Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or microprocessor. It

carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives instructions from both the
hardware and active software and produces output accordingly. It then performs calculations,
manipulates data, and produces output based on those instructions. It stores all important
programs like operating systems that manage the computer's resources and allows you to interact
with it and application software that you use to perform tasks like word processing, web
browsing, and gaming. Your computer couldn't execute these essential programs without the
CPU.

CPU also helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other. The CPU translates
these inputs when you click, move the mouse, or click on a key on the keyboard, and it works
with the relevant software program to produce the intended result. The CPU ensures that the
input and output devices communicate without any troubles, whether it means printing a paper,
playing music through the audio system, or showing text on the display screen. Owing to these
features of CPU, it is often referred to as the brain of the computer.

CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard. Furthermore, it is
provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the CPU cool and functioning
smoothly.

Central Processing Unit's - History and Evolution

Computers have become a part of our everyday lives, but the first computer was developed in
1946 at the University of Pennsylvania!

ADVERTISEMENT

ADVERTISEMENT

ADVERTISEMENT

o Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer or ENIAC was the processo

o Alan Turing and John von Neumann presented the reprogramming feature that is so
widely utilised nowadays. A modern computer's architecture is based on von Neumann's
design.
o Microprocessors have come a long way since Intel's 4004 - the first microprocessor ever
developed.
o We'll take a look at what's happened so far.
o In the early 1970s, Ted Hoff and others at Intel came up with the idea for the first
Processor, which was then produced by the company.
 o Intel's 4004 processor was the company's first processor.

1971 - Intel 4004

o Designed by Intel's Federico Faggin and Ted Hoff and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima, it
went on sale on November 15, 1971. "
o 2300 transistors with pMOS technology were used in the device.
o There were a total of 46 instructions.
o The intended clock speed was 1 MHz, but it was only achieved at 740 kHz.
o As the world's first microprocessor, it powered the Busicom 141-PF calculator, which is
still in use today.

1972 - Intel 8008

o Introduced in August 1972, it is also known as MCS-8.
o CTC's Victor Poor and Harry Pyle worked on it, as did Intel's Ted Hoff, Faggin, Stanley
Mazor, and Hal Feeney.
o There were 3500 transistors in it.
o But it was slower than the 4004.
o This computer had a clock speed of 0.5 MHz and a total number of 48 instructions.
o Micral and SCELBI were the first personal computers to use it.

1974 - Intel 8080

o Intel 8080 was introduced in 1974.
o Faggin, Mazor, and Masatoshi Shima created it in April 1974.
 o The clock speed was increased to 2 MHz, and it used 6000 transistors and nMOS
technology. »
o Most notable was the separation of the address (16 bit) and data (8 bit) buses, which was
a major advancement.
o It also had 256 input/output ports.
o The MITS Altair 8800 and IMSAI 8080 both used it.
o Similarly, the main processor in Space Invaders (an arcade video game) was the 8080
microprocessor.

1974 - Motorola 6800

o The Motorola processor had no I/O ports.
o I/Os were memory-mapped.
o In addition, the instruction set contained 72 instructions at a clock speed of just 2 MHz
o HCF (Halt and Catch Fire) opcode was used for the first time, preventing the processor
from responding to any interrupts until it was reset.
o Motorola introduced HCF, a self-testing feature, for the first time.

1977 - Intel 8085

The processor was also used as a microcontroller, operating on a +5V supply, unlike the other
processors formed so far.

o Von Neumann architecture was used for the first time.

o "It was constructed with nMOS technology and 6500 transistors."
o There were 256 instructions in the instruction set.
o In NASA and ESA space explorations, the radiation-hardened version was employed.

1978 - Intel 8086

o The clock speed was designed to be 10MHz.
o Bruce Ravenel was part of the architecture development team, which included Stephen P.
Morse.
o Jim McKevitt, John Bayliss, and William Pohlman designed Logic, with William
Pohlman serving as the project manager.
 o Mycron 2000 was the first microcomputer to use it.

1979 - Intel 8088

o HMOS-based 8088 was launched on July 1st.
o PLCC (plastic leaded chip carrier) package was available as well as a 40-pin DIP
package. »
o There was only 8-bits of data in the path, however.
o 10 MHz was the intended frequency.
o 8088 was the basis for the original IBM PC.

1987 - SPARC
o It's a Sun Microsystems processor.
o It had a 40 MHz clock speed.
o 8 million transistors and 256 I/O pins were used to build it.
o According to the TOP500 list, Fujitsu's K Computer is ranked number one among the
world's 500 fastest supercomputers.
o It was based on the SPARC architecture.

1991 - Am386
o There was a striking similarity between this AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) processor
and Intel x86 processors.
o In terms of clock speed, the processor was a competitor to Intel's.
o Many manufacturers chose AMD's floating-point unit because of its excellent
performance.

1993 - Pentium Processor

o P5 was the first Pentium processor.
o Two models were available: 510-pin version and 567-pin
o 1 million transistors were used in its construction.
o At the time, this 32-bit processor was the most advanced processor available.
o There were two instructions that could be executed at the same time in this superscalar
x86 microarchitecture, speeding up computation.
1995 - Pentium Pro
o Pentium II was the first Pentium processor.
o It was packaged in a ceramic multi-chip module (MCM) with 387 pins, which was a first
for the industry.
o In addition to its dual processor configuration, it has a 200 MHz clock speed.
o In order to build this processor, approximately 5.5 million transistors were used.
o MMX instructions were not included.
o This processor was utilised in ASCI Red, which had teraFLOP (one trillion floating-point
operations per second) performance or results.

1997- Pentium II
o The Pentium II processor family was introduced on May 7 and offered a wide range of
processors.
o With each new model, the clock speed was steadily increased to 450 MHz.
o A slot or socket module was used instead of the traditional processor.
o Because of this, computer manufacturers were able to fit it into a small space.
o Under this umbrella, a number of processors were introduced: Some of these were
Klamath;
o Deschutes; Pentium II overdrive; Tonga, etc.
o It had a heatsink/fan combination that could be removed, which helped with heat
dissipation.

1999-Pentium III
o It was introduced on February 26th.
 o The SSE instruction was added to the previous model to speed up floating-point
calculations.
o Like Pentium II, this processor was released in two versions: Celeron (low-end version)
and Xeon (high-end version) (High-end version).
o The following processors are included in this family: Katmai; Coppermine; Coppermine
T and Tualatin.
o PSN (Processor Serial Number) was introduced in the production process that formed the
processor's unique identity.

1999 - Athlon
o Athlon was announced by AMD on June 23.
o A clock speed of 800 MHz was achieved by using 37 million transistors.
o It came in a 453-pin PGA (Pin Grid Array) package.
o It was faster than Intel's Pentium III, which made Athlon a legitimate competitor. »
o That made it the first processor to reach the 1 gigahertz speed mark in history.
o Enhanced 3DNow! was first launched, which sped up by 2-4 times.

2000-Pentium IV

o Pentium IV was Intel's new single-core processor, with clock speeds ranging from 1.3
GHz to 3.08 GHz.
o When it came to packaging, the 423-pin processor was available in both OLGA and
PPGA (Plastic Pin Grid Array) formats.
o The processors that fall under this category include; Willamette; Northwood; Pentium 4-
M; Mobile Pentium etc
o Processors in this family were the first to use the NetBurst architecture.

2003-Pentium -M
o This was an Intel single-core mobile processor.
o It was designed with a clock speed is 2.26 GHz.
o There are two processors in this family: Banias; Dothan.
o TDP of 24.5 watts and clock speed of 1.7GHz for Banias
 o DOTHAN: Die of 90 nanometers and 2.16 gigahertz, with 21-watt TDP.
o It was used for the first time in the Intel Carmel notebook, Centrino-brand.

2006-Core 2
o E6320 is another name for Intel Core 2 brand, which was launched on July 27, 2006. It
had clock speed of upto 3.5 GHz .
o Single-core, dual-core, and quad-core processors were introduced under this family.
o The processor is no longer available for purchase.
o The desktop processors under this brand include:
o The Conroe XE; Allendale; Wolfdale
o We have Allendale XE, Wolfdale XE, and more.
o This brand's laptop processors include:
o Merom XE; Penryn; Merom
o As well as Merom-L and Penryn XE
o Using a slower clock speed, the processor was able to conserve battery power.

Latest Technology- CPU

Since the launch of the 4004 microprocessor, the technology has advanced significantly.

A smaller chip, faster clocks, and larger caches have all resulted in a smaller chip and faster
clocks.

Products based on Intel's microarchitecture were introduced in 2011.

It has been able to produce dies with a 32-nanometer thickness.

Included is Intel Quick sync, which is a hardware-based video encoding and decoding solution
from Intel.

Interconnecting the different parts of the processor is also made easier with an improved 256-
bit/cycle ring bus connect.

o This processor has a transistor count of 2,27 billion.

o The designed clock speed is 3.6 GHz.
o Cougar Point Chipset motherboards in the 67-series were recalled by Intel due to a
hardware issue.
o The following series are part of this family:Intel Pentium: Celeron: Core i3: Core i5: Core
i7: Core i7 Extreme: It has the vPro feature that has the ability to delete data from a hard
drive via 3G signals or Ethernet or Internet.

Ivy Bridge
o It was announced in 2011 that Intel would be releasing a 22-nanometer die processor
called Ivy Bridge, but it was only released on April 29, 2012.
o The use of 3D (tri-gate) transistors allows for a smaller die.
o In comparison to 2D transistors, 3D transistors reduce power consumption by nearly
50%.
o PCI Express is also supported, as is DirectX 11, which improves the graphics.
o 80 GHz is the clock speed of the processor.
o According to reports, they have a temperature 20oC higher than Sandy Bridge.
o Under this family, there are the following desktop models:
o i3, i5, and i7 Processors
 o Mobile that fall under this category include: i3, i5, and i7 Core Processors
o It is one of the tick version of sandy bridge.

Latest - Fifth Generation CPU or Central Processing Units

o The fifth generation Central Processing Unit is based on Artificial Intelligence.
o A still-under-development Central Processing Unit.
o The use of voice recognition is an example of a current application.
o By the way, it's still being worked on right now.
o AI aims to create an intelligent device that can respond to natural language input and can
learn on its own.

Components of CPU

ADVERTISEMENT

Generally, a CPU has three components:

o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit
o Memory or Storage Unit
Control Unit:
The Control Unit (CU) is a vital part of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and is accountable for
the overall performance of a computer system. It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes
use of electrical signals to instruct the computer system for executing already stored instructions.
It takes instructions from memory and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it
controls and coordinates the functioning of all parts of the computer.

The Control Unit's main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information across the
processor. It serves as a traffic controller, ensuring that information and instructions are
efficiently transferred among the various elements of the computer system. It manages the order
in which instructions are executed and synchronizes the activities of various units within the
CPU. It does not take part in processing and storing data. Instead, it serves as an overseer,
coordinating the actions of other CPU parts to guarantee that instructions are carried out
accurately and in the right order.

The Control Unit achieves coordination within the CPU through a series of steps:
 o Fetch: The Control Unit retrieves an instruction from the computer's memory. It
accomplishes this by accessing the memory location provided by the program counter
(PC), which contains the address of the next instruction to be executed.
o Decode: Once the instruction is fetched, the Control Unit decodes it. It breaks down the
instruction into its constituent elements, which include the operation code (opcode) and
any associated operands. The operands supply the data or memory locations on which the
operation will be completed, while the opcode suggests the kind of operation to be done.
o Execute: After the instruction is decoded, the Control Unit initiates the execution phase.
It coordinates the necessary actions within the CPU's functional units, such as the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU), to perform the specific operation indicated by the
instruction. This may involve calculations, data manipulations, or control operations.
o Store: Once the instruction is executed, the Control Unit updates the necessary registers
and flags to reflect the operation results. This could involve storing the result in a
register, updating the program counter to indicate the address of the next instruction, or
modifying status flags that provide information about the outcome of the operation (e.g.,
zero flags, carry flags).
o Repeat: After updating the necessary components, the Control Unit repeats the process
by fetching the next instruction from memory. It increments the program counter to point
to the next instruction's address, and the cycle continues.

This fetch-decode-execute cycle is repeated for each instruction in the program, allowing the
Control Unit to coordinate the sequential execution of instructions and ensure that the computer
system performs the required tasks.

The Control Unit ensures the correct information flow and guides the CPU's actions during this
process. It eventually aids in the general operation of the computer system by allowing the CPU
to carry out the required operations and computations through the fetching, decoding, and
execution of instructions.

ADVERTISEMENT

ALU:
It is the arithmetic logic unit, which carries out arithmetic and logical operations. Included in the
list of arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and comparisons.
Data selection, comparison, and merging are the primary logical operations. More than one ALU
may be present in a CPU. ALUs can also be used to keep track of timers that assist in running the
computer.
The ALU consists of two main subsections: the Arithmetic Section and the Logic Section.

o The ALU's Arithmetic Section conducts mathematical operations. It performs

fundamental mathematical operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. For mathematical computations in several applications and programmes, these
processes are necessary. Other operations, such as bitwise operations and incrementing or
decreasing values, can also be handled by the Arithmetic Section.
o The ALU's Logic Section is in charge of performing logical operations. Data
manipulation based on logical conditions is referred to as logical operations. These
operations include choosing or removing certain data elements or fields, comparing
values to identify connections (such as equal, greater than, or less than), and merging or
combining data in accordance with logical principles. Decision-making, data filtering,
and data processing tasks frequently employ logical operations.

The ALU's arithmetic and logical functions are crucial for the execution of instructions within
the CPU. The ALU is responsible for carrying out the necessary arithmetic or logical operation
specified by the instruction when retrieved and decoded by the Control Unit. For instance, the
Arithmetic Section of the ALU will perform the addition operation and output the result if an
instruction calls for adding two integers.

Sometimes, a CPU may contain multiple ALUs to enhance its processing capabilities. Multiple
ALUs can work simultaneously, allowing for parallel execution of operations and speeding up
computation tasks. This is especially beneficial in CPUs with multiple cores or processors
designed for high-performance computing.

Memory or Storage Unit

A computer system's memory or storage unit maintains instructions, data, and intermediate
outcomes. It acts as a database that other computer components may access and save data in as
needed. This device has numerous names because of its numerous functions, including internal
storage unit, main memory, primary storage, or Random-access reminiscence (RAM).

The memory unit's capability directly affects the computer's speed, power, and normal
performance. A memory unit with a larger ability allows for storing more data and instructions,
resulting in an improved machine capacity to handle complicated tasks efficiently.

A computer system commonly has two types of memory: primary and secondary.

o Primary memory, often called RAM, is the main memory of a computer. It closely
collaborates with the CPU to quickly store and retrieve data. RAM allows the computer
to access information randomly, which means it can retrieve any piece of data without
going through everything in order. RAM acts as a momentary workspace where the
computer stores the information and applications it is now utilizing. RAM is a volatile
memory, so anything saved inside is lost when the machine is switched off. How many
programs can run simultaneously and how much data can be processed simultaneously
depends on the RAM capacity.

o Secondary memory includes hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and
external storage devices. Computer systems are designed to store data for extended
periods, even if powered off. Secondary memory, unlike RAM, is non-volatile and
maintains records even in the absence of power. It is the storage location for operating
systems, software applications, documents, and user data. Secondary memory has a larger
capability in comparison to RAM. While accessing data from secondary memory takes
longer than primary memory, it gives the advantage of long-term data retention.
Some functions of the Memory unit

o Storage: The memory unit stores instructions, data, and intermediate results for the
computer to perform tasks.
o Retrieval: The computer can access stored information quickly and efficiently, enabling
the processor to retrieve data and instructions during program execution.
o Temporary Storage: The memory unit provides temporary storage (RAM) for actively
running programs, allowing the CPU to access and manipulate data quickly.
o Data Transfer: It facilitates the transfer of data between the CPU and other components
of the computer system, ensuring smooth communication and efficient processing.
o Fast Access: The memory unit offers fast access to data and instructions, reducing delays
in program execution and enhancing overall system performance.
o Random Access: It enables the CPU to retrieve data from any location in the memory
unit without searching sequentially, allowing for quick and random access to information.

What is CPU Clock Speed?

The clock speed of a processor, often known as the CPU clock rate, is an important component.
The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it can process in a
second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a clock speed of 4.0 GHz means it
can process 4 billion instructions in a second.

The number of instructions a CPU can execute in a specific time is determined by the CPU's
clock speed. Each instruction represents a fundamental CPU activity, such as transferring data or
doing mathematical calculations. The clock speed determines how quickly these instructions are
executed. A higher clock speed allows the CPU to process more instructions per second,
enhancing overall performance.

Consider an example with a factory production line to understand better how clock speed affects
CPU performance. The clock speed represents the speed at which the conveyor belt moves,
bringing workpieces to different stations. The faster the conveyor belt moves; the more
workpieces can be processed in a given time.
Note: The entire performance of a CPU is not determined by the clock speed alone. The
processor's architecture and design are also quite important. The effectiveness of different CPU
architectures in carrying out instructions can vary. Therefore, CPUs with lower clock rates but
superior architecture may perform better than CPUs with greater clock speeds but inefficient
designs.

Modern CPUs also frequently use techniques like multi-core architectures and instruction
pipelining to boost speed. To increase processing power overall, multi-core CPUs include
numerous independent processing units (cores) that may carry out instructions concurrently. The
CPU may execute many instructions simultaneously using instruction pipelining, significantly
enhancing efficiency.

Because of advances in semiconductor technology, CPU clock rates have been rising
continuously over time. Early CPUs operated at clock speeds measured in megahertz (MHz), but
with technological progress, GHz speeds became the norm. Some high-end CPUs even surpassed
the 5 GHz mark.

Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own types of
CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some of the basic types of
CPUs are described below:

o Single-Core CPUs
o Dual-Core CPUs
o Quad-Core CPUs
o Hexa-Core CPUs
o Octa-Core CPUs
o Multi-Core CPUs

Single Core CPU

Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in the 1970s. It has only one
core to process different operations. It can start only one operation at a time; the CPU switches
back and forth between different sets of data streams when more than one program runs. So, it is
not suitable for multitasking as the performance will be reduced if more than one application
runs. The performance of these CPUs is mainly dependent on the clock speed. It is still used in
various devices, such as smartphones.

But as technology developed, multi-core CPUs proliferated and now provide better multitasking
skills. These CPUs can execute several instructions simultaneously due to their numerous
processing cores. Single-core CPUs are less popular in desktop and laptop computers, although
they are still used in embedded systems and mobile phones. Smartphones often use single-core
or dual-core CPUs that are particularly made for power efficiency to balance performance and
battery life.

Dual Core CPU

As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single Integrated Circuit (IC).
Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are linked together to work as a single
unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core processors and can handle multitasking
more efficiently than Single Core processors.

A dual-core CPU's two cores enable the execution of many tasks in parallel. Each core can
independently execute instructions, enabling parallel processing. This capability significantly
improves multitasking performance compared to single-core processors. With dual-core CPUs,
users can run multiple applications simultaneously without experiencing significant performance
slowdowns.

ADVERTISEMENT

Dual-core CPUs offer benefits beyond multitasking. They can also enhance performance for
single-threaded applications. Since each core can handle instructions independently, tasks that
cannot be parallelized can still benefit from the dual-core architecture. One core can focus on
running the main application, while the other handles background processes or system tasks.
This division of work ensures a smoother user experience and improves overall system
responsiveness.

Quad Core CPU

This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one integrated circuit (IC) or chip. So,
a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four independent units called cores. These cores
read and execute instructions of CPU. The cores can run multiple instructions simultaneously,
thereby increases the overall speed for programs that are compatible with parallel processing.

Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units (cores) to run in
parallel on a single chip. Thus, by integrating multiple cores in a single CPU, higher performance
can be generated without boosting the clock speed. However, the performance increases only
when the computer's software supports multiprocessing. The software which supports
multiprocessing divides the processing load between multiple processors instead of using one
processor at a time.

Thanks to Quad-core processors' ability to divide the processing burden among several cores,
multiple processors can operate simultaneously instead of one at a time. Certain software
supports this multiprocessing capacity, which improves productivity and speeds up processing
times, especially for jobs that can be broken down into smaller subtasks and carried out
concurrently.

Quad-core CPUs, in particular, provide advantages in terms of increased efficiency and quicker
processing for multitasking and computationally heavy jobs. With four cores, the CPU can
divide the workload more equally, enabling quicker reaction times and more fluid multitasking.
In jobs like video editing, 3D graphics, and gaming, where simultaneous execution of numerous
tasks is essential, quad-core CPUs excel in parallel processing.

Hexa-Core CPUs

Hexa-core CPUs are computer processors that include six separate cores on a single integrated
circuit (IC) or chip. Each core functions as a separate processing unit that can perform
computations and commands. With six cores, processing power may be boosted, and
performance can be enhanced.

Regarding multitasking and managing resource-intensive tasks, Hexa-core CPUs provide

substantial benefits. The CPU can perform numerous tasks simultaneously with six cores by
distributing the burden among them for more effective processing. Users may operate many
programs simultaneously without noticeably encountering performance slowdowns or delays,
such as web browsers, video editing programs, and gaming programs.
Hexa-core CPUs also excel in applications that demand significant computational power, such as
video editing, 3D rendering, scientific simulations, and virtualization. These tasks can be
distributed across multiple cores, resulting in faster processing and reduced waiting times.

Octa-Core CPUs

Octa-core CPUs are computer processors with eight separate cores on a single integrated circuit
(IC) or chip. Each core performs as a separate processing unit that can perform calculations and
commands. An octa-core CPU's eight cores considerably boost processing power and overall
performance.

Octa-core CPUs excel at performing demanding workloads and have impressive multitasking
capabilities. With eight cores, the CPU can effectively manage multiple simultaneous tasks. The
workload is distributed across the cores, allowing for efficient processing and faster completion
of tasks. This means users can run numerous applications simultaneously without experiencing
significant performance slowdowns or system lag.

The key advantage of octa-core CPUs is their ability to execute instructions in parallel. Each core
can independently work on different tasks, allowing for concurrent processing. This parallel
processing capacity enhances system performance overall and speeds up operations. It is
especially beneficial for undertakings that may be divided into smaller tasks and finished
simultaneously.

Octa-core CPUs are best suited for computationally intensive software that requires many
resources. High-definition video editing, 3D rendering, intricate scientific simulations, and
virtualization are among the examples. These workloads may be effectively divided across
several cores, resulting in quicker processing and shorter wait times.

Multi-Core CPUs
Multi-core CPUs, also known as multi-core processors, are kinds of computer processors that
combine several independent cores onto a single chip or integrated circuit. Multi-core CPUs use
two or extra cores that work collectively to execute instructions and do computations, in contrast
to single-core processors, which rely upon a single core to complete all activities.

The primary advantage of multi-core CPUs is their capability to deal with numerous tasks
simultaneously, improving overall performance and efficiency. The CPU's cores perform as
separate processing units that can operate independently. Due to the CPU's ability to distribute
work across its cores through parallel processing, jobs may be completed more quickly and
concurrently.

Users may run numerous programs simultaneously on multi-core CPUs without suffering severe
slowdowns or performance bottlenecks. For instance, each job may be given to a different core
for effective processing, allowing you to browse the web, stream movies, and work on paper
simultaneously. This multitasking feature makes the system more responsive overall and
provides a more convenient user experience.

Multi-core CPUs excel at performing computationally demanding activities in addition to

multitasking. These processors can handle complicated activities like video editing, 3D
rendering, scientific simulations, and gaming more effectively by distributing the burden among
numerous cores. The ability to distribute the workload across cores results in faster processing
times and reduced waiting periods.

What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer system,
including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software without
using hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is also a hardware.

What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or additional
hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A common example
of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's total memory, and video
card upgrade, where the old video card is removed and replaced with the new one.

Computer Hardware Parts

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:

1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse

1) Motherboard:
The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a
computer except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard drive,
and ports for input and output devices are located on the motherboard. It is the biggest circuit
board in a computer chassis.

It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with each
other. It is meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other components connect
to it. Each component that runs the computer or improves its performance is a part of the
motherboard or connected to it through a slot or port.

There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the computers. So, a
specific motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and memory.

Components of a Motherboard:
CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a
motherboard. It facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or
removed. Furthermore, it is provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat sink to
dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the
RAM (Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.

Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the
motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card, for
example, you can purchase a video expansion card and install it into the expansion slot and then
can install a new video card in the computer. Some of the common expansion slots in a computer
are AGP, AMR, CNR, PCI, etc.

Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them.
These parts are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron
core. It acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.

Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface,
AGP, and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to communicate with the
RAM, CPU, and graphics controller.

USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.

PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI
devices like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.

Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.
Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a memory that

stores the BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.

2) Monitor:
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text, images,
etc., is displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which encloses this circuity. The
monitor is also known as a visual display unit (VDU).

Types of Monitors:
1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of video
signals. Its main components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, glass
envelope, fluorescent screen, and base.
2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to
produce images on the screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with capacitors
and use active-matrix technology, which allows pixels to retain their charge.
3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD monitor,
which uses cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has LED panels,
each of which has lots of LEDs to display the backlight.
4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce high
resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate, outstanding
contrast ration, and more.

3) Keyboard:
It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text,
characters, and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes with different sets
of keys to enter numbers, characters, and perform various other functions like copy, paste, delete,
enter, etc.

A keyboards is an input device through which users can input text, numbers, and special
characters. It is an input device with a typical QWERTY keyset. It is an external hardware device
that is connected to the computer. It serves as the user's most fundamental interface with a
system. It has numerous buttons that can be used to generate letters, numbers, and symbols as
well as unique keys like the Windows and Alt keys that can also accomplish other tasks.
Types of Keyboards:
1. QWERTY Keyboards
2. AZERTY Keyboards
3. DVORAK Keyboards

4) Mouse:
It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer screen's cursor)
in a GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or select objects on a computer's
display screen. It is generally placed on a flat surface as we need to move it smoothly to control
the pointer. Types of Mouse: Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Wireless
Mouse, etc.

A mouse can be wireless or wired. It is a portable pointing device that is used to interact with
objects on computer screens with the help of moving the cursor around the screen. On the
display screen, the cursor moves in the same direction as the users' mouse movements. The term
"mouse" refers to a compact, wired, elliptical-shaped gadget that somewhat resembles a mouse.

Main functions of a mouse:

o Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on the screen.
o Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and execute a
program. You are required to take the cursor on the folder and double click it to open it.
o Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.
o Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object. During
hovering over an object, it displays information about the object without pressing any
button of the mouse.
o Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or document.

Parts of a mouse:
o Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.
o Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used to scroll
up and down and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like AutoCAD.
o Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.
 o Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor to
provide signals to the computer about the motion and location of the mouse.

ADVERTISEMENT

What are external hardware components?

The items that are frequently attached to the computer from outside in order to control input or
output functions are known as external hardware components, sometimes known as peripheral
components. These hardware components either serve as input devices for the software or output
devices for the output of the software's operations (output).

The following are examples of common input hardware components:

o Microphone: A microphone is an input device that converts sound waves into electrical
impulses in order to allow computer-based audio communications. It was developed by
Emile Berliner in 1877. It is used to enter audio into computers or transform sound waves
into electric waves. It captures audio with the help of converting sound waves into an
electrical signal that could be a digital or analog signal. This process can be implemented
by a computer as well as other digital audio devices.

o Camera: Visual pictures are captured by a camera, which then transmits them to a
computer or a network device. A camera is a piece of equipment that takes photographs
with the help of using photosensitive film or a plate inside of a light-proof housing. The
photosensitive film is exposed to light via the camera's shutter, which opens and closes as
the image is imprinted onto the film.

o Touchpad: A touchpad is an input device that is also known as a glide pad, glide point,
pressure-sensitive tablet, or trackpad. It enables finger cursor movement for the user. It
can take the place of a regular mouse. To control the pointer on a display screen, a
touchpad can be either external or incorporated into a laptop. Usually, it serves as a
 substitute for an external mouse.

o USB flash drive: A USB flash drive is a type of storage device for data that connects to a
computer via a USB port and uses flash memory. It is an external, removable storage
device that has a built-in Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. Many USB flash drives
can be removed and written to. They have a compact, reliable, and small physical design.
They often operate more quickly the more storage space they have. Because there are no
moving parts, USB flash drives are extremely mechanically durable.

o Memory card: A memory card is a kind of portable external storage device; video,
photo, and other data files can be stored on it. A form of storage medium, which is
additionally known as a flash memory. Also, it provides a volatile and non-volatile
medium. It is frequently found in gadgets, including phones, laptops, digital cameras,
camcorders, gaming consoles, MP3 players, printers, and more.
Joysticks, styluses, and scanners are examples of additional input hardware components.

The following are a few examples of output hardware components:

o Printer: A printer is a hardware output device used to produce hard copies of documents
or print them. It converts computer-generated electronic data into printed form. Text files,
pictures, or a combination of the two can all be considered documents. It receives input
commands from users so that computers or other devices may print the sheets. You must
create a soft copy of your report and print it using a printer, for example, if your
institution needs you to submit a project report.

o Speaker: One of the most popular output devices is a speaker that connects to a
computer to generate a sound output. While some speakers can only be connected to
computers, others can be used with any type of sound system.
 o Headphones, earphones, earbuds: These are also output devices much like speakers,
which offer audio that can only be heard by one list.

Hardware vs. software

Hardware describes the physical parts of the computer or its delivery mechanisms that hold and
execute the software's written instructions. The intangible component of the system software
enables the user to communicate with the hardware and give commands to perform specific
tasks. Computer software includes:

o OS and associated tools;

o Applications that regulate particular computer operations
o Programs that generally operate on data provided by the user

Virtual keyboards are not physical keyboards; therefore, they are also considered software on
mobile devices and laptop computers.

The software must be developed to function properly with the hardware because they both are
necessary for a computer to create usable output. Also, they depend on each other.

If any system has malware or malicious software, such as worms, spyware, viruses, and Trojan
horses, they can have a significant impact on software and the operating system of a system.
Malware, however, has no effect on hardware.

On the other hand, malware can impact the system in additional ways. For example, it can use up
a lot of memory of the system or even reproduce itself to take up the entire hard drive. This can
stop reliable programs from working and causes the computer to run slowly. Furthermore, users
may not be able to access the files stored on the computer's hardware due to malware.

What is hardware virtualization?

The abstraction of physical computing resources from the software that utilizes those resources is
known as hardware virtualization. Put on another way; hardware virtualization is the process of
creating virtual representations of hardware by using software rather than physical, tangible
hardware components for various computing functions.

A particular hardware platform by host software is used to execute hardware virtualization, and it
is sometimes referred to as platform or server virtualization. It needs a hypervisor, a virtual
machine manager that turns internal hardware into virtual forms. As a result, among OSes and
applications, the hardware resources of one physical machine can be shared easily and used more
efficiently.
In cloud computing, infrastructure as a service (IaaS), a delivery model that offers hardware
resources over high-speed internet, is frequently associated with hardware virtualization. All of
the hardware elements that are typically found in an on-premises data center, including servers,
storage, and networking hardware, as well as the software that enables virtualization, are hosted
by a cloud service provider (CSP), such as Amazon Web Services or Microsoft Azure.

IaaS and CSPs differ from hardware as a service (HaaS) providers in that they don't host
software but only host hardware. A typical IaaS provider also offers a variety of services to go
along with infrastructure parts, like the following:

o billing
o clustering
o log access
o monitoring
o security
o load balancing

Other storage resilience services are also provided by some CSPs, including disaster recovery,
automated backup, and replication.

What is hardware as a service?

While buying computer hardware and occasionally replacing or upgrading it is common for
individuals or businesses. People and businesses can also rent physical and virtual hardware from
a service provider. The maintenance of the hardware, including all of its numerous physical parts
and the software that runs on them, becomes the responsibility of the service provider. It is also
called the HaaS model.

The most significant advantage of HaaS is it decreases the price of purchasing and maintaining
hardware, allowing businesses to switch from a capital expenditure budget to a typically cheaper
operational expense budget. Additionally, the majority of HaaS options are based on a pay-as-
you-go model, which makes it simpler for businesses in order to manage expenditures while still
having access to the hardware they require for their operational and business continuity.

HaaS involves installing physical parts that belong to a managed service provider (MSP) at a
client's location. The responsibilities of both parties are defined by an SLA (service-level
agreement).

For using the MSP's hardware, the customer may either pay a monthly cost or have it included in
the MSP's fee schedule for setting up, maintaining, and monitoring the hardware. In either case,
the MSP is in charge of fixing or replacing the hardware if it breaks down or becomes outdated.
Decommissioning hardware may involve physically destroying hard drives, deleting confidential
data, and verifying that used equipment has been recycled legally on the basis of the SLA's
requirements.

ADVERTISEMENT

Computer hardware problems and diagnostics methods

In modern times, troubleshooting computer hardware issues has become more convenient, faster,
and easier as well. You can quickly determine which equipment is having problems if you have
the correct IT inventory management tool.

The effectiveness of management procedures is greatly improved by automated IT inventory

management software. You can deliver the best services by correlating, analyzing, and tracking
changes with the help of these tools for asset management. They enable you to produce detailed
records and define maintenance timeframes, which make it simpler to track the performance of
each asset and reduce the need for manual updates.

The software has the ability to monitor hardware warranty, and expiration dates in addition to
tracking and identifying hardware faults. These functions assist you in service level agreements,
organizing upcoming purchases, and procurement plans in accordance with corporate
requirements. The asset automatically updates the inventory as necessary if it finds configuration
changes and performance issues. Software for managing hardware inventories can perform the
following things, for example:

o Immediately gather IT inventory data and auto-discover assets.

o Send immediate warnings regarding CPU and motherboard hardware problems or when
your operating system, firmware, and software upgrades are available.
o Keep track of any server operating system upgrades.
o Track and manage the maintenance requirements and life cycles of the hardware
inventory
o Also, with powerful IT inventory management software, you can identify and monitor
configuration changes.