ChE 4745

Process Control and Dynamics

Dynamic Behavior Of
Chapter 5

First Order and Second

Order Processes
 Dynamic Behavior

In analyzing process dynamic and process control systems, it is

important to know how the process responds to changes in the
5
Chapter 5

process inputs.
A number of standard types of input changes are widely used for
two reasons:

C 1. They are representative of the types of changes that occur

h in plants.
a
pt 2. They are easy to analyze mathematically.
er
 1. Step Input

A sudden change in a process variable can be approximated by

a step change of magnitude, M:

(5-4)
5
Chapter 5

The step change occurs at an arbitrary time denoted as t = 0.

C • Special Case: If M = 1, we have a “unit step change”. We

h give it the symbol, S(t).
a
pt • Example of a step change: A reactor feedstock is suddenly
er switched from one supply to another, causing sudden
changes in feed concentration, flow, etc.
 Example:
The heat input to the stirred-tank heating system in Chapter 2 is
suddenly changed from 8000 to 10,000 kcal/hr by changing the
electrical signal to the heater. Thus,
Q t   8000  2000S t , S t  unit step
5
Chapter 5

and
Q t   Q  Q  2000S t , Q  8000 kcal/hr

2. Ramp Input
C
h • Industrial processes often experience “drifting
a disturbances”, that is, relatively slow changes up or down
for some period of time.
pt • The rate of change is approximately constant.
er
 We can approximate a drifting disturbance by a ramp input:

(5-7)

5 Examples of ramp changes:

Chapter 5

1. Ramp a setpoint to a new value. (Why not make a step

change?)
2. Feed composition, heat exchanger fouling, catalyst
C activity, ambient temperature.
h 3. Rectangular Pulse
a
pt It represents a brief, sudden change in a process variable:
er
 (5-9)

XRP
5
Chapter 5

0 Tw Time, t
C
h Examples:
a
pt 1. Reactor feed is shut off for one hour.
er 2. The fuel gas supply to a furnace is briefly interrupted.
a
5

h
C

er
pt
Chapter 5
 4. Sinusoidal Input

Processes are also subject to periodic, or cyclic, disturbances.

They can be approximated by a sinusoidal disturbance:

5
Chapter 5

(5-14)

where: A = amplitude,  = angular frequency

C
h Examples:
a
pt 1. 24 hour variations in cooling water temperature.
er 2. 60-Hz electrical noise (in the USA)
 5. Impulse Input

• Here, U I t    t .
• It represents a short, transient disturbance.
Examples:
5
Chapter 5

1. Electrical noise spike in a thermo-couple reading.

2. Injection of a tracer dye.
• Useful for analysis since the response to an impulse input
is the inverse of the TF. Thus,
C
u t  y t 
h G s 
a U s  Y s 
pt Here,
er
Y s   G s U s  (1)
 The corresponding time domain express is:

y t    g t  τ u τ dτ
t
(2)
0

5 where:
Chapter 5

g t  = L1 G s  (3)

Suppose u t    t  . Then it can be shown that:
C y t   g t  (4)
h
a Consequently, g(t) is called the “impulse response function”.
pt
er
 First-Order System
The standard form for a first-order TF is:

(5-16)

5 where:
Chapter 5

K = steady-state gain
τ = time constant
Consider the response of this system to a step of magnitude, M:
C
U t   M for t  0  U s  
M
h s
a
pt Substitute into (5-16) and rearrange,
er Y s  
KM
(5-17)
s τs 1
 Take L-1 (cf. Table 3.1),

(5-18)

Let y = steady-state value of y(t). From (5-18), y  KM .

5
Chapter 5

1.0
y
t y
y 0 0
0.5
y τ 0.632
C
2τ 0.865
h 0
0 3τ 0.950
a 1 2 3 4 5

pt t 4τ 0.982
er τ 5τ 0.993
Note: Large τ means a slow response.
 Integrating Process
Not all processes have a steady-state gain. For example, an
“integrating process” or “integrator” has the transfer function:

5
Chapter 5

Consider a step change of magnitude M. Then U(s) = M/s and,

C
h
a
pt Thus, y(t) is unbounded and a new steady-state value does not
er exist.
 Common Physical Example:
Consider a liquid storage tank with a pump on the exit line:
qi

5
Chapter 5

h
- Assume:
q
1. Constant cross-sectional area, A.
C 2. q  f h
h - Mass balance: A
dh
 qi  q (1)  0  qi  q (2)
a dt
pt - Eq. (1) – Eq. (2), take L, assume steady state initially,
er
- For Q s   0 (constant q),
 Exercise Problem

5
Chapter 5

C
h
a
pt
er
 Second-Order Systems
• A second-order transfer function can arise physically
whenever two first-order processes are connected in series.

5
Chapter 5

• For such systems

C (5-37)
h
a • Alternatively, a second-order process transfer function
pt will arise upon transforming either a second-order
er differential equation process model
 Second-Order Systems
• Standard form:

(5-38)

5
Chapter 5

which has three model parameters:

K = steady-state gain
τ = "time constant" [=] time
C ζ = damping coefficient (dimensionless)
h
a
pt
er
 Damping coefficient ζ
• Damping coefficient ζ (zeta) is dimensionless. It provides a
measure of the amount of damping in the system—that is, the
degree of oscillation in a process response after an input
change.
5
Chapter 5

• Small values of ζ imply little damping and a large amount of

oscillation, as, for example, in an automobile suspension
system with ineffective shock absorbers. Hitting a bump
causes a vehicle to bounce up and down dangerously.
C
h • where ζ < 0; it corresponds to an unstable second-order
a system that has an unbounded response to any input. The
pt overdamped and critically damped forms of the second-order
er transfer function most often appear when two first-order
systems occur in series
 Equating the denominators yields the relation between the two
alternative forms for the overdamped second-order system

Equating coefficients of the s terms,

Chapter 5
 Step Response
The Characteristic polynomial

Poles are
Chapter 5

For a unit step input, the response will be:

 1

3
Chapter 5

1. Overdamped Response

Where,
 Case 2: Critically damped Response

Case 3: underdamped Response

Chapter 5
a
5

h
C

er
pt
Chapter 5
a
5

h
C

er
pt
Chapter 5
 • The type of behavior that occurs depends on the numerical
value of damping coefficient, ζ :
It is convenient to consider three types of behavior:
Damping Type of Response Roots of Charact.
Coefficient Polynomial
5
Chapter 5

ζ 1 Overdamped Real and ≠

ζ 1 Critically damped Real and =

0  ζ 1 Underdamped Complex
C conjugates
h
a • Note: The characteristic polynomial is the denominator of the
pt transfer function:
er τ 2 s 2  2ζτs 1
What about ζ  0 ? It results in an unstable system
 Several general remarks can be made concerning the
responses show in Figs. 5.8 and 5.9:

1. Responses exhibiting oscillation and overshoot (y/KM > 1) are

obtained only for values of ζ less than one.
5 2. Large values of ζ yield a sluggish (slow) response.
Chapter 5

3. The fastest response without overshoot is obtained for the

critically damped case ζ  1.

C
h
a
pt
er
a
5

h
C

er
pt
Chapter 5
 1. Rise Time: tr is the time the process output takes to first
reach the new steady-state value.
2. Time to First Peak: tp is the time required for the output to
reach its first maximum value.

5 3. Settling Time: ts is defined as the time required for the

Chapter 5

process output to reach and remain inside a band whose width

is equal to ±5% of the total change in y. The term 95%
response time sometimes is used to refer to this case. Also,
values of ±1% sometimes are used.
C 4. Overshoot: OS = a/b (% overshoot is 100a/b).
h
5. Decay Ratio: DR = c/a (where c is the height of the second
a peak).
pt
er 6. Period of Oscillation: P is the time between two successive
peaks or two successive valleys of the response.