. Stanek et al.

operation of the cleaning installations [5, 7]. The dependence between the cost of
environmental losses and cost of protection is schematically shown in Fig. 2.3.
The unfavourable influence of human activity upon environment may be divided
into the following groups:
1. depletion of limited non-renewable natural resources,
2. emission of harmful substances to the environment.

Fig. 2.4 Monetary value of resources (a) gold in USD per troy ounce, (b) copper in USD per
pound (c) crude oil in USD per barrel
2 Resources. Production. Depletion 11

Different natural resources are characterized by different qualities, this is why it

is necessary to determine the common measure of the quality of resources.
Frequently, the quality of resources is evaluated incorrectly using only pure mon-
etary values. However, prices are subject to market and political arbitrariness, and
they are not dependent on the fixed quality of resources (see Fig. 2.4).
Usefulness and quality of natural resources can be alternatively assessed through
physical parameters. In the case of primary energy resources, those parameters
include the composition of fuels, first of all characterizing the content of com-
bustible elements capable of producing heat in exothermic chemical reactions.
Primary non-energy resources (e.g. metal ores) can be regarded as more valu-
able from a physical point of view when the concentration of the considered ele-
ment is higher (e.g. copper element in copper ore) in comparison with the average
concentration in the Earth’s crust. It should be pointed out that the higher is the
concentration, the lower is the energy required to separate the element from its ore.
In both cases, thermodynamics offers a method based on the first and second law to
measure quality, through property exergy [5, 6, 8–10]. The concept of exergy will
be discussed within the next chapters as a useful thermodynamic tool to measure
sustainable management of natural resources. The following section of this chapter
is devoted to describing the physical features of natural resources.

2.1 Characteristics of Primary Energy Resources

Energy is fundamental to human society for many activities including agriculture,

residential and service, transportation and communication. To avoid double
counting, energy supply is usually splitted into two categories: primary energy,
which consists of the energy entering a system, and secondary energy, which is the
energy that is transformed within the system, such as electricity. According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA) [11], primary energy is defined as the direct use
of energy which has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation pro-
cess. This category includes the main commercial fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and
oil) along with biofuels, nuclear, hydro and renewable sources such as geothermal,
solar, wind, etc.
Historically, fossil fuels have had the leading role as primary energy sources. It
is a fact that fossil fuels continue nowadays to maintain the present state of civi-
lization as they heat and cool buildings, are used for most of the electricity gen-
eration worldwide and mobility still relies mostly on them. They also move industry
and are used to build the infrastructures on which humankind relies.
As it was mentioned above, energy resources can be divided into renewable and
non-renewable. Within the first group, coal, oil and gas are mainly taken into
account. Renewables include geothermal energy, solar energy and other forms of
energy derived from solar energy which do not require long range of time to
regenerate. Operation of power systems supplied by renewable energy requires also
some consumption of non-renewable resources, e.g. in the stage of construction or
12 W. Stanek et al.

Fig. 2.5 Energy transformation levels

for transportation purposes. Usage or transformation of energy carriers can be

analyzed at different stages or within the different balance boundaries. Usually the
following stages, which are presented in Fig. 2.5, are considered within the energy
transformation.
Three characteristic stages of energy resources usage are usually taken into
account:
1. Primary energy (Ep)—energy extracted from nature in the non-renewable or
renewable form.
2. Final energy (Ek)—energy bought in order to supply the demand for useful
energy: electricity, heat, chemical energy of fuels.
3. Useful energy (Eu)—energy required to support human live and to develop the
human activity: mechanical work, heat, light, sound, chemical energy of food,
etc.
As it will be presented in the next chapters of the book, the assumption of the
level or balance boundary can be fundamental for the results of analysis. Especially,
it is important when systems are fed simultaneously with non-renewable resources.
Basic energy parameters characterizing fuels are the lower heating value
(LHV) and higher heating value (HHV). The definitions are given below [12]:
The LHV (lower heating value) of a fuel is the amount of heat released when a
specified amount of fuel (usually a unit of mass) at room temperature is completely
burned, and the combustion products are cooled to the room temperature when the
water formed during the combustion process leaves as a vapor.
The HHV (higher heating value) of a fuel is the amount of heat released when a
specified amount of fuel (usually a unit of mass) at room temperature is completely
burned and the combustion products are cooled to the room temperature when the
water formed during the combustion process is completely condensed and leaves as
a liquid.
2 Resources. Production. Depletion 13

LHV and HHV are mainly dependent on the fuel composition. Tables 2.1, 2.2
and 2.3 provide average values of selected fuels as an example.
The composition determines the energy value of the fuel and hence its quality.
On the other hand, the fuel characteristics and the technology within which the fuel
is used, determines the generation of different harmful substances as well as
greenhouse gas emissions. Data on usual emissions derived from fossil fuels are
presented in Tables 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6.

2.2 Production and Consumption Trends of Primary

Energy

Within this section, the basic information on production and consumption of pri-
mary energy resources are presented. Additionally, some statistics concerning
electricity and CO2 emissions are provided. Figures 2.6 and 2.7 show the change in

Table 2.1 Characteristics of selected coals [57]

Component Energy coals Special coals Coke Lignite
gi (%)
C 45.9 58.7 61.5 58.0 62.6 64.6 71.5 78.7 26.1
H 3.1 4.3 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.3 3.9 0.8 1.9
N 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 11 1.0 1 1.2
O 8.9 8.0 7.8 9.2 6.8 5.2 1.4 1.5 10.0
S 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.5
W 20.0 7.0 5.0 7.0 5.0 4.0 1.5 2.2 51.7
P 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 15 8.6
LHV 17.4 22.0 24.4 23.0 24.7 25.7 27.0 29.2 7.8
(MJ/kg)
Where: gi—mass fraction of i-th component, W—moisture, P—ash

Table 2.2 Characteristics of selected fuel oil [57]

Component Mazut Heating oil Petroleum
gi (%)
C 87.4 85.0 85.5
H 11.2 11.0 14.5
S 0.5 2.0 –
O 0.9 0.6 –
N – 0.4 –
W – 1.0 –
LHV (kJ/kg) 43,100.0 39,300.0 43,100.0
Where: gi—mass fraction of i-th component, W—moisture
14 W. Stanek et al.

Table 2.3 Characteristics of gaseous fuels [57]

Component Natural Natural Coal bed Coke-oven Blast-furnace
gas gas methane gas gas
zi (%)
CO – – – 7.3 28.5
H2 – – – 54.6 2.0
CH4 92.0 65.0 48.6 22.7 0.3
C2H6 0.7 – 1.0 – –
C3H8 0.6 – 0.2 2.8 –
C4H10 and 0.7 – 0.2 – –
higher
CO2 – – – 3.0 11.0
O2 – 7.4 – 1.5 0.2
N2 6.0 27.6 50.0 8.1 58.0
LHV (kJ/k mol) 778,300 521,900 413,000 375,100 87,900
Where: zi—molar fraction of i-th component

Table 2.4 Typical values of lower heating value and specific CO2 emissions of fuels [58]
Fuel Carbon content in CO2 emissions lCO2 f Lower heating value
fuel (cf) (%) (kg CO2/kg fuel) LHV (kJ/kg)
Natural 75 2.75 49,000
gas
Diesel oil 83 3.05 42,500
Fuel oil, 86.5 3.17 41,500
0.7%S
Fuel oil, 85 3.12 41,000
2%S
Peata 58 2.13 7800
Lignitea 64 2.35 24,000
Coal 80 2.93 30,000
a
Data are valid for fuels with no moisture and ash

electricity consumption over the years 1985–2013. During this period, the average
electricity consumption in the world increased by about one and a half times
compared to 1990, while in China the increase was significantly higher—over four
times. The increasing demand for non-renewable fossil fuels and the growth of
harmful substances released to the environment is a direct consequence of both:
growing increase in demand for electricity and overall consumption [3].
Figures 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12 and 2.13 present the changes in the con-
sumption of oil, natural gas and coal in the world taking into account years
1965–2013.
Table 2.5 General information and emission factors for selected power technologies (emission factors are expressed per unit of fuel consumption) [59, 60]
Power plant data including emissions Units IGCC EXPC SCPC NGCC CHP avg
GEE R+Q CoP E-Gas FSQ Shell Subcritical Supercritical
Gross power output MWe 748 738 737 583 580 565
Net power output MWe 622 625 629 550 550 555
2 Resources. Production. Depletion

Coal flow rate kg/s 58.83 57.95 55.02 55.11 51.60

Natural gas flow rate kg/s 21.08 Fuel: natural gas
Chemical energy of fuel MW 1595 1574 1494 1495 1399 1106
Net plant HHV efficiency – 0.39 0.40 0.42 0.37 0.39 0.50
HHV MJ/kg 27.11 27.17 27.16 27.12 27.12 52.45
CO2 kg/GJ 84.69 85.55 84.69 87.70 87.70 50.73 56
SO2 g/GJ 0.52 5.03 1.81 36.89 36.89 0.00 0.55
NOx g/GJ 25.37 21.07 21.07 21.07 30.09 3.87 15
PM g/GJ 3.05 3.05 3.05 5.59 5.59 0.00 0.15
NGCC—Natural Gas Combined Cycle, IGCC—Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle, SCPC—Supercritical Pulverized Coal, EXPC—Existing Pulverized
Coal, GEE R+Q—General Electric Energy Radiant Only, CoP E-Gas FSQ—ConocoPhillips gasifier technology, Shell—Shell Global Solutions (Shell)
gasifiers, CHP—fed by natural gas with three way catalyst lambda 1
15
 16

Table 2.6 Emission factors for solid fuels combustion, in kg of pollutant per tonne of fuel [61]
Emission Pulverized boilers Mechanical grid Boilers with fixed grid
Deslagging Cyclonic More than 20 t/h 5–20 t/h Less than 5 t/h Coal Coke
Wet Dry Water Steam
nt fr nt fr nt fr
Dust 6p 9p 1.5p 3p 2.5p 2p 1p 2p 1p 2p 1p 2p
SOx 19s 19s 19s 17s 16s 16s 16s 16s 16s 16s 16s 16s
NOx 14.5 8.5 27.4 4.3 3.4 3.0 1.7 2.6 1.7 2.6 2.6 3.0
CO 1 1 1 1 3.5 5.0 45 45 45 45 25 25
Notes The results of calculation are expressed in kg/t; mass fraction of the dust (p) and sulphur (s) in the fuel should be expressed as a percentage; nt—passage
of natural air; fr—passage of forced air
W. Stanek et al.
2 Resources. Production. Depletion 17

10,000
North America
Central and South America

Electricity consumption in World's

Europe and Eurasia
8,000
Middle East
regions, TWh Africa
China
6,000 Asia Pacific

4,000

2,000

0
1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009 2013

Fig. 2.6 Electricity consumption divided by regions of the world (based on [16])

Fig. 2.7 World’s electricity consumption (based on [16])

Fig. 2.8 Oil consumption divided by regions of the world (based on [16])
18 W. Stanek et al.

Fig. 2.9 World’s oil consumption (based on [16])

Fig. 2.10 Natural gas consumption divided by regions of the world (based on [16])

Fig. 2.11 World’s natural gas consumption (based on [16])

In all cases (Figs. 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12 and 2.13), an increase in con-
sumption of non-renewable primary fuels is observed. In the case of oil, the average
world consumption increased 2.5 times during the considered period; while the
highest increase of consumption (seven times higher than in 1980), was observed in
the Asia-Pacific region. Only in Europe and Eurasia oil consumption decreased
2 Resources. Production. Depletion 19

Fig. 2.12 Coal consumption divided by regions of the world (based on [16])

Fig. 2.13 World’s coal consumption (based on [16])

between 1980 and 2000. After 2000, a slight upward trend was observed.
A relatively strong increase was observed in the case of natural gas consumption. It
should be noted that between 1965 and 2005 world consumption has increased
almost six times. This is the highest growth among fossil fuels. In Europe and
Eurasia the relative increase in gas consumption was particularly high—almost
seven times. In the case of coal, the average world consumption increased almost
twice, and in the Asia Pacific region, it increased more than six times. Between
2000 and 2013 very rapid increase in coal consumption in China was observed
(Fig. 2.12). The opposite trend is observed in the region of Europe and Eurasia.
Figure 2.14 shows historical data on cumulative fossil fuel extraction [13],
represented in million tonnes of oil equivalent for simplification purposes.
As reflected in Fig. 2.14, over the last century the extraction of fossil fuels has
been increasing almost exponentially, and especially striking is the case of oil. In
2014, the main oil producing countries were Saudi Arabia, Russia and United
States, accounting for 12.9, 12.7 and 12.3% of the total world production,
20 W. Stanek et al.

Fig. 2.14 Cumulative fossil fuel extraction at world level from 1900 to 2014 (based on [13])

Fig. 2.15 Cumulative primary world energy consumption by fuel type from 1965 to 2014 (based
on [13])

respectively. Regarding natural gas, the Middle East as a whole accounted for
17.3% of the total world production, along with the United States and Russia,
which accounted for 21.4 and 16.7%, respectively. Last, in the case of coal, it is
noteworthy that approximately 47% of the total world production was centered in
China, highlighting that it is a country that is growing rapidly at the expense of
producing significant amounts of coal and with coal-based industries. China pro-
duction is followed distantly by the United States with a share of 12.9% of the
world production.
When analyzing the primary world energy consumption by fuel type from 1965
to 2014 (Fig. 2.15), it can be stated that again oil, coal and natural gas account for
the vast majority but still, the relevance of hydro, nuclear and especially renewable
sources has experienced a burst in the last few decades.
Additionally, there are other types of fossil fuels consumed, the so-called
non-conventional fossil fuels, that require extra processing such as those derived
2 Resources. Production. Depletion 21

Fig. 2.16 Non-conventional fossil fuel production (based on [19])

Fig. 2.17 World primary energy consumption share in 2014 (based on [13])

from shales, heavy oils and sands. Still, their contribution to the world total energy
is very low, this is why they are going to be considered separately (Fig. 2.16).
The main producer of non-conventional fossil fuels, taking into account
unconventional gas, is the United States, with an average share of 77.6%. When
compared to the total world production of oil, natural gas and coal, production of
unconventional gas accounted for 4.2% in 2012.
Figure 2.17 shows the distribution of the world energy consumption in 2014.
The main energy consumption (87%) came from coal, natural gas and oil. In the
case of renewable energy, the main sources were solar, wind and biomass,
accounting for less than 2% of the world total energy consumption. Of the
1,400 TWh consumed at world level coming from renewable sources, approxi-
mately 39% were consumed in Europe and Eurasia, 28% in Asia Pacific and 23% in
North America.
Additionally, world energy consumption by sources can be analyzed. All these
commodities have experienced a continuous increase over the last few decades,
being the average annual growth rate 3%. China oil consumption accounted for
3.2% of the total share in 1985 while in 2014 it accounted for almost 12.5%.
Meanwhile in Europe and Eurasia, the oil consumption was considerably reduced
during the same period of time, going from 1,085 to 859 million tonnes.
22 W. Stanek et al.

Fig. 2.18 World consumption of solar, wind, biomass, hydro and nuclear energy from 1985 to
2014 (in Mtoe) (based on [13])

Information regarding the consumption of solar, wind, biomass, hydro and

nuclear energy is presented in Fig. 2.18 Nuclear energy is the only source that has
experienced a decrease since 2007, and almost at the same year hydroelectricity
consumption began to increase. In the case of renewable energies, solar and wind
have experienced the highest increases in recent years. The consumption of solar
energy almost doubled from 2012 to 2014. Still, biomass consumption has been
increasing, but more constantly than the other sources.
This increase of the total share of renewable energies can be observed at global
level but also at regional level. According to Eurostat [14, 15], the primary pro-
duction of renewable energy within the EU-28 in 2013 accounted to approximately
24.3% of the total primary production from all sources, and this number has
increased almost to 85% from 2003 to 2013, with an average increase of 6.3% per
year.
One of the most significant problems of primary energy resources transformation
is emissions of greenhouse gasses (GHG). Figures 2.19 and 2.20 show the change
in CO2 emissions in the period between 1980 and 2013. The total global CO2
emission is growing up. In the Asia Pacific region, the largest growth of CO2
emissions is observed. This is a direct effect of the upward trend of the coal
consumption in the region. In Europe and Eurasia, a reduction of CO2 emissions
has been observed between 1985 and 2013. The world average CO2 emission per
capita was at almost constant level of 4 Mg CO2/(capita  year). However, aver-
age emissions in the region of North America reached a level of 16 Mg CO2/
(capita  year), four times more than the global average. In 2004, in Europe, this
indicator reached about 8 Mg CO2/(capita  year) and it is more than twice the
average value. The efforts to reduce the level of CO2 emissions require additional
consumption of primary energy and should be taken into account when resource
management efficiency is evaluated.
Availability is an important factor when studying the depletion of non-renewable
resources. This value, expressed in years, is defined as the ratio between resources
R to production P. Figure 2.21 shows the availability of oil, natural gas and coal for
the period from 2000 to 2011.
2 Resources. Production. Depletion 23

Fig. 2.19 CO2 emissions divided by regions of the world (based on [16])

Fig. 2.20 World’s CO2 emissions (based on [16])

Fig. 2.21 Life-time of primary energy resources (based on [16])

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 THE FOREST FIRE.

And so it was, our absent-minded botanist who had got up this

mighty conflagration, and frightened all the wild beasts out of their
senses. It was lucky for him that he lighted the fire, otherwise it is
more than probable some one of the wild beasts would have made
short work of him in the course of the night.
 His next adventure was a very serious one, and yet it was very
funny too. It happened when the expedition was returning to Cape
Town. By that time Mr. Reed’s herbarium was filled with specimens.
It was of more value, he said, than diamonds. He expected to
astonish and delight the scientific world with that book of plants. He
would never trust it to any one else for more than a few moments at
a time. He slept with it under his pillow.
And yet he allowed this precious book to be stolen from him.
And by whom?
By a baboon!
In one of his fits of abstraction he had again wandered out of sight
of his companions. He had the herbarium open, and, as he walked
along, was studying his contents. Suddenly a great, black, hairy paw
was thrust right under his nose, and the book snatched out of his
hand in a twinkling.
Looking up, he saw in the tree far above his head, a large baboon,
grinning and chattering, and turning over the leaves of his beloved
herbarium with no gentle hand. But Mr. Reed had no idea of losing
his book, and immediately began to climb the tree. The baboon
grasped his stolen property, firmly, and swung himself lightly to the
next tree.
Seeing the folly of attempting to follow the animal, Mr. Reed
returned to his companions, finding his way with some difficulty; and
implored them to recover for him this lost treasure.
They laughed at him, but good-naturedly accompanied him to the
place of the theft, though they did not expect to find the monkey
there; much less did they suppose the book to be still entire.
But, on reaching the spot, there, on a low branch of a tree, was the
baboon, busily engaged in turning the book over and over, as if
anxious to make out what manner of thing he had got hold of.
 THE COMBAT WITH THE BABOON.
He did not take any notice of the party of men, and it would have
been easy to have shot him. But the botanist made this impossible,
for no sooner did he get a sight of the thief, thus displaying his booty,
than he rushed forward to seize his precious volume; in this way
getting between the gun and the animal.
The baboon, instead of retreating, as he had done before, sprang
to the ground, and rushed upon the botanist. A fierce battle ensued.
Sometimes the baboon was uppermost, and sometimes Mr. Reed.
But the monkey had weapons in its claws, whereas the man had
nothing but his fists, and great physical strength. The hunters tried to
shoot the baboon, but this they found they could not do without
danger to Mr. Reed.
Finally one of them, watching his chance, when the beast was
uppermost, split its head with a hatchet, and ended the combat.
Early in the fight Mr. Reed had got hold of his book. It was
somewhat crushed, and a few of the specimens destroyed, but, on
the whole, it was in pretty good condition.
This was the last serious adventure that befell Mr. Reed. He met
with some mishaps, but these he did not mind, and soon forgot them
after his return to Cape Town, where he had the pleasure of showing
his beloved herbarium, and of describing to his friends the plants he
had found, and their characteristics.
 SOMETHING TRUE ABOUT THE MOON.

THE FULL MOON.

In another part of this book I told you something about the moon,
which did not even pretend to be true. No body can go to the moon,
although very many people have traveled more miles than the
distance between the earth and its lunar companion. Any one who
has sailed from New York to Liverpool and back forty times has gone
over a greater distance than that from here to the moon, which is
less than 240,000 miles away.
Many a sea-captain has sailed more miles than these. A ship
came into New York Bay very recently that had sailed, in one voyage
over 110,000 miles.
But we cannot visit the moon because there is no atmospheric air
between that planet and the earth. If air existed in this vast space in
which a balloon might float, and which a man might breathe, I think
that some of us would manage to get to the moon before any one
reaches the North Pole. The journey would be longer, but there
would be no ice to block up the way.
But notwithstanding the fact that we cannot go to the moon, we
know a great deal about that planet, especially as it affects the earth.
And with the great telescopes that have been constructed, in late
years, we can see much of the general configuration of that side of
the moon which is turned towards us, and it appears very like the
picture at the head of this article. Here we see depressions and
elevations, and plain surfaces which may be, and probably are,
mountains and beds of dried up oceans and vast plains, which, in all
probability, are barren and desolate.
For scientific men feel quite certain that the moon has no
atmosphere, and of course if there is no air, we have no reason to
suppose that there is any life there.
But our principal interest in the moon relates to its effects upon
ourselves, and our own planet, and therefore we should all
understand it as we see and enjoy it from our stand-point.
We all know that sometimes the moon is full and bright, flooding
the earth with its lovely light, and that, at other times it is quite dim,
just a curved strip of light in the sky, and at still other times it seems
to be absent altogether.
Though we have noticed all this, it is very probable indeed that
some of us do not entirely understand these changes, and so I shall
briefly explain them.
When we cannot see the moon at all, which is the case for two or
three days every month, it is because the sun is not shining on that
side of the moon which is turned to us. And we might as well
remember that although the moon moves around the earth once
every four weeks, it always turns the same side to us. We never
have seen the other side, with telescopes, or in any other way.
When the moon is between us and the sun, the side towards us
must of course be dark. Then it is that we do not see the moon at all.
But as the moon moves gradually to one side we begin to see a
little strip of the bright portion as you notice in Fig. 1. This represents
the moon in its first phase.
I suppose you have noticed at such times, when the new moon is
very small, that we can often see the whole disk of the moon,
although the principal portion of it is very dim indeed. Still we can
see a faint light shining upon it which makes it comparatively easy
for us to discern its outlines.
This pale light is “earth-light.” The earth
is then “full” to the moon-folk, (if there be
any such creatures who can live without
air,) and its brilliancy is partially reflected
back to us from the surface of the moon.
The bright portion of the moon now
grows larger and larger until, in about
seven or eight days, we see it as it is
shown in Figure 2. Then it is said to be in
its first quarter.
FIG. 1. FIRST PHASE OF At this time the spots and various
MOON.
markings on its surface are generally seen
very distinctly.
For seven days the bright portion of the moon continues to grow
larger and larger, and during a part of this time it presents the
appearance shown in Figure 3.
 At last, after about fifteen days of active
increase of bright surface the moon
reaches that point where the sun shines
directly upon the side presented to the
earth, and then it is “full moon.” Of course
it must, at this time, be on the side of the
earth farthest from the sun so that the sun
can shine on it, and at the same time, we
can see it.
Figure 4 is a small picture of the full
moon. FIG. 2. FIRST QUARTER.

But the moon does not remain full very

long, as many of us who delight in
moonlight rambles, and boat-rides, know
to our sorrow. It soon begins to wane, and
then assumes very much the same forms
that it presented when on the increase,
with this difference; its lighted portion is
always turned the other way.
It now rises later and later. When it was
full it rose at about the time that the sun
set, and set about sunrise. But now it rises
FIG. 3. BETWEEN FIRST
later and later until at last it rises just QUARTER AND FULL
before the sun, and is of course soon MOON.
invisible in his brighter rays.
Figures 5, 6 and 7 will give you an idea of the various phases
assumed by the moon when in its wane, or decrease.
 FIG. 4. THE FULL
MOON.

FIG. 5. BETWEEN FULL MOON FIG. 6. LAST FIG. 7. BETWEEN LAST

AND LAST QUARTER. QUARTER. QUARTER AND NEW MOON.

So now we have seen the moon in its various phases, which is

nothing more than we can see in the heavens when the sky is clear,
but it is better always to understand what we see.
We should remember, then, that one half of the moon is always
bright. When it is between us and the sun (not on an exact line,
however, for that would make an eclipse of the sun) we cannot see it
at all, and then we say “there is no moon to-night.” When it moves
around so that we can see a little of the bright side, it is “new moon,”
and when it gets around behind us, so to speak, so that we can see
the sun shining full upon one side of it, it is “full moon.”
If one of us could live upon that part of the surface of the moon
that is always turned toward us, he could see the same changes
taking place upon our planet as we see on the moon.
 There would be “new earth,” and “quarter earth,” and “full earth,”
which last would be truly grand!
Think of a bright orb of light in the heavens fourteen times larger
than the full moon, and you will have an idea of how our earth would
sometimes appear to observers on the moon,—were there any one
there to see.
 A VOYAGE TO THE LOWER AMAZON.

In another part of this volume there is an adventure related by Mr.

Moore, in which he encountered a snow storm in a tropical country.
Mr. Moore had spent the earlier part of his life in South America;
and, in after years, he was very fond of talking about these youthful
days with his son George, who was a delighted listener to the travels
and exploits of his father.
On one occasion Mr. Moore gave George an account of the first
voyage he took on the lower part of the Amazon river, and I think it
will prove almost as full of interest to my readers as it was to George
Moore.
So here it is.
“I had made up my mind,” said Mr. Moore, “to overhaul the boat of
Miguel Espartero. He was a Spanish South American, and captain of
the sloop Bella Donna, which sloop, I had been told, was to start that
very day on its voyage down the river to Para, to which place it was
conveying coffee and chocolate, the produce of the river farms.
“I had some acquaintance with Captain Espartero; and I knew he
did not want me on his sloop, and I guessed the reason. His ideas of
hospitality would compel him to offer me his state-room, and he
feared I would accept the offer. That was the reason he pretended
not to see me when I first came in sight of him in the gapo. He rowed
with all his might and main, without turning his head in my direction.
But I thought if I could overtake him, and convince him I did not want
his state-room, he would be very glad of my company.
 THE CHASE IN THE GAPO.
“So I bribed my Indian rower to his best speed. The captain’s boat
was several lengths ahead, and was lighter than ours, but he was
not as much accustomed to rowing as my Indian, and I felt pretty
sure of overtaking him in the gapo.
“What is a gapo?” said George.
“At certain seasons the Amazon river overflows its banks; and the
forest land, covered by the waters, is called a gapo, and Captain
Espartero was rowing through one of these to get to his sloop in the
open river, and I was following him. I was afraid he would hoist sail,
and away before I could reach the sloop, so I made up my mind to
overhaul his boat.
“We overtook him after a little rapid rowing, and I made a bargain
with him to take me down the river. He was in a hurry, he said, but I
was all ready; and in half an hour we were on board the Bella
Donna.”
“Why!” exclaimed George, “that is the name of a medicine!”
“The sloop was not named after the medicine, but Bella Donna is
Spanish for Beautiful Lady.
“For several hours we drifted with the tide, which was running
pretty fast; and then we stopped at a town to take on some
chocolate. Here there were farm-houses on both banks of the river—
low whitewashed buildings, looking very picturesque in the midst of
the pretty cacao or chocolate trees.
“After leaving here, our progress was very slow; and, before night,
we came to a dead stop. Our pilot had steered us upon a sand-bank!
There was nothing for it but to wait for the tide to float us off.
Fortunately we could go to sleep, and we did.
“It was a warm night, and I wrapped myself in my cloak, and laid
down on some cushions on the deck. After a long time I was
awakened by a splashing noise, and, lying quite still in the moonlight,
I listened. There seemed to be many creatures swimming around our
sloop. And then I plainly smelled a musky odor. I knew by that sign
who our visitors were. I got up and looked over the side of the
vessel.
“Yes, there they were! I was sure of it! Their long, villainous-
looking heads were thrust out of the water, as if enjoying the
moonlight. These were several alligators looking for something to
eat, no doubt, and I was very glad they were not going to have a
chance to eat me. I was safely out of their reach on the deck of the
sloop, but the idea of having so many of these disgusting and
ravenous beasts so near me disturbed my rest for a long time. So
that my first night on the sloop was not particularly pleasant.
“But the second was worse. We floated off the sand-bar about
daybreak, and made very good progress through the day. Very early
in the night I retired to my little room in the cabin, and was soon
sound asleep.
 “After some time I awoke. I was conscious of a disagreeable
sensation. I soon found that my hammock was rocking at a furious
rate. Presently it gave a tremendous lurch, and banged my head
against the wall. With some difficulty I managed to get out of the
hammock, and, as soon as I put my feet on the floor, I fell down. The
room was pitchy dark, and the vessel was evidently very pitchy too,
though in a different way. On the deck there was a great trampling of
feet.
“I scrambled up in haste, and was eager to get out of the cabin,
and to see what had happened. But I could not find the door. I felt
around the walls, but the door seemed to have vanished. I imagined
that the ship was on fire and that I should be burned up in that little
cell. I kicked, and pounded, and shrieked; and, after a long time, the
uproar I made was heard on deck. Somebody came, and let me out.

A NIGHT TEMPEST.
 “Then I found that a fearful storm was upon us. The scene had
been entirely changed in an hour. All day it had been calm. There
was not breeze enough to move a sail, and scarcely to ruffle the
water. Now the wind was blowing violently, bending the trees until it
seemed as if they would be torn up by the roots. The air was filled
with whirling leaves. The river was lashed into waves, and white with
foam. The lightning was almost incessant, sometimes in blinding
sheets, and sometimes with flaming lines crossing each other.
“The sloop was flying over the waves as gaily as a bird. There was
not a thread of canvas out. We were rushing along under bare poles.
“The Indian sailors were of no use whatever—worse than useless,
for they were in an agony of terror. They were all in the shrouds and
rigging, holding on for dear life. If it had not been for the pilot, the
captain, and one white sailor, I don’t know what would have become
of us.
“The captain assured me there was no danger, so I secured
myself on deck, and watched the tempest, admiring the fine display it
made, but wishing from my heart it would stop. For I preferred the
certainty of safety to the captain’s assurance that we were safe.
“Fearing that the wind would blow me off the slippery deck, I had
tied one end of a rope around the mast, and the other end around
my waist. I suppose I did not tie it firmly, for the rope slipped from
me; and I felt that I was sliding swiftly over the wet deck, on my way
to the river. The sloop was tipped up at such a high angle I could not
save myself. I gave a shriek; there was a crash; and down I went into
the raging waters!
“For an instant I had no sensation but that of terror. Then the
horror of my situation forced me to think how to save myself. I was in
the midst of this boiling river, at the mercy of the furious waves, and
still more furious wind. The vessel was going at a frantic speed, and
would soon be far away from me. At such a time I would not be
missed; and, even if I were my companions could not save me. They
could do nothing except to throw me a rope, and try to hold me up
until I could get to the ship’s side, when there was a possibility they
might haul me up. But all this was not probable.
 “These thoughts flew through my mind in a moment. Then I found I
was close to the ship, but I could not see distinctly. The lightning
flashes seemed to have grown very faint, and everything was
obscure. The only thing I could do was to try to get up the ship’s
side, and I made a desperate clutch at it. My hands failed to get hold
of anything, and down I went into the water again. But I did not sink. I
seemed to be borne up on the top of the waves all the time. But, of
course, I did not reflect upon the strangeness of this. I made another
attempt to scramble up the side of the sloop; and this time, I caught
hold of an iron ring!
“How desperately I clutched it! And how I shrieked for help! But the
gale made such a noise no one heard me. I found to my surprise that
the rolling of the vessel dipped only my feet in the water, and that the
waves did not dash over me. My situation then did not seem to be
quite so hopeless, and I redoubled my cries for help.
“Soon I heard the gruff voice of the Captain calling down to me:
‘What is the matter there?’”
“‘I am overboard, and drowning,’ I shrieked in reply.
“Upon this instead of lowering a rope, he extended me his hands,
and helped me up—out of the cabin!
“The crash I had heard was the cabin hatchway, and I had fallen
through it into the room below, and into about two feet of water! The
iron ring was a hammock ring. No wonder I did not see the lightning
flashes down in that hole.
“The raging waves, and the tossing about in the wind, and the
vessel scudding away from me had only existed in my imagination. I
was so certain that I had fallen into the river that I imagined the rest.
“The tempest soon ceased, but not the laugh at me. That lasted all
the way to Para. Somehow my adventure seemed more ridiculous to
the Captain and the sailors than it did to me!
 STILL WATERS.
“We had lovely weather during the remainder of our trip. Our Bella
Donna behaved very well except that she would get on a sand-bar
occasionally. This was partly the pilot’s fault, and partly the fault of
the river in having so many sand-bars.
‘Did not the Captain try to get his sloop off the sand-bars?’ George
inquired.
“Yes, the sailors would try to work the vessel off, sometimes
getting into the water, and working like Trojans. But they never did
get her off; and we would just stick there until the next tide which
invariably floated us on our way.
“I took advantage of these detentions to visit the shores, and
explore the country. In this way I became acquainted with some very
strange Indian tribes. But I saw nothing of the Amazons—the female
warriors you have read of. Nor did I meet with any one who ever had
seen any of them. I did find a ruined fortress, but I never heard that
the Amazons had anything to do with fortresses. They trusted to their
bows and spears.
“In the place of these warlike females are gentle, inoffensive
Indian women, who will sell you delicious fruits, or make you a
hammock for a small sum of money, or a few ornaments.
“Immense forests stretch along both banks, filled with luxuriant
vegetation. To a resident, a trip on the river, sailing between these
lines of forests, is tedious, and monotonous. But a stranger is
constantly interested in the beautiful and wonderful plants around
him.
“There are also farms along the river, and occasionally a white
settlement—usually a village; rarely a town.
“And, if the vessel gets on sand-bars as often as our good sloop,
the Bella Donna, the stranger will have an opportunity of seeing
some of the animals of the country, Some of them are not very
pleasant to meet, especially the jaguar. But the monkeys are
amusing.
“At some of the mission stations among the Indians he will also
see a good deal to interest him. The Indians have been taught
something of agriculture, and have some very primitive machines.
“In one of my rambles I came across a sugar-cane mill, in which
three Indians were at work.
 SUGAR-CANE MILL.
“It was an enormous affair, but worked entirely by man-power. The
great wheels were made to revolve by a single man working in each,
very much in the style in which squirrels turn toy wheels in their
cages.
“With the exception of my sad adventure during the tempest, I
enjoyed the ten days’ trip on the Bella Donna very much. But ten
days is enough for such a journey, and I was not sorry when I
reached Para, and the sea coast.”
 THE BEDOUIN ARABS.

Fine stories are told of the Bedouin Arabs. We have heard a great
deal about these wandering tribes of the desert; of their hospitality to
strangers; of their generosity; of their gratitude; of their affection for
their fleet and beautiful horses; of the wild free life they lead. They
will not allow themselves to be cooped up in towns, they will not
even live in houses, but spend their lives in breezy tents, out on the
wilds.
When girls and boys read these accounts their hearts glow at the
thought of the happy life of the Arab children. No lessons to learn, no
school to attend, no work to do. They course around on splendid
horses, and their whole life is one delightful “camping out.” When
they get tired of living in one place, they go to another. They dress
gorgeously too! A loose, and gracefully flowing costume, made of
“rich stuffs,” and costly camel’s hair cloth.
And then besides the horse they have the docile and intelligent
camel to bear their burdens, and to be their companions.
Such are the pictures often drawn of Bedouin life; and, no doubt
you have thought when you read them, that if these ignorant, lazy,
heathen Arabs were so good, and so happy, why should you be sent
to school, and taught to be industrious, and trained to follow the
precepts of the Bible? To be good, and to be happy are certainly the
main things, and if these Arabs have learned the secret of
commanding these we had better take lessons from them.
Let us look at the accounts of reliable travelers, and see how far
the descriptions of the story-writers are true.