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Engineering Textiles
Integrating the Design and Manufacture
of Textile Products
Second Edition
Yehia E. Elmogahzy
An imprint of Elsevier
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions,
or ideas contained in the material herein.
Preface ix
Acknowledgment xiii
References 84
Further reading 84
8 Fibers 191
8.1 Introduction 191
8.2 Basic differences between fibers and other materials 192
8.3 Review of different fiber types 206
References 220
Contents vii
9 Yarns 223
9.1 Yarn classification 223
9.2 Yarn specifications 223
9.3 Specialty yarns 231
9.4 Idealized yarn structure 239
9.5 Design-related aspects of yarn structure 241
References 247
10 Textile fabrics 249
10.1 Introduction 249
10.2 Woven fabrics 250
10.3 Knit fabrics 258
10.4 Nonwovens 266
10.5 Compound fabrics 271
References 273
Index 433
Preface
Over the years, the textile industry has been perceived as a “technology-based” indus-
try using manufacturing technologies that have evolved over the years in terms of
power, speed, automation, and process control, but they have remained the same in
principle. This is a total misperception that has been created by the fact that it is
one of the oldest industries in the world and it has been primarily based on using com-
modity materials. This misperception was also solidified by the significant redistribu-
tion of the industry, which began in the last decade of the 20th century and the
migration of the industry to cheap-labor regions around the world. These dramatic
changes can partly be blamed on the traditional textile industry that has largely failed
to represent itself as a value-added industry and preferred to remain as a mass
production-discount industry focusing on lowering cost and handling quality issues
through business deals rather than innovations and design concepts. Now, these
approaches are being put to rest in many sectors of the industry, and many companies
in industrial countries are redirecting their efforts to product development and new
innovations.
In parallel with textile technology, textile science and textile engineering have been
progressing almost as if they had been in a different planet with limited connection
with the industry. Textile scientists developed models to explore and predict the com-
plex nature of fibrous assemblies and to bring about fiber contributions that can
enhance the performance characteristics of textiles beyond the traditional thresholds.
Yet, many sectors of the industry remained largely unresponsive to these develop-
ments. According to the late John Hearle “while other industries marched into the sec-
ond half of the 20th century utilizing more quantitative design approaches inspired by
the growth of the science of applied mechanics and the theory of elasticity, these
approaches were not transformed to the textile industry, which continued to imple-
ment empiricism and augmented the qualitative insights in its product design appli-
cations, with the one exception being the mechanical and power-driven design of
textile machinery.” Well, following this assessment, what appears to be the main
cause of not transforming science into the industrial implementation phase is the lack
of textile engineering since quantitative design approaches are not merely to be
inspired or admired, but rather to be transformed into prototypes and design models
that can be transformed to produce innovative products. This missing link was the
main reason for writing this book.
The term “textile engineering” has been known to the scientific community around
the world since the early 20th century. However, implementation of engineering con-
cepts in the textile field can be traced back to the ancient Egyptian who produced linen
fibers to weave fabrics that could be used for clothing and wrappings of mummies that
x Preface
lasted over 5000 years. The technologies used to produce these fibers and their assem-
blies could not have been possible without design conceptualization and reliable
design analysis, which represent the essence of today’s engineering. Textile engineer-
ing cannot be treated as a derivative of other engineering disciplines as in the case of
material engineering, which is a derivative of mechanical engineering, or biochemical
engineering, which is a derivative of chemical engineering. It is an interdisciplinary
field in which scientific principles, mathematical tools, and techniques of engineering,
physics, and chemistry are all utilized in a variety of creative applications including
the development of new fibers, the innovation of fibrous elements that can be com-
bined with other nonfibrous materials, and the design of fiber-to-fabric systems that
aim at optimizing machine-fiber interaction and producing value-added fibrous prod-
ucts. A logical derivative of textile engineering is fabric engineering that is prompted
by the growing field of technical textiles including smart textiles, medical textiles, and
transport textiles.
The primary theme of this book is “engineering textiles.” Although this book rep-
resents a second edition of the book carrying the same title, it is substantially different
from the first edition in many aspects including the following:
l
New chapter titled “textile engineering as a scientific discipline.” This chapter was prompted
by the confusion and the lack of recognition of textile engineering as an independent disci-
pline and the critical role of this category of engineering in interdisciplinary design projects.
It also covers many recommendations to textile institutions that are having or developing
textile engineering programs.
l
New chapter on design for sustainability in the textile and fashion industry. This chapter pro-
vides a detailed review of key sustainability concepts and how they can be implemented in
the textile and fashion industry.
l
New chapter on E-textiles including some of the new developments in this field that were
made in recent years.
The remaining chapters were also substantially modified to reorganize thoughts on
product development and design conceptualization. Examples of new topics added
in this edition include the following:
(a) A special attention to the fashion industry as a solid partner to the textile industry including
key differences between fashion design and engineering design concepts
(b) The different phases of market evolution in the textile and fashion industry—(i) the cus-
tomization era, (ii) the production-focus era, (iii) the product-focus era, (iv) the
consumer-focus era-phase I (sales), (v) the consumer-focus era-phase II (marketing),
and (vi) the information-focus (societal marketing) era (Chapter 2)
(c) Differences between product development in small and large businesses (Chapter 3)
(d) The concept of “Engineering Operating System, EOS,” or the bridging between textile sci-
ence, textile engineering, and textile technology (Chapter 4)
(e) The “Concept Modeling Optimization Manufacturability” system, or CMOM, which pro-
vides guidelines to textile and fashion engineers in implementing systematic steps of prod-
uct design (Chapter 5)
(f ) Design thinking and lean startup design (Chapter 6)
Preface xi
The intended reader of this book covers a wide range of qualification including the
following:
(1) Undergraduate and graduate students in textile and fashion institutions who are studying
product development, textile science, and textile engineering
(2) Textile engineers working in multidisciplinary design projects of traditional and technical
textiles
(3) Textile technologists working in supervisory positions or as members in product
development teams
(4) Nontextile engineers who are involved in design projects containing fibrous materials and
fibrous assemblies
(5) Product developers of textile and fashion products
(6) Textile and fashion scientists who are seeking new research ideas
(7) College professors who are involved in STEM programs and interdisciplinary research
activities
It is my sincere hope that this new edition will represent a contribution to the textile
and fashion industry both in grasping key fundamental aspects and in implementing
reliable design tasks.
Yehia E. Elmogahzy
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Acknowledgment
I would like to acknowledge my wife Mona Saraya for standing by my side not only in
completing this book but also throughout the many consulting work that I do in the
United States and abroad in which I have to stay away from home for weeks and
months.
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Textile engineering as a scientific
discipline 1
1.1 Introduction
Since this book is entirely about engineering textiles, it will be useful to begin its
contents by introducing the meaning of textile engineering, particularly to engineers
who belong to different engineering societies. First, it should be noted that the term
“textiles” begins with the four-letter word “text,” which has a well-established mean-
ing in the publishing field. The connection between “textiles” and “text” stems from
the basic product structure; to make textiles, you need fabric, and to produce a text,
you need paper [1,2]. Both fabric and paper are produced using a form of binding or
weaving mechanism, and the word “weave” in Latin is the verb “texerel.”
The term “textile engineering” has been around in the scientific community around
the world since the early 20th century. However, its full meaning has not been well
recognized by both the industrial and the academic environments in comparison with
other engineering professions such as mechanical, electrical, or civil engineering.
Indeed, there is only a handful of academic institutes that encompass textile engineer-
ing programs, and most people working in engineering professions around the world
may have narrow views of what textile engineering is all about. This lack of recog-
nition is a result of many reasons including a lack of clear identity of many academic
programs of textile engineering in comparison with other engineering programs and a
great deal of overlapping between tasks performed by textile engineers and other types
of engineers in the industrial environment.
The original intention to establish an independent discipline of textile engineering
stemmed from market needs of this type of engineering and the high degree of spec-
ificity of this critical profession. As a result, textile engineering could not be treated as
a derivative of other engineering disciplines, as in the case of material engineering,
which is a derivative of mechanical engineering, or biochemical engineering, which
is a derivative of chemical engineering. It also could not be treated as an interdisci-
plinary branch of engineering such as industrial engineering or biomedical engineer-
ing. In addition, the textile industry being massive-labor industry serving billions
of people around the world and creating trillions of dollars in revenues has made it
necessary to establish an independent category of engineering that primarily serves
the industry in providing an immense service to humanity and civilizations. Further-
more, the textile industry, being the oldest industry in the world, has acquired special
attributes and criteria that are not duplicated in any other industry. Even today, many
engineering approaches and terminologies used in the textile industry are not known in
other industries. The following unique criteria represent only a few of numerous
examples that can justify the need for independent textile engineering programs [3–6].
Diverse sources of raw materials. The building block of all textiles is fiber, and the
source of fiber may be classified by its chemical origin, internal structure, molecular
weight, and the degree of crystallization. Fibers may be classified into two main
categories: natural fibers and manufactured fibers. Natural fibers are divided into
plant, animal, or mineral. Most plant fibers are cellulose based (e.g., cotton, jute,
and ramie) separated from the plant stalk, stem, leaf, or seed. Cellulosic fibers may
be extracted from various plants growing naturally such as cotton fibers or from
regenerated cellulose using chemical derivatization processes and wet spinning such
as the case of viscose or modal fibers or by direct dissolution spinning process from
organic solvents such as lyocell fibers. Animal fibers are protein based (wool, camel,
mohair, silk, etc.) harvested from an animal or removed from a cocoon or web.
Mineral fibers (e.g., asbestos fibers) are those that are mined from the earth. Except
for silk, natural cellulose- and protein-based fibers are obtained in short lengths and
are called staple fibers, while silk is considered as a continuous filament fiber.
Manufactured or man-made fibers (e.g., nylon, polyester, and rayon) are produced
by a wide variety of chemical processes. These fibers are generally semicrystalline
polymers that are spun into filaments, uniaxially oriented during the melt, dry, or
wet spinning process, and then spun into continuous filaments that can be cut into
staple fibers.
Flexible structures. The textile industry must maintain a flexible material stream
throughout the entire flowchart of processing. Fibers being the building blocks of all
textile products are typically made from long-chain molecules; they have a high aspect
ratio (length/diameter ratio); they have low tensile modulus and low flexural rigidity;
they must exhibit smooth surface characteristics that allow them to slide against each
other and against other solids to be converted from one form of flexible structure to
another; they must yield flexible products that are easily manipulated in different
applications. These aspects make fibers and textiles a unique category of material that
requires special handling in processing and designing of products.
Intimacy with human body. Many textile products come in intimate contact with
human body, acting as intermediate portable systems between the human skin
and the surrounding environment. This requires special design approaches to allow
a combination of protection and comfort. The protection aspect may range from
providing warm or cool feeling under different weathering conditions to harsher appli-
cations such as gasproof, waterproof, dustproof, fire-resistant, flame-resistant, and
bulletproof applications in which deflection, rebounding, absorption, and impact
resistance represent key design criteria. A key design challenge here is the ability
to perform these protection characteristics while maintaining light weight, small
thickness, and flexibility. Meanwhile, textiles must provide both tactile comfort
and thermophysiological comfort. Optimum trade-off between comfort and protection
has been a specialty of textile engineering for many years.
Unique binding mechanisms. Textiles are formed using creative binding mecha-
nisms. Fibers are not glued or cemented; they are twisted or wrapped to form flexible
yarns. Fabrics are made by interlacing or interlooping of yarns to provide strong struc-
tures yet maintain flexibility. Even when dyeing and finishing are applied to fabrics,
they must maintain the original flexibility and provide surface smoothness. A yarn or
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« Et j’entends un homme qui hurle :
« — Tiens bon, confiance et patience, voilà les autres éléphants
qui arrivent.
« — Sainte Mère de Grâce ! que je dis, vais-je devoir monter à
cru toute l’écurie ? Venez me mettre à bas, tas de capons !
« Alors une paire d’éléphants femelles accompagnés de mahouts
et d’un sergent de l’intendance débouchent en tapinois du coin des
casernes ; et les mahouts d’injurier la mère et toute la famille de
notre vieux Putiphar.
« — Vois mes renforts, que je lui dis. Ils vont t’emmener à la
boîte, mon fils.
« Et cet enfant de la calamité mit ses oreilles en avant et dressa
la tête vers ces femelles. Son cran, après la symphonie que je lui
avais jouée sur la boîte crânienne, m’alla au cœur. « Je suis moi-
même en disgrâce, que je lui dis, mais je ferai pour toi ce que je
pourrai. Veux-tu aller à la boîte comme un brave, ou résister comme
un imbécile contre toute chance ? » Là-dessus je lui flanque un
dernier gnon sur la tête, et il pousse un formidable grognement et
laisse retomber sa trompe. « Réfléchis », que je lui dis, et : « Halte ! »
que je dis aux mahouts. Ils ne demandaient pas mieux. Je sentais
sous moi méditer le vieux réprouvé. A la fin il tend sa trompe toute
droite et pousse un son de cor des plus mélancoliques (ce qui
équivaut chez l’éléphant à un soupir). Je compris par là qu’il hissait
pavillon blanc et qu’il ne restait plus qu’à ménager ses sentiments.
« — Il est vaincu, que je dis. Alignez-vous à droite et à gauche
de lui. Nous irons à la boîte sans résistance.
« Le sergent de l’intendance me dit, du haut de son éléphant :
« — Êtes-vous un homme ou un prodige ? qu’il dit.
« — Je suis entre les deux, que je dis, en essayant de me
redresser. Et qu’est-ce qui peut bien, que je dis, avoir mis cet animal
dans un état aussi scandaleux ? que je dis, la crosse du mousqueton
élégamment posée sur ma hanche et la main gauche rabattue
comme il sied à un troupier.
« Pendant tout ce temps nous déboulions sous escorte vers les
lignes des éléphants.
« — Je n’étais pas dans les lignes quand le raffut a commencé,
que me dit le sergent. On l’a emmené pour transporter des tentes et
autres choses analogues et pour l’atteler à un canon. Je savais bien
que ça ne lui plairait pas, mais en fait ça lui a déchiré le cœur.
« — Bah, ce qui est de la nourriture pour l’un est du poison pour
l’autre, que je dis. C’est d’avoir été mis à transporter des tentes qui
m’a perdu moi aussi.
« Et mon cœur s’attendrit sur le vieux Double-Queue parce qu’on
l’avait également mal traité.
« — A présent nous allons le serrer de près, que dit le sergent,
une fois arrivés aux lignes des éléphants.
« Tous les mahouts et leurs gosses étaient autour des piquets,
maudissant mon coursier à les entendre d’une demi-lieue.
« — Sautez sur le dos de mon éléphant, qu’il me dit. Il va y avoir
du grabuge.
« — Écartez tous ces gueulards, que je dis, ou sinon il va les
piétiner à mort. (Je sentais que ses oreilles commençaient à frémir.)
Et débarrassez-nous le plancher, vous et vos immorales éléphantes.
Je vais descendre ici. Malgré son long nez de Juif, c’est un Irlandais,
que je dis, et il faut le traiter comme un Irlandais.
« — Êtes-vous fatigué de vivre ? que me dit le sergent.
« — Pas du tout, que je dis ; mais il faut que l’un de nous deux
soit vainqueur, et j’ai idée que ce sera moi. Reculez, que je dis.
« Les deux éléphants s’éloignèrent, et Smith O’Brien s’arrêta net
devant ses propres piquets.
« — A bas, que je dis, en lui allongeant un gnon sur la tête.
« Et il se coucha, une épaule après l’autre, comme un glissement
de terrain qui dévale après la pluie.
« — Maintenant, que je dis en me laissant aller à bas de son nez
et courant me mettre devant lui, tu vas voir celui qui vaut mieux que
toi.
« Il avait abaissé sa grosse tête entre ses grosses pattes de
devant, qui étaient croisées comme celles d’un petit chat. Il avait l’air
de l’innocence et de la désolation personnifiées, et par parenthèse
sa grosse lèvre inférieure poilue tremblotait et il clignait des yeux
pour se retenir de pleurer.
« — Pour l’amour de Dieu, que je dis, oubliant tout à fait que ce
n’était qu’une bête brute, ne le prends pas ainsi à cœur ! Du calme,
calme-toi, que je dis. (Et tout en parlant je lui caressai la joue et
l’entre-deux des yeux et le bout de la trompe.) Maintenant, que je
dis, je vais bien t’arranger pour la nuit. Envoyez-moi ici un ou deux
enfants, que je dis au sergent qui s’attendait à me voir trucider. Il
s’insurgerait à la vue d’un homme.
— Tu étais devenu sacrément malin tout d’un coup, dit Ortheris.
Comment as-tu fait pour connaître si vite ses petites manies ?
— Parce que, reprit Térence avec importance, parce que j’avais
dompté le copain, mon fils.
— Ho ! fit Ortheris, partagé entre le doute et l’ironie. Continue.
— L’enfant de son mahout et deux ou trois autres gosses des
lignes accoururent, pas effrayés pour un sou : l’un d’eux m’apporta
de l’eau, avec laquelle je lavai le dessus de son pauvre crâne
meurtri (pardieu ! je lui en avais fait voir) tandis qu’un autre extrayait
de son cuir les fragments des carrioles, et nous le raclâmes et le
manipulâmes tout entier et nous lui mîmes sur la tête un
gigantesque cataplasme de feuilles de nîm [8] (les mêmes qu’on
applique sur les écorchures des chevaux) et il avait l’air d’un bonnet
de nuit, et nous entassâmes devant lui un tas de jeunes cannes à
sucre et il se mit à piquer dedans.
[8] Nom d’une plante de l’Inde.
Mulvaney se tut.
— Et après ? demandai-je.
— Vous le devinez, reprit Mulvaney. Il y eut confusion, et le
colonel me donna dix roupies, et le commandant m’en donna cinq, et
le capitaine de la compagnie m’en donna cinq, et les hommes me
portèrent en triomphe autour de la caserne.
— Tu es allé à la boîte ? demanda Ortheris.
— Je n’ai plus jamais entendu parler de mon malentendu avec le
pif de Kearney, si c’est cela que tu veux dire ; mais cette nuit-là
plusieurs des gars furent emmenés d’urgence à l’ousteau des Bons
Chrétiens. On ne peut guère leur en faire un reproche : ils avaient eu
pour vingt roupies de consommations. J’allai me coucher et cuvai les
miennes, car j’étais vanné à fond comme le collègue qui reposait à
cette heure dans les lignes. Ce n’est pas rien que d’aller à cheval sur
des éléphants.
« Par la suite je devins très copain avec le vénérable Père du
Péché. J’allais souvent à ses lignes quand j’étais consigné et
passais l’après-midi à causer avec lui : nous mâchions chacun notre
bout de canne à sucre, amis comme cochons. Il me sortait tout ce
que j’avais dans mes poches et l’y remettait ensuite, et de temps à
autre je lui portais de la bière pour sa digestion, et je lui faisais des
recommandations de bonne conduite, et de ne pas se faire porter
sur le registre des punitions. Après cela il suivit l’armée, et c’est ainsi
que ça se passe dès qu’on a trouvé un bon copain.
— Alors vous ne l’avez jamais revu ? demandai-je.
— Croyez-vous la première moitié de l’histoire ? fit Térence.
— J’attendrai que Learoyd soit de retour, répondis-je
évasivement.
Excepté quand il est soigneusement endoctriné par les deux
autres et que l’intérêt financier immédiat l’y pousse, l’homme du
Yorkshire [10] ne raconte pas de mensonges ; mais je savais Térence
pourvu d’une imagination dévergondée.
[10] Learoyd.
Clark Russell.