CIS – SOCIOLOGY – CULTURE – PAPER 1 TOPIC

Culture: the way of life of a society. Culture includes:

■ what you eat and drink, with whom and when ■ how you dress and the care you take over your appearance ■ the language,
spoken and unspoken, that you use to communicate with others ■ the way you spend your leisure time ■ the kind of home and
family you live in ■ religious and spiritual beliefs and practices ■ festivals and celebrations.

Elements of Culture:

Symbols. These are anything that carries particular meaning recognised by people who share the same
culture. For example, a cross worn on a chain is a symbol of Christian religious beliefs.

Language. A system of symbols with sounds and words carrying meanings that allows people to
communicate with one another.

Values. These are standards of what is considered good and right that act as guides for what people
should think and believe and how they should act.

Beliefs. These are statements that people hold to be true. They are more specific than values.

Norms. These are the kinds of behavior that a society expects of its members in particular situations.
Sometimes norms are divided into two types, mores, and folkways. Mores are norms that are widely
observed and carry more of a sense of what is right or wrong. Folkways are norms for routine, casual
social interaction.

Customs: Norms that are widely accepted and continue over time.

Norms are usually enforced by informal means, laws by formal means. Values and norms vary between
societies so they are social constructions. Example: Norm to control emotion.

Beliefs: statements that people hold to be true.

At the macro level we talk about culture and society; at the micro level about individuals and identities.

Identities: Refers to our sense of who we are, how we see ourselves and the ways in which we think we
are similar to and different from other people. Social identity or image of ourselves is therefore formed
through interaction with others.

CONFORMITY AND NON-CONFORMITY: THE AGENCIES AND PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

People conform because through socialization they have internalized the norms and values of their
culture. There is a value consensus; nearly all people in a society agree on shared values, and on the
norms derived from them. However, societies need to have ways of ensuring social conformity.

Social conformity: acting in accordance with norms and social expectations. This is achieved by systems
of sanctions. Positive sanctions are often referred to as rewards and so sanctions usually mean negative
sanctions (punishments)

Informal social control is exercised by individuals and groups who do not have any official power to do
so. Example: Peer group - Ostracism: excluding someone from the community or group.

Formal social control: Social control imposed by a person or organisation who has the authority to
implement rules or laws. Example: teacher or a police officer, criminal jUSTICE system.
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Agencies of social control are also agencies of socialisation.

■ Families. It is through primary socialisation in the family that children absorb norms and values. The
strong bonds between parents and children and the impressionability of young children make this the
most important period of socialisation. Children learn to regulate their own behaviour so as not to off
end others. They internalize values so that they feel guilt and remorse if they break norms that are
based on them.

■ Schools. In the school system children are controlled in many ways. They are told what to do and
when, most of the time. the idea of the hidden curriculum, which suggests that at school learning to
obey the rules and conform to education is as significant for children as learning knowledge and skills.

■ Religion. For those with religious beliefs, religions off er guidelines and laws for how to behave and off
er both rewards and punishments for behaviour. The values of a society are often based on the main
religion.

■ The media. The media offer role models as well as constant messages about how to behave and
reminders about rewards and punishments through offering examples of good and bad behaviour, both
in factual news reporting and in fiction.

■ Workplaces. There are rules and regulations at places of work and other norms that people may need
to learn as they settle into a new job.

■ Peer groups. These are powerful agencies of social control because people feel the need to belong to
groups. The threat of being rejected is often a powerful one. When we feel we have been pushed into
behaving in ways that our peers will approve of, this is called peer pressure.

Functionalist and Marxist views of social control

Functionalists believe this process is positive and
is essential to the continued stability of the
society.
Functionalists Emile Durkheim - societies need a
set of shared values to hold them together as
functioning societies and in order to prevent
anomie.
Marxist see it as negative in that it allows the
ruling class to continue in power, keeping the
working class controlled.
Marxist Louis Althusser referred to schools, the
media and religion as the ideological state
apparatus, that is, institutions that make people
believe that it is right to conform.

Anomie happens when individuals lack the
guidance of norms and values and are unable to
regulate their behaviour so that the bond
between the individual and society breaks down.
In the traditional societies in Australia studied by
Durkheim, the clan or tribe joined together in
worshipping a totem and this gave them a sense
of shared identity. The clan’s values were their
own. In modern societies, and especially during
periods of rapid social change, there is a risk that
the bonds that hold society together will break
down.
The state keeps in reserve the use of the
repressive state apparatus when the ideological
state apparatus does not work.
For example, working-class people might accept
the belief that people who are born into a high
status deserve their status and should be
respected and obeyed. This is in effect a form of
brainwashing and the working class concerned is
in a condition of false consciousness, by accepting
beliefs that are against its own interests.
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Different societies REWARDS SANCTIONS

and organizations
SCHOOL – In MIS, Verbal praise, positive Disapproval by teachers, verbal comments
rewards are comments on written work, by teachers, negative comments on written
emphasised more positive letters to parents, work, making students sit or work alone,
than sanctions. merit badges or stickers, sending them out of the classroom.
positive points, certificates of
achievement.
WORKPLACE Promotion to a better post, a Loss of pay, having to face a disciplinary
pay increase, performance- hearing, being closely monitored at work,
related pay, bonus payments, being demoted to a lower post, being given
commissions or being given less pleasant work and being fired
shares in the company
In traditional Rewards include being given a
Being shunned by the community, being
societies – Public position of responsibility in the
expelled from the community (sent away),
sanctions and community, respect, status and
being punished physically, including
collective sanctions gifts to show appreciation.beatings, having head shaved, killed or
were followed. having to pay blood money (the murderer
is made to pay the family of the victim)
In modern industrial Rewards include being given a Discharge. This is when individuals are
societies – with position of responsibility in the found guilty but are not punished.
reference to UK community, respect, status and ■ Fine. This is the most common sanction
gifts to show appreciation. and is used for many minor offences. Fines
are often imposed for offences such as
driving and traffic offences and
criminal damage.
■ Community service. They may have to do
unpaid work or get training or treatment,
live in a particular place, be put under a
curfew and be made to avoid activities like
attending football matches. They may have
to report to a police station or see a
probation officer regularly. The purpose of
these sanctions is to try to prevent
reoffending and to punish the offender.
■ Prison sentence. This is reserved for the
most serious offences. Prison sentences
can be for any length of time or for life.
Sanctions in Uk in past- execution
( abolished in death penalty, some MIS still
have Japan and USA), pillory and stocks,
transportation (offenders in 19th century
Were transported to a colony, which is a
form of exile).
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SUB-CULTURES
Sub-cultures are groups of people in a culture whose norms and values are different in some ways from
the overall culture.

They may show different value systems, different behaviour and different style of dress and appearance.
The members of a sub-culture are influenced by the culture of the society and their own position in it
but they reject or rebel against aspects of it in some way. Sub-cultures may even use informal social
control to regulate the behaviour of members, for example refusing to accept them as members.

Youth sub-cultures: Groups of young people who adopt a style and culture that is partly at odds with the
main culture. Example: beatniks ■ mods and rockers ■ skinheads ■ hippies ■ punks ■ Goths ■ emo.

Clothing, music, appearance and speech can act as symbols of these sub-cultures. The sub-cultures were
considered as threat to the society as they are deviant from societies norms and values.

PROS OF SUB-CULTURE CONS OF SUB-CULTURE

FUNCTIONALIST From a functionalist point of view: Some functionalists also use the idea of
PERSPECTIVE Sub-cultures offer a kind of safety valve. sub-culture to explain the higher rates of
Growing up is a difficult period for many and a crime among working-class boys.
Point 1 youth sub-culture may help adolescents to
manage this period. Young people need to
develop a sense of autonomy and
independence from their parents and so they
turn to the support of their own age group.
This period, during which individuals are less
dependent on their parents than in childhood,
is functional both for the individual and
society.
Point 2 Joining a sub-culture is functional for some The members of the sub-culture may start
individuals whose route to success seems to by having the same values as everyone
be blocked, for example because they have else, but it is because they cannot achieve
not done well at school or cannot find a job. their goals by socially acceptable means
The sub-culture gives them a group in which that they form sub-cultures.
they can win status and respect. It gives such
people an alternative opportunity structure.
Point 3 While too much crime and deviance is
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dysfunctional and can destabilise a society,

subcultures can therefore carry out valuable
functions.
MARXISTS & Middle-class youth did not rebel in the same Marxists saw the youth sub-cultures as
INTERACTIONIST way because they could see that they could be rebellions by working-class youth against
PERSPECTIVE successful through getting academic capitalism.
(1960S) qualifications and a career.
They had been failed by the education
Marxist theory focusses on how young people system and had no jobs (or dead-end
find themselves in the economic system and jobs) and no prospects. This was seen as a
class structure. Marxists therefore see youth way to rebel against society.
sub-cultures as one way in which deep
conflicts within society become visible. Example: Skinhead sub-culture - being
aggressive, defending the community
against all outsiders and showing fierce
loyalty to the group.

Philip Cohen argued that the appearance

of skinheads was an exaggerated version
of how men in those areas had always
appeared – with hair cut very short and
wearing heavy boots and baggy trousers
with braces. The heavy boots had been
needed for work on the docks or on
building sites but now the skinheads wore
them as a symbol of aggressive
masculinity. The skinheads defended their
area against ethnic minorities and
outsiders and Cohen saw this also as a
version of older working-class values

FEMALE SUB-CULTURE: Angela McRobbie suggested that there were female sub-cultures but that girls
got together in their homes, not on the streets as boys tended to. She called this a bedroom sub-culture.
Teenage girls met to listen to music and experiment with make-up. The girls created a sub-cultural space
away from adults but also from boys. McRobbie saw this as rebelling against sexual subordination.
Example: Goths. This can be explained by the changing gender roles in society.

OTHER SUB-CULTURES: Religion – Example Amish Subculture, Ethnic Minority, Class – Subcultures, Sub-
Cultures Based On Interests (Social / Political)

CULTURAL DIVERSITY: Wide differences between human cultures. ( leads to multiculturalism)

Different societies all around the world have different cultures, that may either be in close contact with
other cultures (through trading and marrying) or exist in isolation from others like Australian aborigines.
Cultures were learnt through informal, everyday situations within the home and community in the past.
Cultural interactions have increased over past years due to increased knowledge about other cultures
around the world.
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Cultural variations are result of different food, language, norms and traditions.

Knowledge about other cultures has spread as a result of travel and migration, and electronic mass
communication. Global village is a term used to describe how people are aware of the diverse
multicultural work and are able to access and appreciate other culture. There are very few groups living
in isolation from other cultures. Main flow of cultures is from the west (US) to the rest of the world and
with globalization, people are worried a single human culture may develop based on western values –
poses a threat to cultural diversity and instead created culture uniformity. Western cultures effects can
be seen on all cultures today.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND MULTICULTURALISM

Cultural relativism: Considering cultures in their own terms and not from western point of view.

Cultural relativism – sociologists should avoid being ethnocentric and should not judge other cultures by
comparing them to their own. They should instead try to find similarities between their culture and the
culture being studied and should try to comprehend the differences in the context of the cultures own
situation.

Multiculturalism

As a result of migration, there are many different cultures present in different nations of the world. For
example: UK has 4 cultures based on national identities (Welsh, Scottish, ifsh and English ) and
immigrant groups (African Caribbean, Asian). On the other hand, some countries are not as multicultural
like Japan.

To adapt to a multiculturalist society

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2 multicultural societies are: India and Mauritius. India has many religions being practiced by the
people, is very large and has many different cultural differences in different regions and has many
languages being spoken. As a result of the diversity, many conflicts have taken place but its still a
multicultural society. Mauritius has ethnically diverse population with Indians, Africans, Chinese
descendants and has many languages too.
A movement against multicultural societies have taken place as a result of views of politicians and
others :
 Gives too many rights to minority communities, that may be costly for the government
(providing language support)
 Insufficient integration as minority communities may be very separate from host
community
 Idealistic – unlikely different cultures can live alongside one another in peace
 Instead of proving the value system that holds society together, host culture becomes
one of many cultures
 Conflict between groups can happen

Economic crisis in UK in 2008 was linked to immigrant groups. The 2005 bomb attacks in London carried
out by Muslims killed many civilians and it was said to be a result of less assimilation and a multicultural
society.

GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL CULTURE

Globalization is the process through which different cultures around the world are increasingly aware of,
interact with and influence one another. As a result of awareness on different cultures, people may
think that the world is getting small. Globalization of culture is made possible by political and economic
changes.

Examples of globalization culture:

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People see the world as one place, which is encouraged by media (news can be seen around world), and
by persona, experiences. Poor people also know people living in other countries, creating a feeling that
we all live and share a small planet. This change can also be seen in media, where humans together fight
against a threat to the planet.

In the developed world, cultural globalization can be seen (eg. when out of season fruits are flown in to
meet demand). However, many people are still excluded from some or all aspects of cultural
globalization in the developing world, where globalization is more economic ( eg. World tourism brings
people from different socioeconomic backgrounds together in contact, leading to a sense of injustice
and frustration).

Some argue that globalization means the spread of western/ American culture to the rest of the world.
Seen as good – spreads values about human rights. Bad – exploits and ends local culture. Cultural
imperialism – rich, white countries rule the world indirectly through their cultural influence, rather than
colonizing them.

Some argue that new media technologies may not be used in the same way around the world and
different cultures are likely to interpret them in different ways ( in Africa phones are shared, etc).
Those opposing westernization claim that it spreads western values and encourages a consumeristic
lifestyle, which promotes unhealthy intake of food and unnecessary shopping. This may lead to
unrealistic standards of living, money spent on things that are not needed, long term health effects and
is bad for the environment. Globalization of western culture seems like an attempt by transnational
companies to persuade people to adopt American consumerism and materialism.
To reject western ideas, some countries have:
 Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan has limited some modern influences like TV (allowed only
in 1999)
 Radical Muslims and jihadists (Taliban in Afghanistan and book haram in Nigeria)
violently reject western culture.
 France limits amount of English broadcasting done to protect French
 Blocked acces to internet and western media to prevent ‘corrupting’ people.
 Peoples republic of China and other countries have restricted citizens’ access to sites
that they do not approve of.

Globalization weakens local cultures however flow of cultures is not always one way. Europe and
America are influenced by food (sushi), music (kpop), fashion, philosophical and religious traditions
( yoga and meditation) from other cultures. Creates a ‘hybrid culture’ – 2 cultures merge to create a new
 CIS – SOCIOLOGY – CULTURE – PAPER 1 TOPIC

culture. Traditional culture are not expected to remain the same and some of their surviving elements
will merge with other cultures. For example : As a result of tourism, traditional African dances may not
be performed for religious ceremonies, but instead for tourists.

Age group as social construction

Age, gender, race, ethnicity are all socially constructed – the way they are treated and expected to
behave differs between cultures and time periods. In MIS, children undergo socialization for a long
period of time until they reach a set age, where they become adults. The elderly reach retirement at a
set age as well. In other societies, children work alongside adults without set ages present to give them
certain rights.
Social construction of childhood has changed in the last 500 years. Philippe areas, French historian, said
that childhood did not exist in medieval Europe because children were treated the same as adults (they
worked, got news at the same time, no formal education). This changed. Printing press and formal
education pushed the idea that children needed to be trained and taught to behave in a civilized way
because they were different from adults. New laws came into place and child labour became banned ( in
industrial revolution, children worked a lot in bad conditions). More children went to school and new
professions were introduced to help children develop. Society became child-centred. Phillipe areas
claimed that this is a ‘modern invention’. Neil postman – childhood has changed again as a result of
growth and usage of media technologies. Children are exposed to adult content at an earlier age and are
no more innocent, hence they commit more crime and dress as adults in societies today. “ childhood is
changing as society changes’.

Primary and secondary socialization

Primary socialization is the most important socialization that a person goes through, which happens in
families from birth to infancy. They learn how to Interact with others and how to live in the culture that
they are born into, and the main norms and values, which enables societies to survive over time.
Agencies of secondary socialization teaches individuals the new roles they would have in new situations,
like going to work or getting married. Some may require people to change their behavior a lot, termed
as resocialization (takes place in army training). Socialization also involves how individuals apply
messages to themselves and how they change their behavior and how they see others. Some messages
can be rejected.

Processes through which children learn social expectations

Children learn social expectations from a very young age. Imitation is when children learn by copying
behavior of others, and this is more likely if the behavior is rewarded. Children hence learn which
behavior is approved off. Reinforcement – when parents or others apply sanctions to behavior. Role
models – who children look up to and copy behavior of. Can be family members or even people that the
child learns about through media.
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Ideas can be applied widely – children learn appropriate behavior, and activities from parents,
regardless of gender. In the late 20 th century, parents tried to raise their children in gender neutral ways
(applied more to girls than boys, where girls were encouraged to take up boys’ activities – by showing
TV shows where the lead character was a girl). This was harder to achieve because:
 Gendered behavior may also be in the nature of boys and girls to do what is considered
gendered behavior, rather than being socialized that way.
 The family is not the only agency of socialization and children may learn gender
expectations from other agencies
 Media markets goods and messages in a gender stereotypical, way, making it harder for
parents to be gender neutral.

Barrie Thorne- American feminist sociologist – tried to raise her children gender neutrally – argued that
schools encourage gender stereotypes due to the different treatment given to boys and girls. Children
play separately in single sex groups and playboys vs girls in quizzes or games, hence learning the
importance of gender. They then work out in groups how they should behave according to their gender.
This is part of the hidden curriculum – comes indirectly from the way the school, classes, lessons, and
playgrounds are organized and the expectations teachers have of children, rather than being taught
formally.

Main agencies of socialization

Family –
 Many types of families so children may have different experiences
 Mother is normally the most important person to the child so the child and mother
bond is important
 In MIS, many children are brought up in a nuclear family, or otherwise a single parent or
step family.
 Social class and ethnicity of families are important – children learn the language and
behavior of the family and internalize them, hence making their identity.
Education –
 Through hidden curriculum, children learn the behavior expected of them.
 In MIS, children attend nurseries and other institutions where they learn the formal and
hidden curriculum.
 In traditional societies, children learn informally by adults of the family and community.
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Peer groups –
 Made up of people of the same age and status
 In traditional societies - made based on ceremonies and rites, where those who
experience these together, stay together and can str ongly influence one another.
 In MIS, children are brought up together in classrooms, where they spend lot of time
together and form strong bonds that may last a lifetime. May form earlier than in the past
due to preschool institutions.
 Form in adult life as well, as a result of workplaces or other interests
Media –
 In traditional societies, storytelling was a form of media where people learned the
messages of the stories.
 In MIS, children interact a lot with media and may have role models from figured in the
media.
 Sociologists have thought that media may have negative effects on children (may
encourage them to commit violence ), however research suggests that children do not
passively accept messages, instead they actively make sense of them with the help of Peers
and family. Media is important throughout life.
Religion –
 Children and adults learn important values from places of worship and from reading
holy books.
Workplaces –
 Adults have to learn new norms and values based on the job they have, including the
requirements of the job, the rules of the job and even how to treat their colleagues.

INADEQUATE SOCIALIZATION

Inadequately socialized children are unable to fit into society. Wild or feral children are those that have
not had human contact for an extended period and may have been raised by animals. Isolated children
are those that have some human contact (kept in a room but given food), these are known as cases of
neglect. There are differences between cases of inadequate socialization and hence raise questions and
issues on validity. Most feral/isolated children: Cannot speak a language (crucial period for language
development where if children do not hear or speak, they may never learn to do so), do not prefer
normal food, do not like conventional clothing, may not walk upright, may not learn to use toilet, may
seem uninterested in people and may not understand their emotions.

These show that humans are naturally social and need to interact and communicate with people in
order to develop and adjust to life in human culture. Sometimes, the damage may be so great that they
never learn to speak or communicate. A Cambodian woman, rochom p’ngeing , showed that secondary
socialization is also important. The woman disappeared at the age of 8, and returned 20 years later,
where she was found to prefer crawling than walking and she was unable to speak and adjust to a
human society.
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NATURE VS NURTURE

Those who think nature is all important are biological determinists and those who think that nurture are
all important are social determinists.

 Sociobiologists argue that all social behavior is directed by natural instincts or biological drives.
Argue that abstract traits like intelligence, aggressiveness, sexual orientation are all inherited. Some
traits that are biologically determined as per sociobiologists include: criminal behavior (genetic
predisposition to violent, aggressive or rule breaking behavior), intelligence (may be a genetic
component to intelligence), sexual orientation (may also have a genetic component to it). Argue that
dominant traits are also passed down to the next generation.

 Sociologists argue that inherited tendencies do not determine how we behave, as genetically similar
people can become different through socialization. A person may have inherited traits that cause
them to be more aggressive however they can control this. Or aggression can be a result of the
culture they are socialized in, where aggression is the expected response. Against sociobiologists,
sociologists argue that everyone has biological sex drives but the range of responses to it show that
patterns of behavior are established by culture rather than nature. Humans also do not have
instincts in the form of complex behavior that is biologically determined.

 Humans need to learn from other humans and though humans have biological needs, the way they
satisfy them depends on culture. Nature and nurture interact and depend on each other.

Studies related to this:

 G.P Murdock – looked at 224 societies from hunter gatherers to modern states – men
and women had different social roles due to their biological differences – found that men
did work that required physical strength like hunting and land-clearing while women did
lighter work near home.
 Ann Oakley – used murdocks founding to argue against him and claim ‘no universal
division of labor’- mbuti pygmies have no division of labor – men and women hunt together
and care for their children together – no exclusive gene roles and biological tendencies do
not stop women from taking on different roles.
 Talcott parson analyzed roles based on biology – mothers nurse children and have a
stronger relationship with them (expressive role) while men go for work (instrumental role)
– women have a second function to serve as a caring wife. against this Ann Oakley argued
that women are not tied to offspring and the separation has no harmful effects (uses
example of the people of the island of alor in Indonesia) – accused parson of being included
by own culture, which promotes and helps male superiority.

Sociobiologists argued that men and women have different reproductive strategies, which make men
more aggressive and promiscuous – men have a biological interest to produce many offsprings and
compete with other men to do so – women take time to carefully choose their partner – women know
who their offspring is so devote more time to them – means that women are housewives in MIS – argue
that war is as a result of Men trying to compete for women.

Criticisms– instincts are not important and human behavior is learned ( war and hunting is only 500000
years old) as humans survived most of histriy by gathering vegetables – criticsed for being ethnocentric
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as it assumed that human bheaviour corresponds to the values of the modern capitalist world, however
this is not true as there are evidences of Men not being aggressive and women not being submissive –
feminists argue it is an attempt to justify male power – they ignore anything that does not fit their case.

Role and identity

People have multiple statuses and roles (which are bad we on our relationship with others). Each of
these roles are part of an individual’s identity, with some being more important than others. There are
also situations where certain roles are more important than others and hence that aspect of a person’s
identity changes when the importance of the different roles a person has, changes. Role conflicts are
created when the norms attached to certain roles do not fit.

Age and identity

Traditional societies – age set of importance, group of people who go through important stages in life
together. In traditional African societies, 3 main stages in a man’s life : Childre, warriors, elders.
Individuals of the same age set were initiated into adulthood together; for Men – test of strength and
performing rituals and traditions, as well as for girls. Elders were looked up for knowledge and were a
valued part of the extended family.

Industrial societies – rights are gained throughout life when individuals reach a certain age, rather than
their maturity levels. Members of the same age group are a generation, with a 25 years difference
between each generation. Generation gap – differences in attitudes and experiences between
generations leading to conflict (ex. Young are digital natives, elders are not). Birth cohort – members of
an age group who share a common experience of growing up, for example the baby boom generation
that experienced the cold war and other social changes like the arrival of computers. The numbers of
this generation meant that companies aim a lot of products towards them and this generation also
contributes to increasing health care costs and social service. They are also leading to an ageing
population.

Adolescence – difficult period – leads to status anxiety. This is because MIS enforce achieved status
which creates pressure. Hence people rely on their peer groups, in which they share norms and values
and may create subcultures that help them transition to adult life (came into question when subcultures
rebelled vigorously against the main norms and values of a society). Neo Marxists suggest that
Subcultures are a result of resistance to the capitalist lifestyle.

Gender and identity

In traditional societies, there are fixed gender roles. Margaret mead’s research found differences in
gender roles between western society in 1930 and those in new Guinea. In MIS, gender is an important
part of an individual’s identity. Sex is a person’s biological characteristics and body and gender is how
these differences affect our social lives. Until recently, men took the instrumental role and women took
the expressive, domestic role. In modern industrial societies, men and women who conform to their
expected gender role are masculine/feminine. These are highly stereotypical and are regarded as
opposites. In the past 50 years, there have been changes in gender roles and stereotypes.
Women – more senior positions and decision makers in business politics and culture. Expected to have
financial independent and to work and are not seen as only wives or mothers. Feminists believe that
men and women are still unequal and the deeply rooted patriarchal culture causes women to still be
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seen as sexual objects and women with previously male dominated positions, may be seen as
unfeminine. In MIS, Young women are also behaving in ways that men do like drinking alcohol and
delinquency.
Men – in MIS, traditional and expected role is to be strong and a breadwinner. Hegemonic masculinity –
ideas about what a man should be like that are widely accepted. Men who could not live up to these
standards were though to be failures. This has changed as men are now allowed to show and talk about
their emotions, take care over their appearance (which media is now enforcing as well, by advertising
products for male appearance – may lead to eating disorders amongst men), and have close bonds with
their children. More Men are now stay at home dads and those who work are now helping with
housework and domestic roles. The ability to negotiate roles rather than fight and be restricted, may
lead to a fall in domestic violence committed by Men. Working dads that try to be good husbands and
fathers may experience role conflicts.

Change in roles – many men lost their jobs in the late 20 th century as a result of industries closing down
and immigration. It became harder for Men to be breadwinners, and this role was thus over taken by
women, who began raising children alone. Feminism made it seem like men were not needed, causing a
crisis in masculinity. This makes it harder for Men to find a role and may lead to anti social behavior and
delinquency

Ethnic group and identity

When different groups have encountered others, they have responded by making distinction between
themselves and others. Romans and Chinese saw everyone else as barbaric. Further supported by
Edward Said’s study. In the past, racism was based on physical traits, however, nowadays, cultural
differences are a source of racism. In the UK, racism is done by expressing support for the British way of
life (includes tolerance and freedom of speech), and how minorities threaten this by not integrating into
the main culture. This leads to misunderstanding and stereotypes.

Ethnicity is socially constructed because people identify themselves as members of a group and create
boundaries between groups. As a result of migration, MIS are now more ethnically diverse.. For
example, UK have Asian and African Caribbean minorities, within which there are many other groups as
well that are culturally and religiously different. Formations of hybrid cultures have also begun like
British Bangladeshis that are British by citizenship and Bangladeshi by culture. There are also people
from mixed backgrounds who have both cultures and may create new identities for themselves.