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(Download PDF) Handbook of Vacuum Technology 2Nd Edition Jousten Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
(Download PDF) Handbook of Vacuum Technology 2Nd Edition Jousten Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
Edition Jousten
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Edited by
Karl Jousten
Handbook of Vacuum
Technology
Edited by Karl Jousten
Contents
Preface XXIII
References 81
Comprehensive general treatments of the subject 82
4 Gas Flow 83
4.1 Types of Flows and Definitions 83
4.1.1 Characterizing Flow, Knudsen Number, and Reynolds Number 83
4.1.2 Gas Flow, Throughput, and Pumping Speed 87
4.1.3 Flow Resistance and Flow Conductance 90
4.1.4 Effective Pumping Speed of a Vacuum Pump 92
4.2 Inviscid Viscous Flow and Gas Dynamics 93
4.2.1 Conservation Laws 93
4.2.2 Gradual Change of Cross-Sectional Area: Isentropic Change of
State 95
4.2.3 Critical Flow 98
4.2.4 Choked Flow at Low Outlet Pressure 100
4.2.5 Contraction of Flow into Aperture and Tube 101
4.2.6 Examples of Nozzle Flow 102
4.2.7 Straight and Oblique Compression Shocks 106
4.2.8 Laval Nozzle and Effluent Flow against Counterpressure 108
4.2.9 Flow Around a Corner (Prandtl–Meyer Flow) 111
4.3 Frictional–Viscous Flow through a Tube 114
4.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flows through a Tube 114
4.3.2 Airflow through a Tube 118
4.3.3 Air Inflow to a Vessel: Examples 120
4.3.4 Tube at the Inlet of a Pump: Examples 125
4.3.5 Flow through Ducts with Noncircular Cross Sections 128
4.3.6 Influence of Gas Species on Flow 130
4.4 Molecular Flow under High-Vacuum and Ultrahigh-Vacuum
Conditions 131
4.4.1 Flow Pattern, Definitions, and Transmission Probability 131
4.4.2 Molecular Flow through an Aperture 135
4.4.3 Molecular Flow through a Tube with Constant Cross-Sectional
Area 137
4.4.4 Molecular Flow through a Tube with Circular Cross Section 139
4.4.5 Molecular Flow through Tubes with Simple Cross-Sectional
Geometry 140
4.4.6 Tube Bend and Tube Elbow 143
4.4.7 Series Connection of Tube and Aperture 145
4.4.8 Series Connection of Components 146
4.4.9 Molecular Flow through Conical Tube with Circular Cross Section
(Funnel) 148
4.4.10 Component in the Inlet Line of a Pump 150
4.5 Flow throughout the Entire Pressure Range 151
4.5.1 Flow Ranges 151
4.5.2 Flow through a Thin Aperture with Circular Cross Section 151
Contents VII
4.5.3 Flow through a Long Tube with Circular Cross Section 154
4.6 Flow with Temperature Difference, Thermal Effusion, and
Transpiration 158
4.7 Measuring Flow Conductances 162
4.7.1 Necessity of Measurement 162
4.7.2 Measurement of Intrinsic Conductances (Inherent Conductances) 162
4.7.3 Calculation of Reduced Conductance (Assembly Conductance) 164
4.7.4 Measuring Reduced Conductances 164
References 166
Further Reading 166
8 Condensers 361
8.1 Condensation Processes Under Vacuum 361
8.1.1 Fundamentals 361
8.1.2 Condensation of Pure Vapors 363
8.1.3 Condensation of Gas–Vapor Mixtures 366
8.1.4 Coolants 369
8.2 Condenser Designs 370
8.2.1 Surface Condensers for Liquid Condensation 370
8.2.2 Direct Contact Condensers 372
8.2.3 Condensate Discharge 374
8.2.4 Surface Condensers for Solid Condensation 375
8.3 Integrating Condensers into Vacuum Systems 376
8.3.1 Condensers Combined with Vacuum Pumps 376
8.3.2 Control 379
8.4 Calculation Examples 380
References 382
Figure 1.2 Torricelli’s vacuum experiment in 1644. The level AB of mercury in both tubes C and
D was equal, independent of the size of the additional volume E in tube D. (From Ref. [2].)
admitted from below. This experiment was the first successful attempt to pro
duce vacuum and subsequently convinced the scientific community. An earlier
attempt by Berti who used water was less successful.
In 1646, the mathematician Pierre Petit in France informed Blaise Pascal
(Figure 1.3) about Torricelli’s experiment. Pascal repeated the experiment and, in
addition, tried other types of liquid. He found that the maximum height was
exactly inversely proportional to the used liquid’s density. Pascal knew the equally
famous philosopher Descartes. During a discussion in 1647, they developed the
idea of air pressure measurements at different altitudes using a Torricellian tube.
Pascal wrote a letter to his brother-in-law Périer and asked him to carry out
the experiment on the very steep mountain Puy de Dôme, close to Périer’s home.
<tb>
RUNOT.
ESI-PUHEEKSI.
Missä viivyt
Mielen viihyke varainen?
Kussa säilyt
Sielun altoinen ajatus?
Joko synnyt
Pohjan kannen alla?
Tokko kasvoit
Näillä mailla mantereilla?
Vainko löysit
Elämän etelämpänä?
Hait hengen
Itämaalta ihanalta?
Kastot kasvot
Aamupäivän auringossa?
Painot posket
Päivän päätetyn punassa?
Ruusut riivit,
Kuot läningit lehistä?
Perhot pyysit
Villat vaipaksi kerihtit?
Missä lienet,
Missä ilmestyt ihana?
Tokko täällä?
Vainko vainoitten vaussa?
Vierastatko,
Kätket kasvot kainalolla?
Että eksyn
Tuhansilta tutkistellen?
Lienet lintu,
Lennät sirkkuna sivuuni?
Siks' kuin siellä
Täytät siunatun sylini?
Lienet lapsi,
Vankan varjonnet syämmen?
Siks' kuin saanen
Toisten täytennä tavata?
Hyv' o'is hinta,
Hiottua huolen alla?
Vihtoin viimen
Tuonen tultua tavata.
Sielun silmät
Siitä itkeevät ilosta;
Mutta mieli
Sopoittaapi syämmelle:
Ett' o'is ehkä
Taivas täysi tännenpävä,
Jos o'is olla
Mieli tietty jo tavattu.
Mesi-sanat
Jotka mieleni jakavat,
Sulo-sanat,
Jotka voittavat volini.
Missä viivyt
Mielen viihyke varainen?
Kussa säilyt
Sielun altoinen ajatus?
Ah! jos annan,
Kaiket taivahat karata,
»Tokkos jouut,
Tulet tunniksi tupaani.
Pyörikään perhana
Vankeuessa.
Minä en pelkäjä
Ahistuksessa
Vaivoja elämän,
Hirmuja kuoleman,
Vaan pyrin eespäin, eespäin.
Mikä on lohdutus
Elämisessä,
Mikä on huojennus
Nauttimisessa.
Joss' ilo isompi,
On suru suurempi,
Siis pyrin pois, pois, pois.
»Marjass' on mammonen,
Piikonen puolassa,
Isonen soassa synkeässä;
Mikko on metässä,
Möröltä miekalla
Selkä-luita lussomassa,
Minä olen orpona,
Polonen poikanen,
Jumala kanssani kumppanina.
Laulan lauluja,
Soitan soittoja,
Heiluissani heijassani.
Soi sinä soittoni!
Kumaja kantele,
Kaikota kolkkuuta kartanolta!
Pihalla on pimiä,
Tukala tuvassa.
Kaikki on outona äänetöinä.
Kuin on ikävä,
Tukala tuvassa
Vieras voima vastuksina;
Miksi et mielisty
Sieluni soitossa?
Miks'et kalka kantelessa?»
Niin laulo lapsonen,
Poikonen pienonen,
Tontun tullessa tupaani.
»Maaksi mammasi,
Murran mullaksi,
Siskosi koviksi kiviksi,
Ilmaksi isäsi,
Vesiksi veljesi,
Hajoittelen harmissani,
Sinun säkeiksi,
Puran poikonen!
Kätken kiven kiskohooni!
Kipuna kytööpi.
Sannan suonissa;
Sinne ei sovi virran vihat.
Piissä, poikanen,
Pitäi piilossa.
Siks' kuin puran paakkulani!
Syöt siitte siskosi
Voitat veikkosi
Itketät äitisi, isäsi!»