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Engineering The Eternal City Infrastructure Topography and The Culture of Knowledge in Late Sixteenth Century Rome 1st Edition Pamela O. Long
Engineering The Eternal City Infrastructure Topography and The Culture of Knowledge in Late Sixteenth Century Rome 1st Edition Pamela O. Long
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Engineering the Eternal City
Frontispiece Anonymous (formerly attributed to Stefano [Étienne] Duperac), panoramic view
of Rome from the roof of the Cancelleria. Ca. 1567–1568. Vatican City, BAV, Disegni Ashby 131.
© 2018 Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, by permission of Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana with all
rights reserved.
Engineering
the Eternal City
Infrastructure, Topography, and
the Culture of Knowledge
in Late Sixteenth-Century Rome
Pamela O. Long
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 1 2 3 4 5
Cover illustration: Detail from Giovanni Guerra and Natale Bonifacio, Disegno
del modo di condurre l’Obelisco detto volgarmente la Guglia. Rome, 1586 (fig. 8.8).
Collection of Vincent J. Buonanno.
Bob Korn
and
4 Contested Infrastructure 93
Acknowledgments 223
List of Abbreviations 227
Notes 229
Bibliography 305
Index 351
vii
Money, Weights, and Measures
M ON EY
baiocco = a base metal coin of varying value; in accounts worth one-tenth
of a giulio
giulio = equivalent to ten baiocchi; valued at 2.9 grams of silver
quattrino = a coin worth a small amount (about one-third of a baiocco)
scudo = a coin worth ten giulii, or one hundred baiocchi
scudo d’oro = a money of account valued in gold, not a coin like the scudo
W E I GH TS AN D MEASUR E S FO R ROME
I N T H E L AT E SI X T E E N T H CE NTURY
Length
1 canna = 10 Roman palmi or 7.33 feet or 2.234 meters
1 palmo = 8.796 inches or 0.2234 meters
1 passo = 4.887 feet or 1.4895 meters
1 piede = 11/2 Roman palmo = 11.729 inches or 0.2979 meters
Weights
1 libbra = 12 unciae = 0.748 pounds or 0.3391 kilograms
ix
Author’s Note
xi
Introduction
Rome
Portrait of the Late Sixteenth-Century City
Rome circa 1560 was a city of resplendent processions, ancient ruins, and
crumbling infrastructure. It was also a city in the process of being reimag-
ined visually by means of images, including cartographical images, and
physically by means of construction and large-scale engineering projects.
Between 1560 and 1590, the city bustled with activity—the building and
renovation of churches, palaces, and walls; the repair and reconstruction
of two great aqueducts; the creation of new fountains made possible by
the greatly augmented water supply; the widening and paving of streets;
the redesign of streets and piazze; the transport of obelisks from their an-
cient Roman resting places to new locations; and projects aimed at pre-
venting the periodic catastrophic flooding of the Tiber River.1
Rome was a city headed by popes but also governed by the traditional
city government known as the Capitoline government. As a city under-
going multiple transformations, it served as a magnet for learned human-
ists and upwardly striving clerics and for painters, sculptors, “architect/
engineers,” and other workers seeking employment in projects of urban
engineering and building construction. It was also home to numerous
elites—cardinals, ambassadors, and Roman noble families. Despite lip
service to papal absolutism, the city was characterized by multiple cen-
ters of power and patronage.
1
The pope stood at the head of the Papal States (in central Italy), the city of
Rome, and the Catholic Church. Papal governance was influenced by the Council
of Trent (1542–1563), a church council assembled to reform a Catholic Church
under attack by the Protestants. Pius IV ended the council in 1563 and promul-
gated its decrees in 1564. Included among them was the encouragement of the
material enhancement of divine worship, including the use of paintings and other
visual images in churches.2
In the post-Tridentine era, as the years after the Council of Trent were called,
such reforms were accompanied in Rome by the vision that a reformed church
should be represented by a renewed capital city. This city would be as magnificent
as imperial Rome had been. The ideals of renovatio imperii and renovatio Romae lay
behind the reconstruction and renewal of Rome. The popes should rule—as the
Roman emperors had—a splendid and now also Christian city.3
Giovanni Botero (1540–1617), author of a treatise on cities published in 1588,
insisted that princes were crucial to flourishing cities just as the popes were to
Rome:
Would not Rome, the capital of the world, be more like a desert than a city if
the Supreme Pontiff did not reside there, and magnify the city with his splendid
court and the ambassadors, prelates and princes who flock there? And if he did
not populate it with the infinite number of people from every nation? [. . .] And
if he did not beautify it with magnificent buildings, aqueducts, fountains and
streets? 4
Botero was correct, but the pope was far from the sole agent in the many infra-
structure projects of late sixteenth-century Rome.
In this book I investigate major projects of engineering and urban redesign.
I treat both the physical city and visual representations of the city. The chrono-
logical range, with exceptions mostly having to do with cartography, focuses on
the period between the great flood of 1557 and the death of the great urbanizing
pope Sixtus V in 1590.5
My focus on this well-defined period facilitates an approach that emphasizes
the processes of urban construction and engineering, including decision making
and financing. I include failed and incomplete projects as well as successfully
completed ones. This approach eschews the frequently encountered teleological
methodology in the history of technology, which jumps from one ingenious inven-
tion to another or focuses only on successfully completed projects. My study also
includes the maintenance of infrastructure. It links engineering and construction
to broader political and cultural aspects of the city of Rome, including a flourish-
2 Introduction
ing print culture, the proliferation of maps and other urban images, and the cul-
ture of knowledge.6
In some ways Roman urban development in the late sixteenth century re-
flected that of other cities in Italy and elsewhere on the continent. This included
rising populations and multiple projects of construction and renovation influ-
enced by the rediscovery of the ancient world and its urban vocabulary (including
classical forms of architecture). Rome’s cityscape encompassed a growing concept
of elite family honor associated with great palaces often sited on dramatic urban
spaces.7 These developments tied power, authority, and family prestige to con-
spicuous consumption, grand physical structures, open piazze framed by palatial
facades, and straight, wide streets that were paved.
While Rome was being transformed physically, cartographical and other kinds
of visual images of the city flooded the urban marketplace. Mapmaking and print-
ing came to be closely tied to the study of antiquities, surveying, engineering,
construction, and urban redesign. Often accompanying these activities were in-
tense discussions about how to proceed, ardent competition for contracts, and
acrimonious arguments concerning such topics as the location of the ancient Ro-
man Forum. Humanists, antiquarians, painters, designers, engineers, architects,
engravers, woodblock cutters, and printers created maps, views, and plans of the
ancient city and its contemporary counterpart as well as images of streets and
squares, statues, columns, and buildings. These images were presented to poten-
tial patrons or sold to residents of the city or to eager visitors including pilgrims
and antiquarians.8
Engineering and urban reconstruction, the study of Roman antiquities and
Roman topography, and the creation of city plans and maps functioned as deeply
interrelated activities and practices. The ways in which engineering projects were
undertaken encouraged interaction on many levels between practically trained
men on the one hand and learned, university-educated men on the other. It was a
time of intense engineering and construction activity that occurred well before the
modern professionalization of engineering, architecture, and archaeology. These
activities were not clearly separated one from another. Although the word engineer
(ingegnere) was part of sixteenth-century Italian vocabulary, individuals engaged
in what we would call engineering were usually called architects (architetti). Such
individuals came from diverse backgrounds and typically engaged in a far wider
range of activities than do engineers and architects today.
Historians of architecture in particular have posited fifteenth- and sixteenth-
century Italy, including Rome, as the locus for the origin of the modern profession
of architecture. They point to the separation of building design from building con-
struction; the acquisition of a particular skill set, including the skills of drawing,
the senator (by the late sixteenth century a largely symbolic officer), and one to
the masters of the streets. The marescialli were in charge of the security of the gov-
ernment and also helped the caporioni (heads of the thirteen districts, or rioni, into
which Rome was divided).36
Numerous courts and tribunals under the purview of both papal and Capi-
toline governments, often with overlapping jurisdictions, characterized the legal
processes of the city. In the late sixteenth century, the papacy exerted predomi-
nant power over the Capitoline government, but the authority and range of action
exerted by the commune was never negligible. Duplicated bureaucratic and legal
functions were the norm. At times the papacy and the Capitoline Council cooper-
ated—often facilitated by the heavy hand of the pope—and at other times they
were at loggerheads.37
Of the city’s thirteen rioni, twelve were on the left bank of the Tiber (facing
downstream), and the thirteenth (Trastevere) was on the right (fig. 0.5). The
Borgo—the area surrounding the Vatican—was considered to be outside of
Rome itself until Sixtus V made it the fourteenth rione in 1586. The caporione was
in charge of public order within his rione and commanded twenty or thirty men
under him, called the conestabili, who functioned as civic police. The prior was
the caporione, usually (although not always) from the largest rione—Monti on the
Esquiline Hill. He helped govern the city along with the three conservators. Offi-
Rome: Portrait of the Late Sixteenth-Century City 15
cers of the city included two masters of the streets—Roman patricians who were
elected for a year and often reelected. It should be noted that in sixteenth-century
Roman documents, the frequent references to “the Roman People” (Popolo Ro‑
mano or Populus Romanus) refer to the elite citizens who participated in the Capi-
toline government, not to the entire population.38
Rome was a growing city that encompassed far more than the long arm of the
papal bureaucracy and the shorter arm of the Capitoline Council. As the city
gradually recovered from the 1527 Sack, the population reached about one hun-
dred thousand by the year 1600. But the population fluctuated wildly as a result of
events such as jubilees. For example, in the jubilee of 1575, an estimated four hun-
dred thousand pilgrims flooded into the city.39 The city was inhabited by a large
number of cardinals, noble Roman families, ambassadors, elite residents, and visi-
tors from all over Europe. This diverse group ensured multiple, complex patron-
age networks beyond the papacy itself. Roman elites included the “civic nobility,”
or municipali, who controlled the Roman communal government and held most
communal offices, and the baronial or feudal nobility led by the Colonna and
Orsini families.40
The city also accommodated numerous religious orders—some traditional,
such as the Dominicans and the Franciscans, and others new, such as the Thea-
tines and the Jesuits, as well as the lay brotherhood of the Oratorians (created by
Filippo Neri, 1515–1595). Religious groups included numerous confraternities—
associations often aligned with guilds or other organizations and usually dedicated
to religious and charitable functions. In the late sixteenth century, many of these
religious orders embarked on ambitious building programs.41
Further, cardinals, each of whom was chosen by a particular pope and thereby
became the “creature” of that pope, often responded to their elections by initiat-
ing building programs to create palatial accommodations suitable for their new
position. The cardinals were also assigned titular churches from which they ac-
crued benefits and which often included an attached residence. Cardinals habitu-
ally repaired, renovated, and expanded those residences as their palaces, and they
also initiated building improvements and ornamentation of the church itself. The
Roman building boom of the late sixteenth century was fueled as much by cardi-
nals as by the popes.42
The elite classes also included powerful ambassadors from other cities and
regions as well as papal and curial elites, including cardinalate families such as
the Farnese, formerly based in Orvieto. Many of them undertook palatial con-
struction projects as a way of extending their family’s status and power. They often
16 Introduction
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orage qui semblait devoir le détruire, se retrouvait à peu près au
complet dans ces pacifiques assises: les persécuteurs avaient perdu
leurs peines, l'œuvre d'Euric croulait derrière lui! Après avoir prié
solennellement à genoux pour le roi Alaric, «leur très glorieux et très
magnifique seigneur», les Pères du concile se mirent à l'œuvre sans
désemparer, et les quarante-sept canons authentiques qu'ils ont
laissés sont la preuve éloquente de l'énergie tranquille avec laquelle,
au sortir de la fournaise, l'Église des Gaules reprenait le travail
civilisateur interrompu depuis une génération. Le concile était plein
de confiance et de vitalité: avant de se séparer, il décida qu'une
nouvelle réunion se tiendrait l'année suivante à Toulouse, et que les
prélats d'Espagne y seraient invités[97].
[95] Le nom de son délégué figure au bas des actes du concile d'Agde, en 506.
Voir Sirmond, Concilia Galliæ, t. I, p. 174.
[96] Vita Sancti Cæsarii, c. 13, p. 640.
[97] Sirmond, o. c., I, pp, 160-174. Sur le concile de 507, qui devait se tenir à
Toulouse, voir le canon 71 d'Arles et la lettre de saint Césaire à Ruricius, dans
l'édition de Krusch, p. 274.
On ne peut donc pas contester qu'à un moment donné, la cour de
Toulouse ait renoncé formellement à la politique du règne précédent,
et essayé de se réconcilier avec les populations catholiques. Mais
toutes ces mesures qui, prises à temps, auraient peut-être conjuré
l'orage, avaient le défaut de tout ce que les gouvernements font
malgré eux: elles venaient trop tard. Dans les relations publiques,
comme dans la vie privée, la pente de la désaffection ne se remonte
pas, et on ne regagne point la confiance une fois qu'elle a été
gaspillée. Les liens étaient rompus, les sympathies avaient émigré,
tous les regards catholiques étaient tournés avec admiration et
enthousiasme d'un autre côté. Partout Clovis était attendu, partout
les cœurs se portaient au-devant de son peuple, et, comme dit
Grégoire de Tours, dans son naïf langage, on désirait ardemment la
domination des Francs[98].
[98] Grégoire de Tours, ii, 35.
III
LA CONQUÊTE DE L'AQUITAINE
Rien de tout ce qui se passait au delà de la Loire n'échappait à
Clovis. Il se rendait parfaitement compte du rôle qu'il était appelé à
jouer dans ce royaume d'Aquitaine, où les fautes du gouvernement
avaient fait de l'intervention étrangère le seul remède à une situation
désespérée. Nul, d'ailleurs, n'était mieux qualifié que lui pour
présenter au roi des Visigoths des observations sévères sur sa
politique intérieure. Roi catholique, il était en Gaule le représentant
de tous les intérêts de l'orthodoxie; souverain des Francs, il ne
pouvait pas tolérer que dans son voisinage des hommes fussent
maltraités pour le seul crime de trop aimer son peuple. Il se voyait
donc, par la force des choses, placé à la tête du parti franc et
catholique chez les Visigoths; tout au moins il en était le patron et le
protecteur-né. Nul doute que la crainte de Clovis n'ait été un des
principaux mobiles du revirement de la politique religieuse des
Visigoths. Vainqueur de tous ses ennemis et ayant pour alliés les
Burgondes eux-mêmes, Clovis pouvait réclamer justice pour ses
coreligionnaires: en la leur rendant spontanément, on lui enlevait
tout prétexte à intervention.
Cela suffisait-il, et n'était-il pas trop tard pour apaiser les populations
catholiques frémissantes, qui voyaient le désarroi se mettre parmi
les bourreaux et Clovis apparaître en libérateur? Ne se produisit-il
pas dès lors, parmi elles, des mouvements destinés à préparer ou à
hâter une intervention franque? Ou, tout au moins, l'irritation
populaire ne se traduisit-elle pas, en certains endroits, par de
véritables soulèvements? A la distance où nous sommes placés de
ces événements, et avec les faibles lumières que nous fournissent
les sources, il est impossible de répondre à cette question, et nous
ne l'aurions pas même soulevée, si quelques lignes très obscures de
l'hagiographie ne semblaient en quelque sorte la suggérer[99].
[99] Je veux parler de la mort de saint Galactorius de Bénarn, dont il sera question
plus loin.
Mais, en dehors de la question religieuse proprement dite, il y avait
quantité d'autres points sur lesquels devaient éclater tous les jours
des conflits entre les Francs et leurs voisins. Les confins des deux
pays étaient fort étendus, les relations des peuples très hostiles: des
incidents de frontière, des querelles inattendues entre les nationaux
des deux royaumes éclataient à chaque instant, et dégénéraient
bien vite en froissements entre les deux cours. La tradition populaire
des Francs, consignée dans une légende[100], est d'accord avec la
correspondance politique de Théodoric le Grand pour attribuer le
discord à ces rivalités entre les deux puissances de la Gaule. Que
Clovis ait voulu et désiré un conflit, qu'il ait compté dans ce cas sur
les sympathies qu'il avait en Aquitaine, cela est fort probable; il se
sentait le plus fort de toute manière, et le chroniqueur franc lui-même
lui attribue l'initiative des hostilités.
[100] Cette légende, très obscure, et dont on ne peut guère garder grand'chose,
raconte au point de vue franc l'origine des hostilités, et rejette naturellement tous
les torts sur le roi des Visigoths. Sans valeur pour l'histoire de Clovis, elle est au
contraire pleine d'intérêt pour celle des mœurs barbares, et je renvoie le lecteur à
l'étude que je lui ai consacrée dans l'Histoire poétique des Mérovingiens.
Alaric semble avoir fait ce qu'il pouvait pour ménager son redoutable
adversaire. Il lui avait livré Syagrius; il est probable aussi qu'il lui
avait renvoyé les prisonniers francs de Gondebaud. Enfin, il lui
proposa une entrevue pour régler pacifiquement leurs différends.
Clovis ne crut pas pouvoir refuser cette proposition. Les deux rois se
rencontrèrent donc aux confins de leurs royaumes avec des
formalités d'étiquette semblables à celles qui avaient réglé autrefois
l'entrevue sur la Cure. Il y avait dans la Loire, en face du bourg
d'Amboise, une île qui s'est appelée par la suite l'Ile d'entre les
Ponts[101] ou l'Ile Saint-Jean[102]: c'est là, probablement sur terrain
neutre, qu'ils mirent pied à terre, chacun avec une escorte désarmée
dont le chiffre avait été strictement convenu d'avance. L'entrevue fut
ou du moins parut cordiale: les deux rois burent et mangèrent
ensemble, et se quittèrent après s'être mutuellement assurés de leur
amitié[103].
[101] Dubos, III, p. 267; A. de Valois, I, p. 291.
[102] Fauriel, II, p. 57; Cartier, Essais historiques sur la ville d'Amboise et son
château, Poitiers, 1842. Du Roure, Histoire de Théodoric le Grand, I, p. 478,
l'appelle aussi l'Ile d'Or.
[103] Grégoire de Tours, ii, 35.