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Module 4
Module 4
Module-4
Control of Voltage and Reactive Power
Introduction:
Consider the simple system linking two generating stations A and B, as shown in Figure.
Initially the system is considered to be only reactive and R is ignored. The machine at A is in
phase advance of that at B and V1 is greater than V2
Hence there is a flow of real power from A to B.
This can be seen from the phasor diagram shown in Figure (b).
It is seen that Id and hence P is determined by δ and the value of Iq and hence Q mainly, by V1
-V2.
In this case V1 > V2 and reactive power is transferred from A to B.
By varying the generator excitations such that V2 > V1, the direction of the reactive power is
reversed, as shown in Figure (c).
Hence, real power can be sent from A to B or B to A by suitably adjusting the amount of steam
(or water) admitted to the turbine, and reactive power can be sent in either direction by adjusting
the voltage magnitudes.
These two operations are approximately independent of each other if X > R, and the flow of
reactive power can be studied almost independently of the real power flow.
The phasor diagrams show that if a scalar voltage difference exists across a largely reactive
link, the reactive power flows towards the node of lower voltage.
From another point of view, if, in a network, there is a deficiency of reactive power at a point,
this has to be supplied from the connecting lines and hence the voltage at that point falls.
Conversely if there is a surplus of reactive power generated (for example, lightly loaded cables
generate positive VArs), then the voltage will rise.
This is a convenient way of expressing the effect of the power factor of the transferred current,
and although it may seem unfamiliar initially, the ability to think in terms of VAr flows, instead
of exclusively with power factors and phasor diagrams, will make the study of power networks
much easier.
Cables:
Cables are generators of reactive power owing to their high shunt capacitance.
A 275 kV, 240 MVA cable produces 6.25–7.5 MVAr per km;
a 132 kV cable roughly 1.9 MVAr per km; and a 33 kV cable, 0.125 MVAr per km.
Loads:
A load at 0.95 power factor implies a reactive power demand of 0.33 kVAr per kW of power,
which is more appreciable than the mere quoting of the power factor would suggest.
In planning a network, it is desirable to assess the reactive power requirements to ascertain
whether the generators are able to operate at the required power factors for the extremes of load to be
expected.
____________ 1
As an example, consider a line with series impedance (R + jX) and zero shunt admittance as shown
in Figure
----------------------------------------2
where V1, the sending-end voltage, is constant, and V, the receiving-end voltage, depends on P and
Q.
From Equation 2
For constant V and ΔV, RdP + XdQ=0 and dQ =-(R/X) dP, which is obtainable directly from
Equation
𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 be found experimentally using a load-flow calculation by the injection of a known quantity
of VArs at the node in question and calculating the difference in voltage produced can be found
proved for a single line, it is evident that the smaller the reactance associated with a node, the
larger the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 for a given voltage drop, that is, the voltage drop is inherently small.
The greater the number of lines meeting at a node, the smaller the resultant reactance and the
larger the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉.
Obviously, 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 depends on the network configuration, but a high value would lie in the
range 10–15 MVAr/kV.
If the natural voltage drop at a point without the artificial injection of VArs is, say, 5 kV, and
the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 at this point is 10 MVAr/kV, then to maintain the voltage at its no-load
level would require 50 MVAr.
Obviously, the greater the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 ,the more expensive it becomes to maintain voltage
levels by injection of reactive power.
One of the obvious places for the artificial injection of reactive power is at the loads
themselves.
In general, four methods of injecting reactive power are available, involving the use of:
1. static shunt capacitors;
2. static series capacitors;
3. synchronous compensators;
4. static VAr compensators and STATCOMs.
1.Shunt Capacitors and Reactors:
Shunt capacitors are used to compensate lagging power factor loads, whereas reactors
are used on circuits that generate VArs such as lightly loaded cables.
The effect of these shunt devices is to supply or absorb the requisite reactive power to
maintain the magnitude of the voltage.
Capacitors are connected either directly to a busbar or to the tertiary winding of a main
transformer.
In the USA they are often installed along the routes of distribution circuits to minimize
the losses and voltage drops.
Unfortunately, as the voltage reduces, the VArs produced by a shunt capacitor or
absorbed by a reactor fall as the square of the voltage; thus, when needed most, their
effectiveness drops.
Also, with light network load when the voltage is high, the capacitor output is large
and the voltage tends to rise to excessive levels, requiring some capacitors or cable circuits to
be switched out by local overvoltage relays.
2. Series Capacitors:
Capacitors can be connected in series with overhead lines and are then used to reduce the
inductive reactance between the supply point and the load.
One major drawback is the high overvoltage produced across the capacitor when a short-
circuit current flows through the circuit, and special protective devices need to be
incorporated (e.g. spark gaps) and non-linear resistors.
The compensator is run up as an induction motor in 2.5 min and then synchronized.
A great advantage is the flexibility of operation for all load conditions.
Although the cost of such installations is high, in some circumstances it is justified, for
example at the receiving-end busbar of a long high-voltage line where transmission at power
factors less than unity cannot be tolerated.
Being a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful for increasing the inertia of the
power system and for riding through transient disturbances, including voltage sags .
,
For given load conditions it is proposed to determine the necessary transformation ratios with
certain outputs of the compensator.
The transformer is represented by the equivalent star connection and any line impedance from
V1 or V2 to the transformer can be lumped together with the transformer branch impedances.
Here, VN is the phase voltage at the star point of the equivalent circuit. The secondary
impedance (XS) is usually approaching zero and hence is neglected.
Resistance and losses are ignored.
Phase-Shift Transformer:
A quadrature phase shift can be achieved by the connections shown in Figure(a)
The booster arrangement shows the injection of voltage into one phase only;
it is repeated for the other two phases. In Figure (b), the corresponding phasor diagram is
shown and the nature of the angular shift of the voltage boost VYB indicated.
Voltage Collapse :
Voltage collapse is an important aspect of system stability.